The use of alcohols is chemistry briefly. Alcohols: their nomenclature, physical and chemical properties. The process of obtaining methyl alcohol

Structure

Alcohols (or alkanols) are organic substances whose molecules contain one or more hydroxyl groups (-OH groups) connected to a hydrocarbon radical.

According to the number of hydroxyl groups (atomicity), alcohols are divided into:

monatomic
diatomic (glycols)
triatomic.

The following alcohols are distinguished by their nature:

Limiting, containing only limiting hydrocarbon radicals in the molecule
unsaturated, containing multiple (double and triple) bonds between carbon atoms in the molecule
aromatic, i.e., alcohols containing a benzene ring and a hydroxyl group in the molecule, connected to each other not directly, but through carbon atoms.

Organic substances containing hydroxyl groups in the molecule, directly bonded to the carbon atom of the benzene ring, differ significantly in chemical properties from alcohols and therefore stand out in an independent class of organic compounds - phenols. For example, hydroxybenzene phenol. We will learn more about the structure, properties and use of phenols later.

There are also polyatomic (polyatomic) containing more than three hydroxyl groups in the molecule. For example, the simplest six-hydric alcohol hexaol (sorbitol).

It should be noted that alcohols containing two hydroxyl groups at one carbon atom are unstable and spontaneously decompose (subject to a rearrangement of atoms) with the formation of aldehydes and ketones:

Unsaturated alcohols containing a hydroxyl group at the carbon atom linked by a double bond are called ecols. It is easy to guess that the name of this class of compounds is formed from the suffixes -en and -ol, indicating the presence of a double bond and a hydroxyl group in the molecules. Enols, as a rule, are unstable and spontaneously transform (isomerize) into carbonyl compounds - aldehydes and ketones. This reaction is reversible, the process itself is called keto-enol tautomerism. So, the simplest enol - vinyl alcohol isomerizes extremely quickly into acetaldehyde.

According to the nature of the carbon atom to which the hydroxyl group is attached, alcohols are divided into:

Primary, in the molecules of which the hydroxyl group is bonded to the primary carbon atom
secondary, in the molecules of which the hydroxyl group is bonded to a secondary carbon atom
tertiary, in the molecules of which the hydroxyl group is bonded to the tertiary carbon atom, for example:

Nomenclature and isomerism

When forming the names of alcohols, the (generic) suffix -ol is added to the name of the hydrocarbon corresponding to the alcohol. The numbers after the suffix indicate the position of the hydroxyl group in the main chain, and the prefixes di-, tri-, tetra-, etc. indicate their number:

Starting from the third member of the homologous series, alcohols have an isomerism of the position of the functional group (propanol-1 and propanol-2), and from the fourth - the isomerism of the carbon skeleton (butanol-1; 2-methylpropanol-1). They are also characterized by interclass isomerism - alcohols are isomeric to ethers.

The genus included in the hydroxyl group of alcohol molecules differs sharply from hydrogen and carbon atoms in its ability to attract and hold electron pairs. Due to this, alcohol molecules have polar C-O and O-H bonds.

Physical properties of alcohols

Given the polarity of the O-H bond and a significant partial positive charge localized (focused) on the hydrogen atom, the hydrogen of the hydroxyl group is said to have an "acidic" character. In this it differs sharply from the hydrogen atoms included in the hydrocarbon radical.

It should be noted that the oxygen atom of the hydroxyl group has a partial negative charge and two unshared electron pairs, which makes it possible for alcohols to form special, so-called hydrogen bonds between molecules. Hydrogen bonds arise from the interaction of a partially positively charged hydrogen atom of one alcohol molecule and a partially negatively charged oxygen atom of another molecule. It is due to hydrogen bonds between molecules that alcohols have abnormally high boiling points for their molecular weight. So, propane with a relative molecular weight of 44 is a gas under normal conditions, and the simplest of alcohols is methanol, having a relative molecular weight of 32, under normal conditions a liquid.

The lower and middle members of the series of limiting monohydric alcohols, containing from one to eleven carbon atoms, are liquids. Higher alcohols (starting with C 12 H 25 OH) are solids at room temperature. Lower alcohols have a characteristic alcoholic smell and a burning taste, they are highly soluble in water. As the hydrocarbon radical increases, the solubility of alcohols in water decreases, and octanol is no longer miscible with water.

Chemical properties

The properties of organic substances are determined by their composition and structure. Alcohols confirm the general rule. Their molecules include hydrocarbon and hydroxyl radicals, so the chemical properties of alcohols are determined by the interaction and influence of these groups on each other. The properties characteristic of this class of compounds are due to the presence of a hydroxyl group.

