On road design. Directory Reference encyclopedia of the road worker. Volume V. Design of highways. Where does the design of road subgrade begin?

The directory contains the necessary information on the organization and technology of design and survey work - on economic, topographic-geodetic, engineering-geological, engineering-hydrometeorological surveys and basic methods for designing highways and structures on them. For the first time, the reference book includes a special section devoted to computer-aided design of highways at the level of the domestic CAD-AD system. The Directory does not replace technical specifications, building codes and departmental regulations. The purpose of its publication is to assist engineers and technicians in developing projects using modern technology and highway design methods. The reference book is intended for engineers and technicians involved in the survey and design of highways. It can also be used by senior students of automobile and road transport institutes and faculties.

The Road Engineer's Handbook was prepared by: Dr. Tech. Sciences G.A. Fedotov - ch. 1 (except for paragraph 12), 7, 8, paragraphs 9 1-9 3, ch. 10, paragraph 16.4, 16.5, 16.7, 16.8, paragraph 24.3, 24.4, chapter 27; Ph.D. tech. Science M.A. Grigoriev - clause 1.2, chapter 2, 22, 23 p. 24.1, 24.2; Dr. Tech. Sciences V.I. Fedorov - chapters 3 and 5; Eng. V.T. Kornyukhov and engineer A.A. Better - chapter 4; Eng. V.S. Smirnov - Chapter 6, Dr. Tech. Sciences V.F. Babkov - paragraphs 9.4-9.9, chapter 21; Dr. Tech. Sciences V.D. Kazarnovsky - Ch. eleven; Ph.D. tech. Sciences Yu.M. Yakovlev - chapter 12; Ph.D. tech. Sciences V.K. Apestin - ch. 13; Dr. Tech. Sciences I.A. Mednikov - Ch. 14; Prof. O.V. Andreev - chapter 15, and 16.1 - 16.3, 16.6, 16.9; Ph.D. tech. Sciences V.A. Fedotov - chapters 17, 28, 29; Ph.D. tech. Sciences V.P. Zaluga - Ch. 18; engineer V.I. Khorolsky - Ch. 19; Ph.D. tech. Sciences V.I. Purkin - chapters 20 and 30; Ph.D. tech. Sciences B.M. Naumov - chapters 25, 26.

Preface

Section one. Justification of design decisions

Chapter 1. Classification and standards for highway design
1.1. Classification of highways
1.2. Design standards
1.3. Design speeds, loads and overall dimensions of rolling stock
1.4. Environmental protection measures

Chapter 2. Organization of highway design
2.1. Design stages
2.2. Organization of design and survey work
2.3. Typical technological schemes for performing design and survey work
2.4. Coordination of design solutions
2.6. Composition of project documentation
2.6. Preparation of project documentation

Chapter 3. Modern technology of exploration work
3.1. Features of highway surveys
3.2. Nomenclature of cards
3.3. Modern survey measuring equipment
3.4. Justification for the variation zone of competing route options
3.5. Digital and mathematical modeling of relief, situation and geological structure of the area
3.6. Methods for constructing digital terrain models

Chapter 4. Economic justification for the construction of highways
4.1. Road network development scheme
4.2. Feasibility study
4.3. Construction project

Chapter 5. Topographic and geodetic substantiation of projects
5.1. Geodetic reference networks
5.2. Plan-altitude justification for aerial surveys
5.3. Surveying topographical plans and constructing digital terrain models, registration of survey results
5.4. Carrying out the highway route in real life

Chapter 6. Engineering-geological substantiation of projects
6.1. Modern technical means used in engineering and geological surveys
6.2. Engineering-geological surveys on the variation strip when choosing the optimal route option
6.3. Engineering-geological surveys for the selected route option
6.4. Surveys for individual transport structures in areas with difficult conditions
6.5. Search and exploration of building materials for road pavement and soils for subgrades
6.6. Laboratory tests and field methods for studying the physical and mechanical properties of soils and materials
6.7. Office processing and submitted materials

Chapter 7. Engineering and hydrometeorological justification of projects
7.1. Composition of engineering and hydrometeorological justifications for projects
7.2. Composition and technology of engineering and hydrometeorological surveys
7.3. Morphometric works
7.4. Hydrometric works
7.5. Methodology of hydrological calculations

Section two. Main design work

Chapter 8. Justification of requirements for geometric elements of highways
8.1. Elements of a highway plan
8.2. Cross profile elements
8.3. Longitudinal profile elements
8.4. Width of roadway and subgrade
8.5. Stop lanes, reinforced lanes and curbs
8.6. Transverse slopes of road elements
8.7. Design standards for plan and longitudinal profile
8.8. Transition curves
8.9. Turns
8.10. Widening the roadway on curves
8.11. Serpentines
8.12. Bridges and pipes
8.13. Tunnels

Chapter 9. Road plan. Principles of landscape design
9.1. Selecting the direction of the route
9.2. Elements of a clothoid route
9.3. Tracing principles
9.4. Goals and objectives of landscape design
9.6. Coordination of route elements with the landscape
9.6. Features of the route in typical landscapes
9.7. Coordination of the subgrade with the landscape
9.8. Rules for ensuring spatial smoothness and clarity of the route
9.9. Using perspective images of models to control the smoothness of the route

