In 1841, the British took Canton, Amoy and Ningbo. In 1842 the British captured Shanghai and Zhenjiang. The threat to Nanjing forced China to sue for peace. China ceded Hong Kong to England, opened Canton, Amoy and Fuzhou to English trade, returned Ningbo and Shanghai to Britain and paid an indemnity of 20 million dollars.

Notes:

* To compare events that took place in Russia and Western Europe, in all chronological tables, starting from 1582 (the year of the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in eight European countries) and ending with 1918 (the year of the transition of Soviet Russia from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar), in the column DATES indicated date only according to the Gregorian calendar, and the Julian date is indicated in parentheses along with a description of the event. In chronological tables describing the periods before the introduction of the new style by Pope Gregory XIII (in the DATES column) Dates are based on the Julian calendar only.. At the same time, no translation is made to the Gregorian calendar, because it did not exist.

Literature and sources:

Russian and world history in tables. Author-compiler F.M. Lurie. St. Petersburg, 1995

Chronology of Russian history. Encyclopedic reference book. Under the leadership of Francis Comte. M., "International Relations". 1994.

Chronicle of world culture. M., "White City", 2001.

6. The struggle of the Russian people against the aggression of the German and Swedish conquerors

7. North-Eastern Rus' at the end of the 13th - first half of the 15th centuries. Principality of Moscow under Ivan Kalita and Dmitry Donskoy

8. Formation of a unified Russian state. Moscow Rus' in the second half of the 15th - early 16th centuries. Reign of Ivan 3.

9. The struggle to overthrow the Horde yoke. Battle of Kulikovo. Standing on the Ugra River.

10. Russia in the 16th century. Strengthening state power under Ivan 4. Reforms of 1550.

11. Oprichnina and its consequences

12. Development of Russian culture in the 14th-16th centuries.

13. Time of Troubles at the beginning of the 17th century.

14. Socio-economic and political development of Russia in the 17th century

15. Russian foreign policy in the 17th century. Reunification of Ukraine with Russia.

16. Cathedral Code of 1649. Strengthening autocratic power.

17. Church and state in the 17th century.

18. Social movements in the 17th century.

19. Russian culture of the 17th century

20. Russia in the late 17th century - early 18th century. Peter's reforms.

21. Russian foreign policy in the first quarter of the 18th century. North War.

22. Russian culture of the first quarter of the 18th century

23. Russia in the 30s-50s of the 18th century. Palace coups

24. Domestic policy of Catherine 2

25. Foreign policy of Catherine 2

26. Domestic and foreign policy of Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century

27. Secret Decembrist organizations. Decembrist revolt.

28. Domestic and foreign policy of Russia in the era of Nicholas 1

29. Culture and art of Russia in the first half of the 19th century

30. Social movement in the 30s-50s of the 19th century

31. Bourgeois reforms of the 60s-70s of the 19th century

32. Socio-economic development of Russia in the 60s-90s of the 19th century

33. Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 19th century

34. Revolutionary populism in the 1870s - early 1880s

35. Labor movement in Russia in the 70s-90s. 19th century

36. Culture of Russia 60s-90s of the 19th century.

37. Features of the socio-economic development of Russia at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th century.

38. Russian culture at the beginning of the 20th century

39. The first Russian revolution of 1905-1907.

40. Political parties of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. Programs and leaders.

41. Activities of the State Duma. The first experience of Russian parliamentarism.

42. Reform activities of Witte and Stolypin.

43. Russia in the First World War.

44. February revolution of 1917 in Russia.

45. Victory of the armed uprising in Petrograd. October 1917. Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets. Creation of the Soviet state.

46. ​​Soviet Russia during the years of civil war and foreign military intervention.