1. Interaction of alcohols with alkali and alkaline earth metals. To identify the effect of a hydrocarbon radical on a hydroxyl group, it is necessary to compare the properties of a substance containing a hydroxyl group and a hydrocarbon radical, on the one hand, and a substance containing a hydroxyl group and not containing a hydrocarbon radical, on the other. Such substances can be, for example, ethanol (or other alcohol) and water. Hydrogen of the hydroxyl group of alcohol molecules and water molecules can be reduced by alkali and alkaline earth metals (replaced by them).

With water, this interaction is much more active than with alcohol, accompanied by a large release of heat, and can lead to an explosion. This difference is explained by the electron-donating properties of the radical closest to the hydroxyl group. Possessing the properties of an electron donor (+I-effect), the radical slightly increases the electron density on the oxygen atom, "saturates" it at its own expense, thereby reducing the polarity of the O-H bond and the "acidic" nature of the hydrogen atom of the hydroxyl group in alcohol molecules by compared to water molecules.

2. Interaction of alcohols with hydrogen halides. Substitution of a hydroxyl group for a halogen leads to the formation of haloalkanes.

For example:

C2H5OH + HBr<->C2H5Br + H2O

This reaction is reversible.

3. Intermolecular dehydration of alcohols - the splitting of a water molecule from two alcohol molecules when heated in the presence of water-removing agents.

As a result of intermolecular dehydration of alcohols, ethers are formed. So, when ethyl alcohol is heated with sulfuric acid to a temperature of 100 to 140 ° C, diethyl (sulfur) ether is formed.

4. Interaction of alcohols with organic and inorganic acids to form esters (esterification reaction):

The esterification reaction is catalyzed by strong inorganic acids.

For example, when ethyl alcohol and acetic acid react, ethyl acetate is formed - ethyl acetate:

5. Intramolecular dehydration of alcohols occurs when alcohols are heated in the presence of dehydrating agents to a temperature higher than the temperature of intermolecular dehydration. As a result, alkenes are formed. This reaction is due to the presence of a hydrogen atom and a hydroxyl group at neighboring carbon atoms. An example is the reaction of obtaining ethene (ethylene) by heating ethanol above 140 ° C in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid.

6. The oxidation of alcohols is usually carried out with strong oxidizing agents, such as potassium dichromate or potassium permanganate in an acidic medium. In this case, the action of the oxidizing agent is directed to the carbon atom that is already associated with the hydroxyl group. Depending on the nature of the alcohol and the reaction conditions, various products can be formed. So, primary alcohols are oxidized first to aldehydes, and then to carboxylic acids:

Tertiary alcohols are quite resistant to oxidation. However, under harsh conditions (strong oxidizing agent, high temperature), oxidation of tertiary alcohols is possible, which occurs with the breaking of carbon-carbon bonds closest to the hydroxyl group.

7. Dehydrogenation of alcohols. When alcohol vapor is passed at 200-300 ° C over a metal catalyst, such as copper, silver or platinum, primary alcohols are converted into aldehydes, and secondary ones into ketones:

The presence of several hydroxyl groups simultaneously in an alcohol molecule determines the specific properties of polyhydric alcohols, which are capable of forming bright blue complex compounds soluble in water when interacting with a fresh precipitate of copper(II) hydroxide.

Monohydric alcohols are not able to enter into this reaction. Therefore, it is a qualitative reaction to polyhydric alcohols.

Alcoholates of alkali and alkaline earth metals undergo hydrolysis when interacting with water. For example, when sodium ethoxide is dissolved in water, a reversible reaction occurs

C2H5ONa + HOH<->C2H5OH + NaOH

the balance of which is almost completely shifted to the right. This also confirms that water in its acidic properties ("acidic" nature of the hydrogen in the hydroxyl group) is superior to alcohols. Thus, the interaction of alcoholates with water can be considered as the interaction of a salt of a very weak acid (in this case, the alcohol that formed the alcoholate acts as this) with a stronger acid (water plays this role here).

Alcohols can exhibit basic properties when interacting with strong acids, forming alkyloxonium salts due to the presence of a lone electron pair on the oxygen atom of the hydroxyl group:

The esterification reaction is reversible (the reverse reaction is ester hydrolysis), the equilibrium shifts to the right in the presence of water-removing agents.

Intramolecular dehydration of alcohols proceeds in accordance with the Zaitsev rule: when water is split off from a secondary or tertiary alcohol, a hydrogen atom is detached from the least hydrogenated carbon atom. So, dehydration of butanol-2 leads to butene-2, but not butene-1.

The presence of hydrocarbon radicals in alcohol molecules cannot but affect the chemical properties of alcohols.