Chapter 10. Design of the longitudinal profile of highways
10.1. Principles of longitudinal profile design
10.2. Optimality criteria
10.3. Technique for designing a longitudinal profile without the use of a computer

Chapter 11. Subgrade Design
11.1. Elements of the subgrade and general requirements for the subgrade
11.2. Soils for the construction of subgrades
11.3. Natural conditions taken into account when designing the subgrade
11.4. Taking into account the water-thermal regime when designing the upper part of the subgrade
11.5. Transverse profiles of the subgrade under normal conditions
11.6. Design of embankments on weak foundations
11.7. Checking slope stability when designing high embankments and deep excavations
11.8. Subgrade on slopes

Chapter 12. Design of flexible pavements
12.1. General information about road pavements
12.2. Design principles for flexible pavements
12.3. Calculation of flexible road pavements based on permissible elastic deflection
12.4. Calculation of road pavements based on shear in underlying soil and low-cohesion materials of structural layers. Shear calculation of asphalt concrete layers
12.5. Calculation of structural layers made of monolithic materials for tensile stresses during bending
12.6. Calculation of frost resistance and drainage of the top of the subgrade and road pavement
12.7. Design characteristics of soils and materials of non-rigid road pavement layers
12.8. Design of reinforcement of non-rigid pavements on existing roads

Chapter 13. Designs and basic provisions for the calculation of rigid road pavements
13.1. Application area. Main types of coatings
13.2. General requirements for rigid road pavements, Basic design principles
13.3. Construction of concrete pavements
13.4. Basic principles for calculating cement concrete pavements based on crack resistance conditions

Chapter 14. Features of calculation of rigid pavements
14.1. Stresses in cement concrete pavement from external load
14.2. Determination of the breaking load for cement concrete pavement slabs
14.3. Determination of stresses in cement concrete pavement based on deflections measured in situ
14.4. Determination of the equivalent modulus of elasticity and transverse deformation coefficient of a multilayer base under a rigid road surface
14.5. Temperature stress
14.6. Stability of concrete pavement slabs with increasing temperature
14.7. Strength when reinforcing hard surfaces
14.8. Resistance against bulging of asphalt concrete layer on cement concrete base
14.9. Stability of the position of the slab with free edges under load from vehicles

Chapter 15. Design of surface and underground road drainage
15.1. Surface and underground road drainage system
15.2. Norms of permissible water flow rates
15.3. Determination of volumes and flow rates of storm and melt water from small catchments
15.4. Hydraulic calculation of road ditches
15.5. Hydraulic calculation of openings of small bridges and pipes
15.6. Slope surface drainage structures
15.7. Strengthening riverbeds behind structures
15.8. Drainage calculation

Chapter 16. Design of bridge crossings
16.1. Basics of Large Stream Crossing Design
16.2. Morphometric calculations
16.3. Forecast of natural channel deformations
16.4. Calculation of cuts of floodplain banks of under-bridge channels and bridge openings
16.5. Calculation of total erosion
16.6. Calculation of local erosion at bridge supports
16.7. Calculation of support on bridge crossings
16.8. Calculation of erosion of communications at bridge crossings
16.9. Design of approaches, regulatory and fortification structures

Chapter 17. Intersections and junctions of highways
17.1. General provisions and requirements for the design of intersections and junctions of roads at one level
17.2. Intersections and junctions of roads at different levels
17.3. Schemes of transport interchanges as combinations of connecting ramps between intersecting roads
17.4. Taking into account factors affecting traffic safety
17.5. Technical and economic assessment of design solutions for transport interchanges
17.6. Intersections of roads and railways

Chapter 18. Engineering arrangement of highways
18.1. Traffic Maintenance
18.2. Road signs
18.3. Road markings
18.4. Guide devices
18.5. Road barriers
18.6. Road lighting
18.7. Drawing up a map of the road situation

Chapter 19. Design of the construction organization
19.1. Goals and objectives of the construction organization project
19.2. Construction master plan
19.3. Construction schedule
19.4. Mechanization of road construction
19.5. Excavation machines
19.6. Machines for compacting soils and road pavement materials
19.7. Determining the need for basic construction machinery, vehicles and labor resources

Chapter 20. Evaluation of design solutions when designing highways
20.1. System of indicators for evaluating design solutions
20.2. Determination of road capacity and traffic load factor
20.3. Calculation of the average speed of traffic flow
20.4. Calculation of the maximum speed of a single vehicle
20.5. Determination of the degree of roadside contamination with lead compounds

Chapter 21. Traffic safety assessment during road design and reconstruction
21.1. The influence of road conditions on traffic safety
21.2. Estimates of the relative danger of road sections and identification of dangerous places using the method of accident rates
21.3. Identification of dangerous places using the safety coefficient method
21.4. Assessment of traffic safety at one-level intersections
21.5. Assessment of traffic safety at intersections at different levels

Section three. Automated highway design

Chapter 22. Structure and functioning of CAD-AD
22.1. Principles of creation and operation of CAD-AD
22.2. Structure of CAD-AD
22.3. Characteristics of subsystem support

Chapter 23. Computer-aided design of highway plans
23.1. "Support elements" method
23.2. Method of "approximation of a sequence of points"

Chapter 24. Automated design of the longitudinal profile of highways
24.1. The "pivot point" method
24.2. Gradient projection method
24.3. Boundary Iteration Method
24.4. Initial information and calculation results for the Pola-2 program