47. Soviet country during the NEP period.

48. Education of the USSR.

49. Ideological and political struggle in the party in the 20s of the 20th century.

50. Social and political life of the Soviet state in the late 20s-30s of the 20th century.

51. Industrialization in the USSR.

52. Collectivization of agriculture in the USSR.

53. The policy of the Soviet government in the field of culture in the 20s - 30s of the 20th century

54. Russian foreign policy in the 20s-30s of the 20th century

55. USSR during WWII

56. USSR in the first post-war decade

59. Ext. Half of the USSR in 1946-53.

60. Spiritual and cultural life in the USSR in the mid-50s and mid-60s of the 20th century

62. Features of the spiritual life of the Soviet people in the 60s - 80s of the 20th century

63. Perestroika in the USSR.

64. New foreign policy of the USSR during the years of perestroika

65. The spiritual life of Soviet society during the period of perestroika

66. Sovereign Russia in the first half of the 90s of the 20th century

67. Domestic policy of Russia at the turn of the 20th-21st centuries

68. Russia’s place in modern international relations.

30. Social movement in the 30s-50s of the 19th century

The social movement of the 30-50s had characteristic features:

> it developed in conditions of political reaction (after the defeat of the Decembrists);

> the revolutionary and governmental directions finally diverged;

> its participants did not have the opportunity to realize their

ideas in practice.

Three directions of socio-political thought of this period can be distinguished:

> conservative (leader - Count S.S. Uvarov);

> Westerners and Slavophiles (ideologists - K. Kavelin, T. Granovsky, brothers K. and I. Aksakov, Yu. Samarin, etc.);

> revolutionary-democratic (ideologists - A. Herzen, N. Ogarev, M. Petrashevsky).

After the suppression of the Decembrist uprising, the question arises about the further paths of development of Russia, around which a long struggle of various currents ensues. In resolving this issue, the main lines of demarcation between social groups are outlined.

In the early 1930s, the ideological justification for the reactionary policies of the autocracy took shape - the theory of “official nationality” was born. Its principles were formulated by the Minister of Education S.S. Uvarov in the famous triad, expressing the age-old foundations of Russian life: “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality.” Autocracy was interpreted as a guarantor of inviolability. Slavophiles - representatives of the liberal-minded noble intelligentsia, advocated a fundamentally different path of development for Russia from the Western European one, based on its imaginary originality (patriarchy, peasant community, Orthodoxy). In this they seemed to be getting closer to representatives of the “official nationality”, but they should not be confused in any way. Slavophilism was an opposition movement in Russian social thought. Slavophiles advocated the abolition of serfdom (from above), advocated the development of industry, trade, and education, severely criticized the existing political system in Russia, and advocated freedom of speech and press. However, the main thesis of the Slavophiles boiled down to proof of the original path of development of Russia, or rather, to the demand to “follow this path.” They idealized such “original” institutions, in their opinion, as the peasant community and the Orthodox Church.

Westernism also arose at the turn of the 30s and 40s of the 19th century. Westerners opposed themselves to Slavophiles in disputes about the paths of development of Russia. They believed that Russia should follow the same historical path as all Western European countries, and criticized the Slavophil theory about Russia's unique path of development.

31. Bourgeois reforms of the 60s-70s of the 19th century

In November 1857, Alexander II instructed the Vilna and St. Petersburg governors to establish provincial committees to prepare local projects for improving the life of landowner peasants. Thus, the reform began to be developed in an atmosphere of openness. All projects were submitted to the Main Committee, headed by Grand Duke Konstantin Nikolaevich.

On February 19, 1861, in the State Council, Alexander II signed the “Regulations on Reform” (they included 17 legislative acts) and the “Manifesto on the Abolition of Serfdom.” These documents were published in print on March 5, 1861.

According to the Manifesto, the peasant immediately received personal freedom. “Regulations” regulated the issues of allocating land to peasants. From now on, former serfs received personal freedom and independence from the landowners. Elected peasant self-government was introduced. The second part of the reform regulated land relations. The law recognized the landowner's right to private ownership of all land on the estate, including peasant allotment land. According to the reform, peasants received a set land allotment (for a ransom). The territory of Russia was divided into chernozem, non-chernozem and steppe. During the allotment, the landowner provided the peasants with the worst lands. To become the owner of the land, the peasant had to buy his allotment from the landowner. The owner of the land was the community, from which the peasant could not leave until the ransom was paid. The abolition of serfdom led to the need to carry out bourgeois reforms in other areas of public life. The autocratic monarchy turned into a bourgeois monarchy.

In 1864, Alexander II (on the advice of liberals) carried out a zemstvo reform. The “Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions” were published, according to which classless elected bodies of local self-government - zemstvos - were created. They were called upon to involve all segments of the population in solving local problems, and on the other hand, to partially compensate the nobles for the loss of their former power.