The chemical properties of alcohols due to the hydrocarbon radical are different and depend on its nature. So, all alcohols burn; unsaturated alcohols containing a double C=C bond in the molecule enter into addition reactions, undergo hydrogenation, add hydrogen, react with halogens, for example, decolorize bromine water, etc.

How to get

1. Hydrolysis of haloalkanes. You already know that the formation of haloalkanes in the interaction of alcohols with hydrogen halides is a reversible reaction. Therefore, it is clear that alcohols can be obtained by hydrolysis of haloalkanes - the reaction of these compounds with water.

Polyhydric alcohols can be obtained by hydrolysis of haloalkanes containing more than one halogen atom in the molecule.

2. Hydration of alkenes - the addition of water to the r-bond of the alkene molecule - is already familiar to you. Hydration of propene leads, in accordance with Markovnikov's rule, to the formation of a secondary alcohol - propanol-2

IS HE
l
CH2=CH-CH3 + H20 -> CH3-CH-CH3
propene propanol-2

3. Hydrogenation of aldehydes and ketones. You already know that the oxidation of alcohols under mild conditions leads to the formation of aldehydes or ketones. Obviously, alcohols can be obtained by hydrogenation (hydrogen reduction, hydrogen addition) of aldehydes and ketones.

4. Oxidation of alkenes. Glycols, as already noted, can be obtained by oxidizing alkenes with an aqueous solution of potassium permanganate. For example, ethylene glycol (ethanediol-1,2) is formed during the oxidation of ethylene (ethene).

5. Specific methods for obtaining alcohols. Some alcohols are obtained in ways characteristic only of them. Thus, methanol is produced in industry by the interaction of hydrogen with carbon monoxide (II) (carbon monoxide) at elevated pressure and high temperature on the surface of the catalyst (zinc oxide).

The mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen required for this reaction, also called (think why!) "synthesis gas", is obtained by passing water vapor over hot coal.

6. Fermentation of glucose. This method of obtaining ethyl (wine) alcohol has been known to man since ancient times.

Consider the reaction of obtaining alcohols from haloalkanes - the reaction of hydrolysis of halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons. It is usually carried out in an alkaline environment. The released hydrobromic acid is neutralized, and the reaction proceeds almost to completion.

This reaction, like many others, proceeds by the mechanism of nucleophilic substitution.

These are reactions, the main stage of which is substitution, proceeding under the influence of a nucleophilic particle.

Recall that a nucleophilic particle is a molecule or ion that has an unshared electron pair and is capable of being attracted to a "positive charge" - regions of the molecule with a reduced electron density.

The most common nucleophilic species are molecules of ammonia, water, alcohol, or anions (hydroxyl, halide, alkoxide ion).

The particle (atom or group of atoms) that is replaced as a result of the reaction for a nucleophile is called a leaving group.

The substitution of the hydroxyl group of an alcohol for a halide ion also proceeds by the mechanism of nucleophilic substitution:

CH3CH2OH + HBr -> CH3CH2Br + H20

Interestingly, this reaction begins with the addition of a hydrogen cation to the oxygen atom contained in the hydroxyl group:

CH3CH2-OH + H+ -> CH3CH2-OH

Under the action of the attached positively charged ion, the C-O bond shifts even more towards oxygen, and the effective positive charge on the carbon atom increases.

This leads to the fact that the nucleophilic substitution by the halide ion occurs much more easily, and the water molecule is split off under the action of the nucleophile.

CH3CH2-OH+ + Br -> CH3CH2Br + H2O

Getting ethers

Under the action of sodium alcoholate on bromoethane, the bromine atom is replaced by an alcoholate ion and an ether is formed.

The general nucleophilic substitution reaction can be written as follows:

R - X + HNu -> R - Nu + HX,

if the nucleophilic particle is a molecule (HBr, H20, CH3CH2OH, NH3, CH3CH2NH2),

R-X + Nu - -> R-Nu + X -,

if the nucleophile is an anion (OH, Br-, CH3CH2O -), where X is a halogen, Nu is a nucleophilic particle.

Individual representatives of alcohols and their meaning

Methanol (methyl alcohol CH3OH) is a colorless liquid with a characteristic odor and a boiling point of 64.7 °C. It burns with a slightly bluish flame. The historical name of methanol - wood alcohol - is explained by one of the ways to obtain it - the distillation of hardwoods (Greek - wine, get drunk; substance, wood).

Methanol is very toxic! It requires careful handling when working with it. Under the action of the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase, it is converted in the body into formaldehyde and formic acid, which damage the retina, cause the death of the optic nerve and complete loss of vision. Ingestion of more than 50 ml of methanol causes death.