Chapter 25. Computer-aided design of optimal non-rigid pavements
25.1. Optimization method for designing non-rigid pavements
25.2. Automated pavement design technology

Chapter 26. Automated design of small culverts
26.1. Structure and functional relationship of software and information support TLP-3
26.2. Setting problems for automated design of optimal culverts
26.3. Optimality criterion and mathematical model of the optimization problem
26.4. Complex automated method for designing optimal culverts
26.5. Computer-aided design technology for culverts

Chapter 27. Automated design of bridge crossings
27.1. Principles of computer-aided design of bridge crossings
27.2. Universal method for calculating hydrological characteristics
27.3. Initial information and calculation results for the Gima-2 program
27.4. Complex calculation of channel deformations and free flow surface at bridge crossings
27.5. Initial information and calculation results for the Hydram-3 program
27.6. Detailed calculation of channel widening at bridge crossings
27.7. Initial information and calculation results for the Ruhr-1 program

Chapter 28. Automated design of intersections and junctions of highways at different levels
28.1. General tasks for calculating connecting ramps in plan
28.2. Connecting ramps with one center of constant curvature
28.3. Left turn ramps in a loop with multiple centers of constant curvature
28.4. Right-turn ramps with two and three centers of constant curvature

Chapter 29. Design of sections of branches and junctions and longitudinal profile on connecting ramps
29.1. Transition curves on sections of connecting ramps connected to roads
29.2. Plan-height solution for sections of branches and junctions of connecting ramps
29.3. Determination of the design line of the longitudinal profile on left-turn loops
29.4. Software solution for specific and complex problems

Chapter 30. Evaluation of design solutions in computer-aided design of highways
30.1. Programs for evaluating design solutions
30.2. Technical and economic comparison of options for highways and bridges

Subject index

Preface

The most important tasks of the country's economic development are to increase the efficiency of resources in all areas of activity and to dramatically improve the quality of products. In this regard, high demands are also placed on road construction.

Highways are very capital-intensive and at the same time the most profitable structures. The design of roads should be aimed at achieving their high transport and operational qualities with a minimum of construction costs and material consumption of construction. A properly designed road ensures safe movement of both single vehicles at design speeds and traffic flows with high levels of convenience, even during the busiest periods of road operation. An increase in the reliability and service life of the subgrade, road pavements and artificial structures is ensured by the high efficiency of capital investments in the construction of highways.

When choosing options for design solutions, preference is given to engineering solutions that provide the best combination of road elements with the landscape and have the least negative impact on the natural environment. A mandatory element of projects are measures for environmental protection, rational use and reproduction of natural resources.

The structure of this Road Engineer's Handbook (“Design of Highways”) has undergone significant changes compared to previous editions. The directory is presented in three sections.

The section “Substantiation of design decisions” contains general information about the classification of highways, design standards and modern organization and technology of design and survey work, focusing primarily on the system automated design of highways and structures on them. Contains the necessary information about modern technology and survey methods: economic, topographic-geodetic, geotechnical and hydrometeorological. At the same time, the main attention is paid to high-performance methods for collecting initial information to justify the best design decisions on the range of variations of competing route options: aerial methods, methods of ground-based stereophotogrammetry, electronic tacheometry and geophysical exploration methods.

In the section “Main design work”, modern methods of substantiating the geometric elements of highways, methods of designing a plan, longitudinal profile, subgrade, flexible and rigid road pavements, road drainage, bridge crossings, intersections and junctions of highways in one and different levels, engineering arrangement of roads, city roads and construction organization. Particular attention is paid to methods for evaluating design solutions when comparing competing options, including a detailed assessment of traffic safety when designing new and reconstructing highways.

In connection with the creation in the USSR and the putting into commercial operation of the Computer-Aided Design of Highways and Structures on Them (CAD-AD), a new section “Automated Design of Highways” was included in the reference book for the first time. This section provides the necessary information about the structure and functioning of the domestic CAD-AD and fundamentally new methods of computer-aided design of highway elements using computers, implementing the principles of optimization of design solutions and mathematical modeling and allowing to significantly reduce the cost and material consumption of construction while simultaneously sharply increasing the quality of designed objects . This concerns, first of all, methods for designing a road plan, an optimal longitudinal profile, road pavements, small culverts, bridge crossings, intersections and junctions of highways at different levels, and evaluating design solutions.

The materials presented in the reference book have been significantly updated compared to the 1977 edition of the Road Engineer's Handbook. This is primarily due to the establishment of a new stage in the design of highways, as well as the publication of new regulatory documents - SNiP 1.02.01-85, SNiP 2.05 .02-85, SNiP 2.05.03-84, SNiP 2.01.14-83, VSN 46-85, etc.

As is known, a number of engineering calculations can be performed using various methods. The authors of the reference book selected those methods that, in their opinion, are the most appropriate and complete. This does not exclude the possibility of road engineers using other calculation and design methods.