At the insistence of the public, in 1864 the government carried out judicial reform, which was developed by progressive lawyers. Before the reform, the court in Russia was class-based, secret, without the participation of the parties, and corporal punishment was widely used. The trial depended on the administration and the police.

In 1864 Russia received a new court based on the principles of bourgeois law. It was an unclassified, transparent, adversarial, independent court; some judicial bodies were elected.

The fall of serfdom meant the beginning of a new, capitalist period in the history of Russia. Capitalism has brought significant changes to the life of society: it transformed the economic system, changed the social and spiritual appearance of the population, its way of life, living conditions, and contributed to the growth of cultural needs. Changes of enormous significance took place in the culture of Russia in the 19th century. They formed the cultural heritage of the country. Cultural heritage is the most important form in which continuity in the historical development of society is expressed.

The character of Russian literature of the 19th century was kept silent for a very long time. At the end of the 90s of the 20th century. Through the efforts of scientists from Petrozavodsk, St. Petersburg and Moscow universities, it was found out Orthodox Christian character of Russian literature. She was Easter , That's why salutary .

The main problem of Russian literature is the problem of the rebirth (resurrection) of the human soul. Russian literature is Orthodox in its worldview and understanding of the world. The heroes' way of life is Orthodox. Writers sought to awaken a person’s conscience and resolve philosophical issues. They thought about how to achieve happiness and justice for everyone, they recognized personal responsibility for your life. They tried to think not about violent changes to the existing system. They thought about purifying their souls.

In Russian literature, spiritual achievement is important. All Russian literature is based on the action of Tatyana Larina. All Russian writers recognized their work as prophetic, and therefore the attitude towards them was spiritual, prophetic. According to Berdyaev, all Russian literature is “wounded” by Christian themes. The purpose of our life is to regenerate the soul. Existence on earth is temporary, so you need to cleanse yourself of sins. Russian literature cannot be understood without Christianity.

Now there is a process of renewed historical knowledge of Russian literature. Researchers move on to religious and philosophical analysis, trying to understand the connection between Russian literature and Orthodoxy and Christianity in general.

The ideological basis for defining the conflict in Russian literature were the words of Christ: “Do not lay up for yourselves treasures on earth, where moth and rust destroy and thieves steal, but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven...” (Gospel of Matthew, chapter 6, pages 18 – 20 ).

There are two concepts of the meaning of life: heavenly and earthly. Two types of culture: soteriological (Savior) and eudaemological (path). The interaction of these two types of cultures is the basis of the conflict in Russian literature.

The central question of Russian literature and the development of Russia in the mid-19th century. – the question of the paths of historical development of Russia. Some believe in gradual reforms, others in a revolutionary path.

Socio-political struggle is a manifestation of the confrontation between two types of worldviews: spiritual and atheistic (or nihilism and anti-nihilism). Hence the socio-philosophical polemics in society.

In the 70s 19th century the concept of soulless nihilism was reflected in populism (Lavrov, Tkachev, Bakunin).

1868 – “Historical Letters” by P.L. Lavrova. He offers his way of changing Russia - the way of propaganda work (going to the people to prepare a revolution).

M.A. Bakunin talks about the need for anarchic rebellion (“Statehood and Anarchy”). According to him, the people are rebels. The inconsistency of this path was shown by Nechaevism (Nechaev’s society was called “Bloody Massacre”), which was reflected in Dostoevsky’s novel “Demons.” Dostoevsky shows that revolution is demonic.

P.N. Tkachev develops a conspiratorial method. He notes that the peasantry is not yet ready for revolution, therefore political terror is needed.

The most important thing in the activities of nihilists is denial, violence, disbelief. At the heart of all this is godlessness.

In the 60s Strakhov called nihilism a monstrous perversion of the soul. He was supported by Soloviev and Korkov.

In the middle of the 19th century. Russian religious philosophy begins to take shape: V.S. Soloviev “Criticism of Western European Positivism” (1874), Leontiev, N.F. Fedorov. All of them influenced Dostoevsky's work.

Dostoevsky, Leskov, Pisemsky contrasted nihilism with anti-nihilism.