Ethanol (ethyl alcohol C2H5OH) is a colorless liquid with a characteristic odor and a boiling point of 78.3 °C. combustible Miscible with water in any ratio. The concentration (strength) of alcohol is usually expressed as a percentage by volume. "Pure" (medical) alcohol is a product obtained from food raw materials and containing 96% (by volume) ethanol and 4% (by volume) water. To obtain anhydrous ethanol - "absolute alcohol", this product is treated with substances that chemically bind water (calcium oxide, anhydrous copper (II) sulfate, etc.).

In order to make alcohol used for technical purposes unfit for drinking, small amounts of difficult-to-separate poisonous, bad-smelling and disgusting-tasting substances are added to it and tinted. Alcohol containing such additives is called denatured or methylated spirits.

Ethanol is widely used in industry for the production of synthetic rubber, drugs, used as a solvent, is part of varnishes and paints, perfumes. In medicine, ethyl alcohol is the most important disinfectant. Used to make alcoholic beverages.

Small amounts of ethyl alcohol, when ingested, reduce pain sensitivity and block the processes of inhibition in the cerebral cortex, causing a state of intoxication. At this stage of the action of ethanol, water separation in the cells increases and, consequently, urine formation is accelerated, resulting in dehydration of the body.

In addition, ethanol causes the expansion of blood vessels. Increased blood flow in the skin capillaries leads to reddening of the skin and a feeling of warmth.

In large quantities, ethanol inhibits the activity of the brain (the stage of inhibition), causes a violation of coordination of movements. An intermediate product of the oxidation of ethanol in the body - acetaldehyde - is extremely toxic and causes severe poisoning.

The systematic use of ethyl alcohol and drinks containing it leads to a persistent decrease in the productivity of the brain, the death of liver cells and their replacement with connective tissue - cirrhosis of the liver.

Ethandiol-1,2 (ethylene glycol) is a colorless viscous liquid. Poisonous. Freely soluble in water. Aqueous solutions do not crystallize at temperatures significantly below 0 ° C, which allows it to be used as a component of antifreeze coolants - antifreezes for internal combustion engines.

Propantriol-1,2,3 (glycerin) is a viscous, syrupy liquid, sweet in taste. Freely soluble in water. Non-volatile As an integral part of esters, it is part of fats and oils. Widely used in cosmetics, pharmaceutical and food industries. In cosmetics, glycerin plays the role of an emollient and soothing agent. It is added to toothpaste to prevent it from drying out. Glycerin is added to confectionery products to prevent their crystallization. It is sprayed on tobacco, in which case it acts as a humectant, preventing the tobacco leaves from drying out and crumbling before processing. It is added to adhesives to keep them from drying out too quickly, and to plastics, especially cellophane. In the latter case, glycerin acts as a plasticizer, acting like a lubricant between polymer molecules and thus giving plastics the necessary flexibility and elasticity.

1. What substances are called alcohols? On what grounds are alcohols classified? Which alcohols should be attributed to butanol-2? butene-3-ol-1? pentene-4-diol-1,2?

2. Write the structural formulas of the alcohols listed in exercise 1.

3. Are there quaternary alcohols? Explain the answer.

4. How many alcohols have the molecular formula C5H120? Write the structural formulas of these substances and name them. Can this formula only correspond to alcohols? Write the structural formulas of two substances that have the formula C5H120 and are not related to alcohols.

5. Name the substances whose structural formulas are given below:

6. Write the structural and empirical formulas of the substance, whose name is 5-methyl-4-hexene-1-inol-3. Compare the number of hydrogen atoms in a molecule of this alcohol with the number of hydrogen atoms in an alkane molecule with the same number of carbon atoms. What explains this difference?

7. Comparing the electronegativity of carbon and hydrogen, explain why the O-H covalent bond is more polar than the C-O bond.

8. What do you think, which of the alcohols - methanol or 2-methylpropanol-2 - will react more actively with sodium? Explain your answer. Write equations for the corresponding reactions.

9. Write the reaction equations for the interaction of propanol-2 (isopropyl alcohol) with sodium and hydrogen bromide. Name the reaction products and indicate the conditions for their implementation.

10. A mixture of vapors of propanol-1 and propanol-2 was passed over heated copper(II) oxide. What kind of reactions could take place? Write equations for these reactions. What classes of organic compounds do their products belong to?

11. What products can be formed during the hydrolysis of 1,2-dichloropropanol? Write equations for the corresponding reactions. Name the products of these reactions.

12. Write the equations for the reactions of hydrogenation, hydration, halogenation and hydrohalogenation of 2-propenol-1. Name the products of all reactions.