INTRODUCTION SECTION ONE. JUSTIFICATION OF DESIGN DECISIONS CHAPTER 1. CLASSIFICATION AND STANDARDS FOR DESIGNING HIGHWAYS 1.1 Classification of highways 1.2. Highway design standards 1.3. Design speeds, loads and overall dimensions of rolling stock 1.4. Environmental protection Appendix 1. List of recommended regulatory and technical documents 1.1. General standards 1.2. Soils, subgrade, peat 1.3. Asphalt concrete mixtures, bitumen 1.3. Concrete, reinforced concrete. Concrete mixtures, crushed stone, gravel, sand, cement, slag, sludge and other materials 1.5. Roads, railways, airfields, roadbeds, bridges and pipes, strengthening works (research, design, construction) 1.6. Foundations and foundations 1.7. Surveys of roads, railways, airfields 1.8. Operation of highways 1.9. Geotextiles 1.10. Ecology, climatology 1.11. Traffic safety and safety precautions CHAPTER 2. ORGANIZATION OF HIGHWAY ROAD DESIGN 2.1. General provisions 2.2. Pre-design design 2.3. Development of design documentation 2.4. Development of working drawings 2.5. Composition of design documentation 2.6. Preparation of project documentation Appendix 2.1. TASK for the development of an engineering project for the overhaul of the M-10 “Russia” highway in the Novgorod region Appendix 2.2. List of technical documents to be used when developing investment justification Appendix 2.3. List of materials and documents included in the justification for investment (IO). Appendix 2.4. List of materials and documents included in the supporting materials of an engineering project (IP). CHAPTER 3. MODERN HIGHWAY SURVEY TECHNOLOGY 3.1. Features of traditional highway survey technology and its analysis 3.2. Features of highway survey technology when designing at the CAD-AD level 3.3. GIS technologies in highway surveys 3.4. Methods for justifying the variation range of competing route options 3.5. Digital modeling of the relief, situation and geological structure of the area 3.6. Types of digital terrain models 3.7. Methods for constructing digital terrain models 3.8. Mathematical terrain modeling 3.9. Problems solved using digital and mathematical models CHAPTER 4. ECONOMIC JUSTIFICATION FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAYS AND BRIDGES 4. 1. Structure of the economic feasibility study for road construction 4.2. Promising car park 4.3. Forecasting future traffic intensity 4.4. Methods for assessing the social effectiveness of investment projects for road construction 4.5. Procedures for accounting for uncertainty 4.6. Elements of cost-benefit of investment projects for road construction CHAPTER 5. TOPOGRAPHIC-GEODETIC JUSTIFICATION OF PROJECTS 5.1. Geodetic support networks 5.2. Designation of points of state geodetic networks on the ground 5.3. Linking to points of state geodetic networks 5.4. Plan-altitude justification of topographic surveys 5.5. Electronic tacheometric survey 5.6. Ground-space photography 5.7. Terrestrial laser scanning CHAPTER 6. ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL JUSTIFICATION OF PROJECTS 6.1. General information about the organization and composition of engineering-geological surveys 6.2. Modern technical means used in engineering-geological surveys 6.3. Engineering-geological surveys on the route variation strip 6.4. Engineering-geological surveys according to the accepted route option 6.5. Exploration of local road construction materials 6.6. Laboratory tests and field methods for studying the physical and mechanical properties of soils and materials 6.7. Geophysical methods of engineering-geological surveys 6.8. Desk processing and submitted materials CHAPTER 7. ENGINEERING HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL JUSTIFICATION OF PROJECTS 7.1. Composition of engineering and hydrometeorological justification for projects 7.2. Technology of engineering and hydrometeorological surveys 7.3. Morphometric work 7.4. Hydrometric works 7.5. Aerohydrometric work SECTION TWO. MAIN DESIGN WORK CHAPTER 8. JUSTIFICATION OF REQUIREMENTS FOR GEOMETRIC ELEMENTS OF HIGHWAYS 8.1. Elements of a highway plan 8.2. Elements of transverse profiles 8.3. Elements of the longitudinal profile 8.4 Width of the roadway and subgrade 8.5. Stop strips, edge strips and curbs 8.6. Transverse slopes of road elements 8.7. Design standards for plan and longitudinal profile 8.8. Transition curves 8.9. Turns 8.10. Widening the roadway 8.11. Serpentines 8.12. Bridges and pipes 8.13. Tunnels CHAPTER 9. ROAD PLAN. PRINCIPLES OF LANDSCAPE DESIGN 9.1. Selecting route direction 9.2. Elements of a clothoid route 9.3. Tracing principles 9.4. Goals and objectives of landscape design* 9. 5. Coordination of route elements with the landscape 9.6. Features of routing highways in characteristic landscapes 9.7. Coordination of the subgrade with the landscape 9.8. Rules for ensuring visual smoothness and clarity of the route CHAPTER 10. DESIGN OF LONGITUDINAL PROFILE OF HIGHWAYS 10.1. Principles of longitudinal profile design 10.2. Optimality criteria 10.3. Set of technical restrictions 10.4. Technique for designing a longitudinal profile in the traditional class of functions CHAPTER 11. DESIGN OF THE SUBGRAD 11.1. Elements of the subgrade and general requirements for it 11.2. Soils for construction of subgrade 11.3. Natural conditions taken into account when designing the subgrade 11.4. Taking into account the water-thermal regime when designing the upper part of the roadbed 11.5. Transverse profiles of the subgrade under normal conditions 11.6. Design of embankments on weak foundations 