The conceptual basis of anti-nihilism in Russia is Christianity and Orthodoxy.

The anti-nihilistic movement is an expression of the national mentality of Russia, an affirmation of positive principles. This is the original essence of Russian literature. The main thing is not a person with his pride, but the Creator. The perception of the world is theocentric.

The dualistic nature of man is recognized. The basis of human life is faith.

Anti-nihilists relied on the doctrine of the image of God in man (Orthodox anthropology). The ideal is to draw closer to the person of Christ.

All Russian Orthodox Christian writers understood that man is endowed with the gift of freedom. He must exercise free will. The choice must be free.

In their attitude to society, anti-nihilists were conservatives. This is thinking that protects a person from unreasonable actions.

· After the massacre of the Decembrists, the entire public life of Russia was placed under the strictest supervision by the state. This was the reason for the decline of the social movement.

· A few circles tried to continue the work of the Decembrists.

· IN 1827. At Moscow University, the brothers P., V. and M. Kritsky organized a secret circle, the goals of which were the destruction of the royal family and constitutional reforms in Russia.

· IN 1831 The circle of N.P. Sungurov, whose members were preparing an armed uprising in Moscow, was discovered and destroyed.

· IN 1832 At Moscow University there was a “Literary Society No. 11”, of which V.G. Belinsky was a member.

· In 1834 The circle of A.I. Herzen has been opened.

· After the suppression of the Decembrist uprising, the reaction intensified in the country. In the fight against new ideas, the government used not only repression, but also weapons of an ideological nature. This was S.S. Uvarov’s theory of “official nationality”. Its main slogans were: Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality.

· However, the Uvarov triad did not receive widespread support in Russian society. Despite official opposition, the social movement developed.

· In the 40s, the main directions of social thought were formed, based on the need for transformations in Russia: Slavophiles, Westerners and revolutionaries.

· Westerners- This is the first bourgeois-liberal movement in Russia. Its prominent representatives were Kavelin, Granovsky, Botkin, Panaev, Annenkov, Katkov and others. They believed that Russia and the West are following the same path – the bourgeois one., and the only salvation for Russia from revolutionary upheavals was seen in borrowing through gradual reforms of bourgeois democracy. Westerners believed in the indivisibility of human civilization and argued that the West leads this civilization, showing examples of the implementation of the principles of freedom and progress, which attracts the attention of the rest of humanity. Therefore, Russia’s task is to join the European West as soon as possible and thus enter a single universal civilization. As liberals, the ideas of revolution and socialism were alien to them. Until the mid-40s, Belinsky and Herzen spoke together with the Westerners, constituting the left wing of this movement.

· The opponents of the Westerners became Slavophiles, who were hostile to the West and idealized pre-Petrine Rus', who relied on identity of the Russian people who believed in a special path of its development. Prominent Slavophiles were Khomyakov, Samarin, the Aksakov brothers, the Kireevsky brothers, Koshelev and others. Slavophiles argued that there is no and cannot be a single human civilization. Each nation lives by its own “identity”, the basis of which is an ideological principle that permeates all aspects of people’s life. For Russia, such a beginning was the Orthodox faith, and its embodiment was the community, as a union of mutual help and support. In the Russian village one can do without class struggle; this will save Russia from revolution and bourgeois “deviations.” Being convinced monarchists, they nevertheless advocated freedom of opinion and the revival of Zemsky Sobors. They are also characterized by rejection of revolution and socialism. Neither the principles nor the organizational forms of life of the West were acceptable to Russia.

· Ideological differences between Westerners and Slavophiles, however, did not prevent their rapprochement in practical issues of Russian life: both movements rejected serfdom; both performed against the existing government; both demanded freedom of speech and press.

· In the 40s, having broken away from the Westerners, the third current of social thought took shape - revolutionary democratic. It was represented by Belinsky, Herzen, the Petrashevites, and the then young Chernyshevsky and Shevchenko.

· Belinsky and Herzen did not agree with the Westerners regarding revolution and socialism. But, unlike Western socialists, they not only did not exclude the revolutionary path to socialism, but also relied on it. The revolutionaries also believed that Russia would follow the Western path, but unlike the Slavophiles and Westerners, they believed that revolutionary upheavals were inevitable.