13. Write the equations for the interaction of glycerol with one, two and three moles of acetic acid. Write an equation for the hydrolysis of an ester - an esterification product of one mole of glycerol and three moles of acetic acid.

fourteen*. During the interaction of the primary limiting monohydric alcohol with sodium, 8.96 liters of gas (n.a.) were released. Dehydration of the same mass of alcohol produces an alkene with a mass of 56 g. Establish all possible structural formulas of alcohol.

fifteen*. The volume of carbon dioxide released during the combustion of saturated monohydric alcohol is 8 times greater than the volume of hydrogen released during the action of an excess of sodium on the same amount of alcohol. Determine the structure of alcohol, if it is known that when it is oxidized, a ketone is formed.

The use of alcohols

Since alcohols have a variety of properties, the area of ​​\u200b\u200bapplication is quite extensive. Let's try to figure out where alcohols are used.

Alcohols in the food industry

Alcohol such as ethanol is the basis of all alcoholic beverages. And it is obtained from raw materials that contain sugar and starch. Such raw materials can be sugar beets, potatoes, grapes, as well as various cereals. Thanks to modern technologies in the production of alcohol, it is purified from fusel oils.

Natural vinegar also contains raw materials derived from ethanol. This product is obtained by oxidation with acetic acid bacteria and aeration.

But in the food industry, not only ethanol is used, but also glycerin. This food additive promotes the bonding of immiscible liquids. Glycerin, which is part of liqueurs, is able to give them viscosity and sweet taste.

Also, glycerin is used in the manufacture of bakery, pasta and confectionery products.

The medicine

In medicine, ethanol is simply irreplaceable. In this industry, it is widely used as an antiseptic, as it has properties that can destroy microbes, delay painful changes in the blood, and do not allow decomposition in open wounds.

Ethanol is used by medical professionals before various procedures. This alcohol has the properties of disinfection and drying. During artificial ventilation of the lungs, ethanol acts as a defoamer. And also ethanol can be one of the components in anesthesia.

With a cold, ethanol can be used as a warming compress, and when cooled, as a rubbing agent, since its substances help to restore the body during heat and chills.

In case of poisoning with ethylene glycol or methanol, the use of ethanol helps to reduce the concentration of toxic substances and acts as an antidote.

Alcohols also play a huge role in pharmacology, as they are used to prepare medicinal tinctures and all kinds of extracts.

Alcohols in cosmetics and perfumery

In perfumery, alcohol is also indispensable, since the basis of almost all perfume products is water, alcohol and perfume concentrate. Ethanol in this case acts as a solvent for aromatic substances. But 2-phenylethanol has a floral smell and can replace natural rose oil in perfumery. It is used in the manufacture of lotions, creams, etc.

Glycerin is also the basis for many cosmetics, as it has the ability to attract moisture and actively moisturize the skin. And the presence of ethanol in shampoos and conditioners helps moisturize the skin and makes it easier to comb your hair after shampooing.

Fuel

Well, alcohol-containing substances such as methanol, ethanol and butanol-1 are widely used as fuel.

Thanks to the processing of vegetable raw materials such as sugarcane and corn, it was possible to obtain bioethanol, which is an environmentally friendly biofuel.

Recently, the production of bioethanol has become popular in the world. With its help, a prospect appeared in the renewal of fuel resources.

Solvents, surfactants

In addition to the already listed areas of application of alcohols, it can be noted that they are also good solvents. The most popular in this area are isopropanol, ethanol, methanol. They are also used in the production of bit chemistry. Without them, full-fledged care for a car, clothes, household utensils, etc. is not possible.

The use of spirits in various areas of our activity has a positive effect on our economy and brings comfort to our lives.

1. Classification of hydroxyl derivatives of hydrocarbons.

2. Limit monohydric alcohols (alkanols).

3. Polyhydric alcohols.

4. Phenols.

5. Ethers.

Hydroxyl derivatives of hydrocarbons are compounds that are formed as a result of the replacement of one or more hydrogen atoms in a hydrocarbon molecule by hydroxyl groups.

Hydroxyl derivatives of hydrocarbons with a C (sp 3) -OH bond are called alcohols. These are saturated aliphatic and cyclic alcohols, for example CH 3 OH and,

unsaturated alcohols, for example CH 2 \u003d CH-CH 2 -OH, aromatic alcohols -

Hydroxyl derivatives containing a C (sp 2) -OH bond are called enols R-CH \u003d CH-OH and phenols

According to the number of hydroxyl groups contained in the molecule, alcohols and phenols can be one (one OH group) -, two (two OH groups) -, three - and polyatomic.

Finding in nature. Unlike halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons, alcohols and phenols, their derivatives are widely represented in the plant and animal world.

Higher alcohols are found in free form (for example, cetyl alcohol C 16 H 33 OH), as part of esters with higher fatty acids (spermaceti, waxes). Unsaturated alcohols are an integral part of essential oils. Natural cyclic alcohols are menthol and cholesterol. Glycerin is part of natural vegetable and animal fats and oils.