11.7. Checking the stability of slopes when designing high embankments and deep excavations 11.8. Subgrade on slopes CHAPTER 12. DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE ROAD PAVEMENTS 12.1. General information 12.2. Basics of design of flexible pavements 12.3. Strength calculations of flexible road pavements 12.4. Calculation of the road pavement structure as a whole based on the permissible elastic deflection 12.5. Calculation based on the condition of shear resistance of the underlying soil and low-cohesion structural layers 12.6. Calculation of the pavement structure for the resistance of monolithic layers to fatigue failure from tension during bending 12.7. Ensuring frost resistance of road pavement 12.8. Drainage of road pavement and subgrade CHAPTER 13. STRUCTURES AND BASIC PROVISIONS FOR CALCULATION OF RIGID ROAD PAVEMENTS 13.1. Application area. Main types of coatings 13.2. General requirements for rigid road pavements. Basic design principles 13.3. Features of rigid road pavement structures 13.4. Basic provisions for the calculation of rigid road pavements References for Chapter 13 CHAPTER 14. FEATURES OF CALCULATION OF RIGID ROAD PAVEMENTS 14.1. Stresses in cement concrete pavement from external load 14.2. Determination of the breaking load for cement concrete pavement slabs 14.3. Determination of stresses in cement concrete pavement based on deflections measured in situ 14.4. Determination of the equivalent modulus of elasticity and the coefficient of transverse deformation of a multilayer base under a rigid road surface 14.5. Temperature stresses 14.6. Stability of concrete road pavement slabs with increasing temperature 14.7. Strength when reinforcing hard surfaces with a layer of asphalt concrete or cement concrete 14.8. Resistance against bulging of an asphalt concrete layer on a cement concrete base 14.9. Stability of the position of a slab with free edges under load from vehicles References for Chapter 14 CHAPTER 15. DESIGN OF SURFACE AND UNDERGROUND ROAD DRAINAGE SYSTEM 15.1. Surface and underground road drainage system 15.2. Standards for permissible water flow rates 15.3. Determination of volumes and flow rates of storm and melt water from small catchment areas 15.4. Hydraulic calculation of road ditches 15.5. Hydraulic calculation of openings of small bridges and pipes 15.6. Slope structures for surface drainage 15.7. Strengthening channels behind structures 15.8. Drainage calculation 15.9. Some recommendations for the development of regional flow standards CHAPTER 16. DESIGN OF BRIDGE CROSSINGS 16.1. Basic information about the design of crossings over large watercourses 16.2. Hydrological calculations 16.3. Morphometric calculations 16.4. Forecast of natural deformations of river beds 16.5. Calculation of cuts of floodplain banks of under-bridge channels and bridge openings 16.6. Calculation of total erosion 16.7. Determination of the maximum depth of the calculated total erosion 16.8. Calculation of local erosion at bridge supports 16.9. Calculation of erosion of communication crossings at bridge crossings 16.10. Calculation of characteristic supports at bridge crossings CHAPTER 17. DESIGN OF APPROACHES, REGULATION AND STRENGTHENING STRUCTURES 17.1. Working conditions of floodplain embankments 17.2. Design of approaches to bridges 17.3. Design of optimal floodplain embankments 17.4. Calculation of the stability of slopes of flooded embankments 17.5. Calculation of settlement of floodplain embankments 17.6. Calculation of the settlement rate of embankments on weak foundations 17.7. Objectives and principles of river regulation at bridge crossings 17.8. Designs of regulatory structures at bridge crossings CHAPTER 18. INTERSECTIONS AND CONNECTIONS OF HIGHWAYS 18.1. General provisions and requirements for the design of intersections and junctions at one level 18.2. Classification of highway intersections at different levels and requirements for them 18.3. Elements of highway intersections at different levels 18.4. Problems solved when designing traffic interchanges at different levels 18.5. Analysis of intersection conditions when designing interchanges 18. 6. Capacity of interchanges at different levels and traffic safety assessment 18.7. Technical and economic comparison of traffic interchange options CHAPTER 19. FEATURES OF SURVEY AND DESIGN OF ROADS ON PERMAFROST (PERMAFROST) SOILS 19.1. Distribution of permafrost on the territory of the Russian Federation 19.2. Road-climatic zoning of the first zone - the permafrost zone of Russia 19.3. Principles of design and construction of roads on permafrost soils 19.4. Features of the water-thermal regime of natural soils and roadbeds in permafrost areas 19.5. Features of the calculation of non-rigid road structures in permafrost conditions 19.6. Features of research for the construction of roads on permafrost soils 19.7. Features of designing roads on permafrost soils 19.8. Subgrade of highways on permafrost soils 19.9. Requirements for subgrade soils on permafrost soils 10.19. Road subgrade structures on permafrost soils 11.19. Drainage structures 19.12. Design of subgrade and artificial structures on ice-covered areas References for Chapter 19 (recommended for territories with the presence of permafrost, the serial numbering of literature is located in a historical retrospective by year of publication) CHAPTER 20. ENGINEERING OF HIGHWAYS 20.1. Road traffic services 20.2. Road signs 20.3. Road markings 20.4. Guide devices 20.5. Road barriers 20.6. Road lighting 20.7. Drawing up a diagram of the road situation CHAPTER 21. DESIGNING RECONSTRUCTION OF HIGHWAYS 21.1. Features of highway reconstruction 21.2. Features of research for the development of highway reconstruction projects 21.3. Reconstruction of highways in plan and longitudinal profile 21.4. Subgrade during reconstruction of highways 21.5. Road pavements during the reconstruction of highways 21.6. Features of the organization of work during the reconstruction of highways CHAPTER 22. DESIGN OF CONSTRUCTION ORGANIZATION 22.1. Goals and objectives of the construction organization project 22.2. Construction master plan 22.3. Construction schedule 22.4. Mechanization of road construction 22.5. Machines for excavation work 22.6. Machines for compacting soils and road pavement materials 22. 