· Given the embryonic state in which the Russian proletariat was, they did not understand its revolutionary future and hoped for a peasant revolution.

Bourgeois reforms of the 60-70s of the 19th century.

1855-1881

· The first steps towards the abolition of serfdom in Russia were taken by Emperor Alexander I in 1803 publication Decree on free cultivators, which spells out the legal status of released peasants.

· During the reign of Nicholas I, about a dozen different commissions were created to resolve the issue of abolishing serfdom, but all of them were ineffective due to the opposition of the nobility.

· Upon reaching adulthood, Alexander II /was killed by terrorists/ replaces his father Nicholas I on the throne. He entered Russian history as a conductor of large-scale reforms. Awarded a special epithet in Russian pre-revolutionary historiography - Liberator (in connection with the abolition of serfdom according to the manifesto of February 19, 1861)

· February 19, 1861 Alexander II signed the "Regulations" and the "Manifesto" on the abolition of serfdom. The main result of the reform was personal liberation of the peasant, the landowners lost the right to dispose of it. According to the Manifesto a legal document that formulated the conditions for the peasants to leave serfdom was becoming charter. The peasants found rights of a legal entity And status of free rural inhabitants endowed with land. They got the opportunity own property, engage in commercial and industrial activities, move to other classes, litigate.

· Some historians believe that the reason is that serfdom became an insurmountable obstacle to the further development of the country; others consider it impossible for Russia to no longer claim the role of a leading European power and at the same time remain a serfdom.

· A natural continuation of the abolition of serfdom in Russia were zemstvo, city, judicial, military and other reforms. Their main goal is to bring the state system and administration in accordance with the new social structure (the multimillion-dollar peasantry received freedom). This is a continuation of modernization. countries.

Judicial reform of 1864.“New judicial statutes” introduced a fundamentally new system of legal proceedings in Russia.

· The court became classless (formal equality of all classes)

· Transparency and competitiveness of legal proceedings (prosecutor - lawyer)

· The Senate became the highest court

· The Bar was established

· An institute of jurors was created to consider complex criminal cases

· Election of some judicial bodies (magistrates)

· The judicial system has been simplified

· The preliminary investigation was carried out by a forensic investigator, not by the police.

· BUT! Peasants were subject to their own class court

Zemstvo reform of 1864.

· In the provinces and districts, zemstvo institutions were created - zemstvos (elected bodies from all classes).

Zemstvos are deprived of political functions

· It was allowed to deal exclusively with economic issues of local importance (communication routes, schools, hospitals, trade, industry)

· Zemstvos controlled central and local authorities, which had the right to suspend any decision of the zemstvo assembly

Results: played a special role in the development of education, education, and healthcare.

Military reform 1861-1874.

· Law 1874 on all-class military service for men over 20 years of age.

· The period of active service was established - up to 6 years in the ground forces, in the navy - 7.

· Persons with higher education served for six months.

· Rearmament of the army

· Introduction of new military regulations

· A system of military districts for military administration was established

· Educational institutions were created to train military personnel

· The size of the army in peacetime was reduced and its combat effectiveness increased

Reforms in education and the press 1863-1864.

· In fact, accessible all-class education was introduced

· Private zemstvo, parochial, and Sunday schools emerged

· 1863. The new charter returned autonomy to universities

· 1865. “Temporary Rules” for printing were introduced. Pre-censorship abolished

Financial reform

· The right to dispose of all financial resources of the country was given to the Minister of Finance, whose activities were subject to accounting from the outside State control.

· Was established National Bank, which began lending to commercial and industrial enterprises.

SIGNIFICANCE OF REFORM:

All transformations were progressive in nature. The foundation is being laid for the evolutionary development of the country along the path of the European socio-political model. The first step has been taken to expand the role of the public in the life of the country.

Reforms were inconsistent and incomplete. The process of modernization in Russia had a specific character - the weakness of the Russian bourgeoisie, the actions of radicals, the strengthening of conservative forces - all this slowed down the reform aspirations of the government.

Culture of post-reform Russia (60s - 90s of the 19th century).

Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century developed in conditions when new, capitalist relations were established in the country and various reforms were carried out. But at the same time, remnants of the serfdom system remained, a labor movement was born, general social protest against autocracy expanded, and serious changes took place in the social structure. All this had an impact on the cultural development of Russia.

After the abolition of serfdom, society and the state realized the need for widespread education of the people. The development of industry and technology required competent workers. Real schools were opened for children of all classes. In the 1980s, the number of parochial schools increased. The first Sunday schools appeared. More than 10 thousand zemstvo (primary) schools were opened. The main type of secondary school was gymnasium, in which the main subjects were literature, languages, and history. There were also men's real schools; in the 90s, 300 women's educational institutions were opened. The growth of higher education institutions continued. In the 60s there were 7 universities, after the reform 2 more were opened (in Odessa and Tomsk). The number of technical universities has increased. A foundation was laid for higher women's education: Higher Women's Courses were opened in St. Petersburg and Moscow. However, in general, the level of literacy of the population in Russia still remained one of the lowest in Europe (Balakina T.I. History of domestic culture. Part 2. - M., 1995, pp. 72-76).

Russian science achieved major successes in the second half of the 19th century. Russian physiologist I.N. Sechenov published the work “Reflexes of the Brain” in 1863; his research in the field of physiology and higher nervous activity was continued by I.P. Pavlov, who created the doctrine of conditioned reflexes. Biologist I.I. Mechnikov created a theory of the development of multicellular organisms and discovered the phenomenon of phagocytosis.

Mathematicians P.L. Chebyshev, Sofya Kovalevskaya; physicist A.G. Stoletov contributed to the development of mathematical science and physics.

The great chemist D.I. Mendeleev created the periodic table of elements and founded agrochemistry.

A.N. Lodygin invented the incandescent electric light bulb. P.N. Yablochkov created a transformer and an electric arc lamp.

The works of ethnographer N.N. became very famous. Miklouho-Maclay, who studied the nature and peoples of Oceania and New Guinea. The humanities have received widespread development. Professor-historian S.M. Soloviev in 1851 published the first volume of “History of Russia since Ancient Times” (a total of 29 volumes were published), bringing the presentation up to 1775. Historian V.O. Klyuchevsky created the five-volume “Course of Russian History”.

The literature of this period reflected the social problems of post-reform Russia, socio-political trends, and people's life. The leading direction in literature was critical realism, the principle of which was the depiction of real life, a turn to the life of the common man. A striking example of accusatory literature is the work of satirist M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“The History of a City”, “The Golovlevs”). A huge place in the literature of this period is occupied by the work of F.M. Dostoevsky (“Poor People”, “Crime and Punishment”, “The Brothers Karamazov”). The second half of the 19th century saw the heyday of L.N. Tolstoy (novels “War and Peace”, “Anna Karenina”, “Sunday”). In the 60s - 70s, the literary activity of I.S. continued. Turgenev - masters of the classic Russian novel (“On the Eve”, “Fathers and Sons”, “Smoke”).

The leader of the mixed youth was the poet N.A. Nekrasov (“Railroad”, “Russian Women”, “It’s Good to Live in Rus'”). At the end of the 70s, A.P.’s literary activity began. Chekhov (stories “A Boring Story”, “A Lady with a Dog”, “Duel”, “Ward No. 6”, “Man in a Case”; plays “The Seagull”, “The Cherry Orchard”, “Three Sisters”). During these years, M. Gorky, I.A. entered the literature. Bunin, V.V. Veresaev, V.G. Korolenko (Essays on the history of Russian culture of the second half of the 19th century./Ed. N.M. Volynkin. - M., 1976, pp. 148-169).

In the second half of the 19th century, the main type of printed publications remained magazines: Sovremennik (Saltykov-Shchedrin), Otechestvennye zapiski (Nekrasov), Russian Vestnik. Book publisher D.I. made a great contribution to the development of national culture. Sytin. He published textbooks, popular science books, cheap editions, collected works of classics of Russian literature, dictionaries, and encyclopedias. In the subsequent years of the 19th century, volumes of the Encyclopedic Dictionary by Brockhaus and Efron began to be published in Russian. The publication of 12 main and 4 additional volumes was completed in 1907.