Phenols and their ethers are part of the essential oils of many fragrant plants, such as thyme, thyme, cumin, anise, tarragon, dill, etc. Polyhydric phenols and their derivatives are aromatic substances of plants (for example, cloves, nutmeg), an integral part of plant glycosides, tannins of tea, coffee, etc.

1. Limit monohydric alcohols (alkanols).

General formula C n H 2 n +1 OH.

Nomenclature. According to substitution nomenclature, the hydroxyl group in the name of alcohols is denoted by the suffix - ol. According to the radical-functional nomenclature, the radical is indicated in the name and added - New alcohol: C 2 H 5 OH - ethanol or ethyl new alcohol,

CH 3 -CH 2 -CH 2 -OH - propanol-1 or propyl new alcohol.

Receipt:

a) hydrolysis of haloalkanes. Halogenalkanes in reactions with water or an aqueous solution of alkali easily form alcohols (see "Halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons"):

C 2 H 5 Br + NaOH (aqueous solution) → C 2 H 5 OH + NaBr.

b) hydration of alkenes. The addition of water to alkenes occurs in the presence of a catalyst (see "Alkenes"):

CH 2 \u003d CH 2 + H-OH CH 3 -CH 2 -OH.

c) hydrogenation of carbonyl compounds.

Catalytic hydrogenation of aldehydes and ketones leads to the formation of alcohols (see "Aldehydes and ketones"):

CH 3 -CH \u003d O + H 2 → CH 3 -CH 2 -OH

Catalysts: Ni, Pt, Pd.

d) reactions of organomagnesium compounds. The addition of organomagnesium compounds to aldehydes and ketones easily occurs (see "Aldehydes and ketones"):

Primary alcohol is formed from methanal, secondary alcohols from aldehydes, and tertiary alcohols from ketones.

A feature of reactions of this type is the reaction products - alcohols contain more carbon atoms compared to the original carbonyl compounds.

e) hydrogenation of carbon monoxide (II). Depending on the nature of the catalyst and the reaction conditions, methanol or a mixture of various alcohols (synthol) is obtained: CO + 2H 2 → CH 3 -OH.

Catalysts: ZnO, Co and others.

e) alcoholic fermentation of carbohydrates. Glucose in the presence of yeast undergoes fermentation with the formation of ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide: C 6 H 12 O 6 → 2CH 3 -CH 2 -OH + 2CO 2

Isomerism. For saturated alcohols, structural isomerism is characteristic: isomerism of the carbon chain, the location of the hydroxyl group in the chain. According to the position of the hydroxyl group in the chain, primary (R-CH 2 -OH), secondary (R 2 CH-OH) and tertiary (R 3 C-OH) alcohols are distinguished.

Alcohols are characterized by interclass isomerism (metamerism), alcohols are isomeric ethers with the general formula R-O-R.

CH 3 -CH 2 - CH OH-CH 3 (see "Optical isomerism").

Structure. In alcohols, carbon and oxygen atoms are in sp 3 - hybridization. Alcohols contain two polar σ-bonds: C-O (sp 3 -sp 3 -overlap) and O-H (sp 3 -s -overlap). The dipoles of these bonds are directed towards the oxygen atom, and the dipole moment of the O-H bond is higher than that of the C-O bond. Alkanols are polar compounds:

The association of alcohol molecules is carried out due to the formation of intermolecular hydrogen bonds:

as a result, alcohols, compared with hydrocarbons and halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons, have higher boiling and melting points. The formation of hydrogen bonds between alcohol and water molecules promotes the dissolution of these compounds in water.

Chemical properties.

The chemical properties of alcohols are due to the presence of polar C-O and O-H bonds and unshared electron pairs on the oxygen atom in the molecule.

a) acidic properties

Alcohols are weak OH-acids. Acidity series: RCOOH > HOH > ROH.

In an aqueous solution, the acidity of the alcohols themselves decreases in the following direction: methanol > primary > secondary > tertiary.

The acidic properties of alcohols are manifested in the formation of salts (alcoholates or alkoxides) when interacting with metals:

2C 2 H 5 OH + 2Na → 2 C 2 H 5 O - Na + + H 2

ethanol ethoxide (ethoxide) sodium

In aqueous solutions, salts are hydrolyzed to form alcohols and alkalis:

C 2 H 5 O - Na + + HOH → C 2 H 5 OH + NaOH

b) basic and nucleophilic properties

The basic and nucleophilic properties of alcohols are due to the lone electron pair on the oxygen atom.