7. Determining the need for basic construction machines, vehicles and labor resources CHAPTER 23. EVALUATION OF DESIGN DECISIONS IN THE DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS 23.1. System of indicators for evaluating design solutions 23.2. Determination of the maximum road capacity and traffic load factor 23.3. Calculation of the average speed of traffic flow 23.4. Calculation of the maximum speed of a single vehicle 23.5. Determination of the degree of roadside contamination with lead compounds 23.6. Calculation of atmospheric air pollution by emissions from motor vehicles CHAPTER 24. ASSESSMENT OF TRAFFIC SAFETY WHEN DESIGNING ROADS AND THEIR RECONSTRUCTION 24.1. The influence of road conditions on traffic safety 24.2. Assessing the relative danger of road sections and identifying dangerous places using the “relative accident rate” method 24.3. Identification of dangerous places using the method of “safety coefficients” 24.4. Assessment of traffic safety at intersections at one level 24.5. Assessment of traffic safety at intersections at different levels SECTION THREE. AUTOMATED DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS CHAPTER 25. PRINCIPAL FUNDAMENTALS OF AUTOMATED DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS AND STRUCTURES ON THEM 25.1. Concept of computer-aided design systems 25.2. Tools for providing computer-aided design systems 25.3. Functional structure of CAD 25.4. Principles of optimization and modeling in the design of highways 25.5. GIS technologies in computer-aided design References for Chapter 25 CHAPTER 26. CAD AUTOMATED DESIGN SYSTEM “CREDO” 26.1. Historical background 26.2. Functional structure of the “Linear Surveys” subsystem 26.3. Functional structure of the “Roads” subsystem CHAPTER 27. AUTOMATED DESIGN SYSTEM “indorcad / road” 27.1. Historical background 27.2. Functional structure of the computer-aided design system "IndorCAD/Road". Section “Plan” 27.3. Section “Longitudinal profile” 27.4. Section “Top of the subgrade” 27.5. Section “Transverse profile” 27.6. Graphic editor “IndorDrawing” CHAPTER 28. AUTOMATED DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PLAN 28.1. Automated design of plan and longitudinal profile. General methodological approach 28.2. “Uniquely defined axis” methods 28.3. “Support elements” method 28. 4. Method of “smoothing the sketch line of the route” 28.5. "Free geometry" methods. Spline tracing CHAPTER 29. AUTOMATED DESIGN OF HIGHWAY LONGITUDINAL PROFILE 29.1. Method of “reference points” 29.2. Gradient projection method 29.3. Method of “boundary iterations” 29.4. “Free geometry” methods CHAPTER 30. AUTOMATED DESIGN OF OPTIMAL FLEXIBLE ROAD PAVEMENTS 30.1. Features of computer-aided design of optimal non-rigid road pavements 30.2. Optimization method for designing non-rigid pavements 30.3. Automated design technology for optimal road pavements CHAPTER 31. AUTOMATED DESIGN OF SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEM FOR HIGHWAYS 31.1. Mathematical modeling of storm water runoff from small catchment areas 31.2. Mathematical modeling of meltwater runoff from small catchment areas 31.3. Calculation of holes and modeling of the operation of small bridges and pipes 31.4. Design of optimal culverts 31.5. Design of an optimal surface drainage system CHAPTER 32. COMPLEX METHODOLOGY FOR AUTOMATED DESIGN OF BRIDGE CROSSINGS 32.1. Principles of automated design of bridge crossings 32.2. Analytical approximation and universal method for determining the calculated hydrometeorological characteristics 32.3 Complex program for calculating the openings of the Roma bridges 32.4. Initial information and calculation results for the Roma program 32.5. Program for calculating channel widening on Ruhr bridge crossings 32.6. Initial information and calculation results using the Ruhr program CHAPTER 33. METHODS OF CALCULATION OF CONNECTING RAMPS 33.1. Existing principles of design solutions for sections of branches and junctions of connecting ramps 33.2. Transition curves, requirements for them and methods for their calculation 33.3. Calculation of elements of connecting ramps 33.4. Design of a longitudinal profile using connecting ramps 33.5. Plan-height solution for connecting ramps CHAPTER 34. EVALUATION OF DESIGN DECISIONS IN AUTOMATED DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS 34.1. Programs for evaluating design solutions 34.2. Construction of perspective images of highways 34.3. Perceptual images of highways 34.4. Assessment of visual smoothness of the route 34.5. Determination of indicators of transport and operational qualities of highways 34.6. Evaluation of design solutions for highways based on mathematical modeling 34. 7. Technical and economic comparison of options for highways and bridges