In the fine arts of the second half of the 19th century, the dominant direction was critical realism. The ideologist and organizer of artists of this movement was I.P. Kramskoy. In 1870, the Association of Art Traveling Exhibitions was created, which included members of the Artel, as well as almost all the major realist artists of that time. One of the most prominent representatives of critical realism in Russian painting was the artist V.G. Perov (pictures “Rural Peasant Procession at Easter”, “Troika”, “Hunters at a Rest”). Landscape artists I.I. glorified Russian nature in their paintings. Shishkin, A.K. Savrasov, V.D. Polenov, A.I. Kuindzhi, I.I. Levitan. The pinnacle of realism in Russian painting is considered to be the work of I.E. Repin (“Barge Haulers on the Volga”, “They Didn’t Expect”, “Refusal of Confession”; historical paintings “Princess Sophia”, “Ivan the Terrible and His Son Ivan”) and V.I. Surikov (“Morning of the Streletskaya Execution”, “Boyaryna Morozova”). V. Vasnetsov turned to the genre of folklore; he took fairy-tale scenes as the basis for his paintings: “Alyonushka”, “Bogatyrs”, “The Knight at the Crossroads”. Many paintings by artists of the second half of the 19th century were included in the collection of the Tretyakov Gallery. In 1898, the Russian Museum was opened in St. Petersburg.

The architecture and sculpture of this period is characterized by a mixture of styles: modern and antique stylization. Outstanding sculptor M.M. Antokolsky created a series of sculptural portraits: “Peter I”, “Yaroslav the Wise”, “Ermak”. In 1880, a monument to A.S. was unveiled in Moscow. Pushkin (on Tverskaya), its author is sculptor A.I. Opekushin. Under the leadership of M.O. Mikeshin, dozens of sculptors created the “Millennium of Russia” monument in Novgorod.

Classicism has finally become obsolete in architecture. Now, in accordance with the demands of life, industrial and administrative buildings, train stations, banks, bridges, theaters, and shops were built. The “neo-Russian” style - antique stylization - is becoming widespread. The Historical Museum (architect V.O. Sherwood), the City Duma building (architect D.I. Chichagov), and the Upper Trading Rows - now GUM (architect A.I. Pomerantsev) were built in this style in Moscow. Multi-storey and apartment buildings were built. Construction of shopping arcades has begun in Russia. Theater buildings were built in Rybinsk, Irkutsk, and Nizhny Novgorod. The Polytechnic Museum (architect Shokhin) was opened in Moscow.

The second half of the 19th century was the heyday of Russian musical art. The composers of The Mighty Handful created a number of great works: operas by Mussorgsky (Boris Godunov, Khovanshchina), Rimsky-Korsakov (The Pskov Woman), Borodin (Prince Igor, the Bogatyrskaya symphony). During this period, the greatest Russian composer P.I. worked. Chaikovsky. He created 6 symphonies, symphonic poems “Romeo and Juliet”, “Manfred”, ballets “Swan Lake”, “Nutcracker”, “Sleeping Beauty”, operas “Eugene Onegin”, “Mazeppa”, “Iolanta” and others, 100 romances . At the end of the century, young composers entered musical life - S.I. Taneev, A.K. Lyadov, S. Rachmaninov, A.N. Scriabin. Composer, conductor, pianist A. Rubinstein creates the “Russian Musical Society” in St. Petersburg.

Theater plays a special role in the life of post-reform Russia. Theaters operated in 100 cities of Russia. The main centers of theatrical culture were the Maly Theater in Moscow and the Alexandrinsky Theater in St. Petersburg. The glory of the Maly Theater is associated with the names of brilliant Russian actors: Maria Ermolova, Prov Sadovsky, Ivan Samarin, Alexander Lensky. In the 60s - 70s, private theaters and theater groups began to emerge in Moscow and other cities of Russia (Balakina T.I. History of Russian Culture. Part 2, - M., 1995, pp. 90-96).

The growth of capitalist production in post-reform Russia posed serious practical and theoretical challenges to science, technology, and education. The level of literacy of the population increased significantly, there was an unprecedented rise in scientific creativity and an increase in interest in science in society, and the expansion of book publishing and magazine business. This period saw the revival of social thought, literature and art, and the establishment of democratic principles in them.