Basic properties increase in the following direction

methanol< первичные < вторичные < третичные спирты и проявляются в образовании оксониевых солей: С 2 Н 5 ОН + Н + → С 2 Н 5 ОН 2 + . Образование оксониевых солей играет важную роль в реакциях нуклеофильного замещения и отщепления.

Thus, alcohols are amphoteric compounds.

The weak nucleophilic properties of alcohols and alcoholates are manifested in the reactions

Alkylation - interactions with alcohols and alcoholates to form ethers (Williamson reaction, proceeds when heated): CH 3 Br + With 2 H 5 O Na → C 2 H 5 OCH 3 + NaBr

methyl bromide sodium ethoxide methoxyethane,

Acylations - interactions with carboxylic acids and their derivatives to form esters (esterification reaction, proceeds in the presence of a catalyst):

CH 3 CO IS HE + With 2 H 5 O H ↔ CH 3 COOS 2 H 5 + HOH

acetic acid ethanol ethyl acetate,

With carbonyl compounds - the formation of hemiacetals and acetals:

ethanal methanol 1-methoxyethanol 1,2-dimethoxyethanol.

Alcoholates are stronger bases and nucleophiles than alcohols.

c) substitution reactions of the hydroxyl group (nucleophilic substitution - S N )

Often in these reactions, the OH group is modified with mineral acids or Lewis acids (the formation of oxonium salts of RON 2 +). The modified hydroxyl group is easily replaced by a halogen atom, an amino and alkoxy group, and other groups. The reactivity of alcohols in these reactions increases in the following direction: primary< вторичные < третичные.

Examples of reactions. Substitution of a hydroxyl group by a halogen atom:

R- OH+ SO Cl 2 → R-Cl + HCl + SO 2

R- OH+ R Hal 5 → R-Hal + H-Hal + RONal 3

R- OH+ N- Hal→ R-Hal + NON

The reactive activity of hydrogen halides increases in the direction of HCl< НBr <НJ. Однако иодоводород практически не используют в реакциях этого типа, поскольку он легко восстанавливает спирты до углеводородов.

Substitution of a hydroxyl group for an amino and alkoxy group:

R- OH+ H - NH 2 →R- NH 2 + NON

R- OH+ RO- H → R-O-R + NON.

Interaction with mineral acids to form esters:

R- OH+ H -ONO 2 →R-ONO 2 + NON

alkyl nitrate

R- OH+ H -OSO 3 →R-OSO 3 + NON

alkyl sulfate

Nucleophilic substitution reactions proceed according to a monomolecular (S N 1) or bimolecular (S N 2) mechanism.

d) reactions of cleavage of the hydroxyl group (E-type, dehydration of alcohols)

The splitting of water occurs when heated in the presence of a catalyst - sulfuric or phosphoric acid, zinc oxide or aluminum. The dehydration of alcohols with the formation of alkenes proceeds in accordance with the Zaitsev rule: the hydroxyl group is split off from the α-carbon atom, the hydrogen from the less hydrogenated β-carbon atom of the alcohol:

1-butanol 2-butene

The reactivity of alcohols increases in the following direction: primary< вторичные < третичные.

Elimination reactions proceed according to a monomolecular (E1) or bimolecular (E2) mechanism.

e) oxidation of alcohols

Primary alcohols are more active in oxidation reactions, tertiary alcohols do not oxidize under similar conditions. Oxidizing agents: potassium permanganate or potassium bichromate in an acidic environment. Primary alcohols are oxidized with the formation of aldehydes and then - carboxylic acids, secondary alcohols - ketones:

R-OH + [O] → R-CH=O → R-COOH

R 2 CH-OH + [ O ] → R 2 C \u003d O

Primary and secondary alcohols can be converted to carbonyl compounds by dehydrogenation. The reactions proceed at 400-500 0 C in the presence of a catalyst - Cu / Ag:

Which in their composition contain one or more hydroxyl groups. Depending on the number of OH groups, these are divided into monohydric alcohols, trihydric, etc. Most often, these complex substances are considered as derivatives of hydrocarbons, the molecules of which have undergone changes, because. one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a hydroxyl group.

The simplest representatives of this class are monohydric alcohols, the general formula of which looks like this: R-OH or

Cn + H 2n + 1OH.

1. Alcohols containing up to 15 carbon atoms are liquids, 15 or more are solids.
2. Solubility in water depends on the molecular weight, the higher it is, the worse the alcohol dissolves in water. Thus, lower alcohols (up to propanol) are miscible with water in any proportions, while higher ones are practically insoluble in it.
3. The boiling point also increases with increasing atomic mass, for example, t kip. CH3OH \u003d 65 ° С, and t bp. С2Н5ОН = 78 ° С.
4. The higher the boiling point, the lower the volatility, i.e. the substance does not evaporate well.