Designing a highway is one of the highest priority tasks in the modern world, because the constructed tracks are arteries along which passenger, freight and public transport travel. A modern transport system is a complex organism, all elements of which are interconnected and directly dependent on each other. The design of a highway at the moment is largely determined by the existing connections between populated areas, recreation areas, industrial enterprises and other public centers.

The life of the modern world cannot be imagined without an organized and clearly functioning mechanism that could ensure normal transportation of goods or population. Competent design of a highway today is especially important for the reason that at the moment the roads are absolutely not adapted to the ever-increasing traffic flows and high speeds.

Why is this necessary?

Carrying out this procedure should ensure safe, convenient, organized and most comfortable movement of vehicles in accordance with design speeds. Also, competent design of a highway makes it possible to achieve uniform traffic conditions, full compliance with the principles of visual orientation of drivers, and a convenient and extremely safe location of various intersections and junctions. That's why it's so important.

Many owners of private territories think about why they need to survey and design highways, because it is enough to simply fill out the route and lay asphalt on it. But if a person has never encountered anything like this, it is better to start by at least superficially familiarizing yourself with the full list of work that you will have to deal with, as well as look at the cost of carrying them out and the possible consequences.

Before you begin to lay public roads, junctions or any city street, you first need to obtain permission to carry out such work, and this requires surveying and designing highways. Unauthorized carrying out of all work will ultimately result in the fact that representatives of the traffic police will be called, who will first issue an appropriate order, and if in the near future all the comments are not completely eliminated, the junction or road will be completely eliminated, and a ban on the operation of the facility will be issued . In this regard, everything will have to be restored to its original state, which will be a waste of a huge amount of money, not to mention the fact that if the path led to some industrial site, gas station, cafe or cottage village, their functioning will also be stopped.

What else could this threaten?

Not everyone understands that, in accordance with SNiP, designing highways is not just laying crushed stone, asphalt and installing road signs. In the process of carrying out this procedure, all designed and existing communications that are located in the construction area must be taken into account, because it will be extremely unpleasant if workers accidentally break a gas pipeline, water supply or fiber optic cable during installation. Ultimately, the restoration and compensation of losses to the owners of communications will be the responsibility of the customer, and the cost of this work is very high.

That is why the standards specified in SNiP must be fully observed. The design of highways should be trusted only to professional specialists, since there are many points that even professional builders may not take into account. Qualified engineers provide for any measures that may be necessary for long-term and safe operation of the road, carry out calculations of the structure and load-bearing capacity of the foundation for various loads, and also provide drainage systems to prevent the possibility of erosion of the roadbed, and take into account many other nuances.

Kinds

To begin with, it’s worth deciding what types of roads exist in principle:

• A highway is a transport road along which cars move along a continuous route and access to which is provided every five kilometers.
• Expressway differs from the first type in that there is a simplified level of access equal to three kilometers.
• Regular use - all other types of roads that do not fall under the definition of the previous two.

Depending on the type of path chosen, the planning features also change significantly. During the design process, various features of the relief, type of road surface, meteorological conditions, adjacent roads, approximate service life, intensity of traffic flow, and strength characteristics are taken into account.

Planning

The first thing you will need to do in the planning process is to clearly define the route. In no case should the highway be laid through agricultural areas, urban centers, as well as unique natural landscapes and all kinds of industrial complexes. In the vast majority of cases, during planning, engineers first conduct a preliminary survey of the territory through which the path will be laid, and also mark all possible routes on the map. After this, a detailed analysis is carried out to identify all the advantages and disadvantages of each of the presented options.

Then a specific route is selected and its detailed analysis is carried out before road design is carried out through TCH. Next, design drawings are created, but at the same time, owners of land and various organizations through whose territory road routes will be laid have the right to express their suggestions and comments. Basically, during the planning process, an independent design examination is organized, based on the results of which various adjustments are already made.

At the final stage, after the project has been approved, a large number of working drawings are created. In addition to the direct route, the drawings also indicate in great detail intersections, exits and entries from the road, as well as driveways, crossings, bridges and other structures. It is also mandatory to determine what specific special equipment will be used in the process of laying the road surface and pavement.

Stages

Thus, planning can be divided into several main stages:

1. Development and approval of the route.
2. Drawing up a number of proposals related to the arrangement of the route and subsequent restoration measures.
3. Coordination of the project and obtaining support from all interested departments.
4. Careful development of documentation, which should also include planning of green spaces.

One of the most pressing problems of road construction is landscape planning, where the main goal is to include the route being laid in it. In this case, you must pay attention to the following points:

• choice of road surface type;
• preservation of all green spaces that currently exist;
• creation of new plantings;
• arrangement of slopes;
• development of a full range of restoration work.

Do not forget that such construction must include long-term, large-scale and painstaking research, especially if you are building roads through TCH. Design standards include many different nuances that must be taken into account at each stage of such work. The positive aspects include the fact that at the moment the current principles of laying tracks with arched road surfaces and soft turns are perfectly combined with any landscape features.

Where should you start?

If you are faced with the construction of highways, city streets or any adjacencies, this work should be done in several steps:

1. Design of road subgrades.
2. Collection of background information.
3. Final design and release of all necessary documentation.
4. Coordination of the project with the customer and relevant authorities.

Exercise

At this stage, it is extremely important to decide on the stages, as well as the types of work performed. The thing is that depending on the list you specified (major repairs, new construction, reconstruction, etc.), the volume of work performed will directly change, as well as the full list of organizations with which all kinds of documents will need to be coordinated. For example, if in the task for designing a road you specify reconstruction instead of major repairs, then in this case you will have to undergo a thorough state examination and bring various geometric parameters to the standards, and carrying out this work will require a large amount of time and money.