These physical properties of saturated alcohols with one hydroxyl group can be explained by the occurrence of an intermolecular hydrogen bond between individual molecules of the compound itself or alcohol and water.

Monohydric alcohols are able to enter into such chemical reactions:

Having considered the chemical properties of alcohols, we can conclude that monohydric alcohols are amphoteric compounds, because. they can react with alkali metals, showing weak properties, and with hydrogen halides, showing basic properties. All chemical reactions involve breaking the O-H or C-O bond.

Thus, saturated monohydric alcohols are complex compounds with one OH group that do not have free valences after the formation of a C-C bond and exhibit weak properties of both acids and bases. Due to their physical and chemical properties, they are widely used in organic synthesis, in the production of solvents, fuel additives, as well as in the food industry, medicine, and cosmetology (ethanol).

The word "alcohol" is familiar to everyone, but not everyone knows that in Latin it comes from the word "Spirit" - "Spiritus". Such an unusual and slightly pretentious name was given to alcohol by its discoverers, the alchemist Ja-bir and the Alexandrian Zosim de Panopolis, who worked at the court of the Egyptian caliph. It was they who first managed to isolate alcohol from wine using a distillation apparatus. These scientists of antiquity firmly believed that they managed to get the very spirit of wine. Since then, many scientists (first alchemists, and then just chemists) of different historical eras have been studying alcohol and its physical and chemical properties. So in our time, alcohols occupy a prominent and important place in organic chemistry, and our today's article is about them.

Alcohols are important organic and oxygenated compounds that contain the hydroxyl group OH. Also, all alcohols are divided into monohydric and polyhydric. The value of alcohols in chemistry, and not only in it, is simply huge, alcohols are actively used in the chemical, cosmetic and food industries (yes, and to create alcoholic beverages, including, but not only for them).

The history of the discovery of alcohol

The history of alcohol is rooted in antiquity, because according to archaeological finds, already 5000 years ago people knew how to make alcoholic beverages: wine and beer. They knew how to do it, but they did not fully understand what kind of magical element is in these drinks, which makes them intoxicating. Nevertheless, the inquisitive minds of scientists of the past have repeatedly tried to isolate this magical component from wine, which is responsible for its alcohol content (or strength, as we say now).

And it was soon discovered that alcohol can be isolated using the process of distillation of the liquid. Distillation of alcohol is such a chemical process during which volatile components (vapors), and alcohol is obtained from the fermented mixture. By the way, the distillation process itself was first described by the great scientist and natural philosopher Aristotle. In practice, the alchemists Zhabir and Zosim de Panopolis managed to obtain alcohol by distillation, it was they, as we wrote at the beginning, who gave the alcohol its name - “spiritus vini” (spirit of wine), which eventually became just alcohol.

Alchemists of later times improved the process of distillation and obtaining alcohol, for example, the French physician and alchemist Arnaud de Villeguerre in 1334 developed a convenient technology for obtaining wine alcohol. And since 1360, Italian and French monasteries adopted his achievements, which began to actively produce alcohol, which they call "Aqua vita" - "living water".

In 1386, “living water” first came to Russia (more precisely, Muscovy, as this state was then called). The spirit brought by the Genoese embassy as a present to the royal court was very much liked by the boyars there (and not only the boyars, by the way). And the "living water" later became the basis of the well-known alcoholic drink (which, however, we strongly do not recommend you to use).

But back to chemistry.

Alcohol classification

In fact, there are many different types of alcohols, which chemists divide depending on:

Nomenclature of alcohols

The nomenclature of monohydric alcohols, as well as polyhydric ones, depends on the name of the surrounding radicals and the structure of their molecules. For example:

Physical properties of alcohols

Low molecular weight alcohol is usually a colorless liquid with a sharp and characteristic odor. The boiling point of alcohol is higher than that of other organic compounds. This is due to the fact that alcohol molecules have a special type of interaction - bonds. Here's what they look like.

Chemical properties of alcohols

Due to their structure, alcohols exhibit amphoteric properties: basic and acidic, then we will dwell on them in detail:

• The acidic properties of alcohols are manifested in the ability to split off the proton of the hydroxy group. As the length of the carbon chain increases, the volume of its radical increases, as well as the degree of branching and the presence of donors in the molecule, the acidity decreases.
• The basic properties of alcohols are the opposite of their acidic properties, since they are expressed in their ability, on the contrary, to attach a proton.

Alcohols and glycols have the peculiarity of entering into chemical reactions of substitution, elimination and oxidation. Let's describe them in more detail:

Obtaining alcohols

Monohydric alcohols can be obtained from alkenes, esters, oxo compounds, carboxylic acids and halogen derivatives.

But ethanol alcohol can be obtained by fermenting sugary substances, it will look like this.