The assignment must also indicate the exact number of copies and type of documentation to be issued, the general design time frame, the specific category of the route to be laid, and many other nuances. Do not forget that, in accordance with the assignment, the preparation, design, and construction of highways will be carried out, and any things that go beyond its scope will have to be discussed separately.

Background information

This list of data includes all kinds of engineering surveys, technical specifications from the owners of each of the communications located in the work area, as well as various letters received from coordinating institutions. The amount of initial information directly depends on the characteristics of a particular object. For small construction of driveways, junctions or parking lots, city tablets are sufficient, while highway design standards also require geological and geodetic surveys.

Design

This stage is the longest and most expensive. After the technical specifications have been obtained, the total volume of work increases significantly, and asphalt and crushed stone turn into far from the most costly expenses.

We often encounter situations where the administration delicately “requests” additional landscaping of the territory, design of sidewalks, parking lots and bicycle paths, as well as landscaping. If we are talking about the arrangement of junctions with public roads, for example, SOGU and the State Traffic Safety Inspectorate will require mandatory design of highway intersections, junctions with transitional express lanes, arrangement of lighting, various traffic light facilities and, if necessary,

Path lighting must be installed in populated areas, and its main purpose is to ensure normal visibility of the road and sidewalks. Drainage can be carried out in two different ways - storm drainage or separate drainage ditches. It is extremely important in the process of designing drainage to take into account and provide for regulatory slopes, as well as various points of intake and release. In the process of diverting water to adjacent areas, it is often also necessary to install local treatment facilities.

If they are in a construction zone, then the owners will in any case require their protection or reconstruction in accordance with regulatory documentation. Thus, recommendations for the design of highways are no longer limited only to the road surface, which requires the involvement of engineers from many other specialties, which, accordingly, significantly increases the total cost of construction.

How is it carried out?

When starting design, various strength calculations are initially carried out, and only then, based on them, the longitudinal and transverse profiles are calculated. During the design process, the technical and financial aspects of the project are also calculated, after which detailed design and estimate documentation is drawn up indicating an estimate of all the costs required for the construction of the canvas.

Engineering and environmental solutions are selected with the help of which the road can be harmoniously located in the natural landscape. By analyzing the environmental situation during the development of project documentation, it will be possible to carry out further construction with minimal damage to the environment.

Road design is carried out on the basis of a number of engineering surveys, as well as analysis of soil parameters, taking into account the features of the local topography. In the process of road design, professionals use modern software systems, as well as specialized engineering equipment.

In modern realities, it is simply impossible to imagine the professional development of project documentation without automated systems. Mathematical modeling and computer optimization at each of them can significantly increase the overall quality of the work performed, as well as reduce the cost, time and total amount of materials required for construction. Over time, design methods have completely deviated from the traditional design principles used literally 20 years ago.

Coordination

The list of bodies involved in the approval of design documentation should be reflected in the assignment, in accordance with which the rules for designing highways are established. If any comments or questions arise, designers can always directly contact a specialist and eliminate the comments or make various adjustments. In most cases, independent or state examinations are noted separately.

After all positive approvals have been received, the design of the road section can be considered complete. Then you can obtain permission to carry out construction work.

The Dorgeoproekt company provides a full range of road design services in Novosibirsk and Novosibirsk. In addition, we coordinate projects with all government agencies.

Design of access roads

Access roads are a critical component of almost every large-scale project. It doesn’t matter at all what we are talking about - the construction of a remote country village in the vicinity of Novosibirsk or the optimization of some industrial facility - in both cases we will professionally formulate the only correct and economically feasible location of future highways, their connection with major highways and highways. We will take into account the technical and operational characteristics of the site, the layout and location of all utility networks and other factors.

Project approval

The Dorgeoproekt company collects initial data and prepares initial permitting documentation for road construction. Upon completion of the design work, the design and estimate documentation is agreed upon with the supervisory authorities.

Road design in detail

The road construction process includes several stages. One of them is design, which takes into account the characteristics of the soil, as well as all the details of the landscape (rivers, streams, slopes and rises, other terrain irregularities, etc.). Such construction cannot be carried out without a detailed project, which includes all the necessary documentation. Specialists of the Dorgeoproekt company provide services for design, preparation of a package of relevant documents and, in fact, construction of roads in Novosibirsk and the Novosibirsk region.

At the preliminary stage, in the process of preparing for laying a road, special design organizations must carry out geological work at the site of future construction. In this case, the soil features at various cartographic points are taken into account. Qualified specialists with various qualifications must be involved in such work: surveyors, cartographers, cadastres and others. Their task is to examine surfaces for resistance to loads, take into account the condition of the land, draw up a detailed plan and much more.

At road design The following terrain parameters are taken into account:

• geological features of soils at different points of future construction;
• geological features of the surrounding areas;
• ground water level;
• the degree of possible deformation and shrinkage of soil over time.

All foundation calculations, designs and plans are based on the characteristics of this particular area, taking into account every square meter. If the soil is considered weak, then work to strengthen it must be carried out before laying the road. The preliminary procedure, drawing up documents taking into account all the features of the terrain, is technologically correct and allows you to avoid deformation and destruction of the road surface during operation.

The Dorgeoproekt company has rich and multifaceted experience in the impeccable design and construction of roads on soils of any complexity. Contact us and you will receive qualified advice, as well as a full package of services for the design, construction, and repair of roads of any complexity.