| Planning lessons for the academic year (according to the textbook of N. D. Ugrinovich) | Information processes in various systems

Lesson 2
Information processes in various systems

§ 1.1. Information in nature, society and technology

1.1.3. Human: information and information processes

About 40 thousand years ago, in the process of the evolution of living nature, a reasonable man (Latin homo sapiens) appeared. A person exists in the "sea" of information, he constantly receives information from the world around him with the help of his senses, stores it in his memory, analyzes it with the help of thinking and exchanges information with other people.

Ways of perceiving information. The expedient behavior of a person, like that of animals, is based on the analysis of information signals that he receives with the help of his senses. The nerve endings of the sensory organs (receptors) perceive the effect (for example, on the fundus of the cones and rods react to the effect of light rays) and transmit it along the nervous system to the brain.

The methods of perceiving information by living organisms depend on the presence of certain sense organs in them. A person can use different ways of perceiving information using different senses:

. vision- with the help of the eyes, information is perceived in the form of visual images;
. hearing- with the help of ears and hearing organs, sounds are perceived (speech, music, noise, etc.);
. smell- smells are perceived with the help of special receptors in the nose;
. taste- the receptors of the tongue allow you to distinguish between sweet, salty, sour and bitter;
. touch- skin receptors (especially fingertips) provide information about the temperature of objects and the type of their surface (smooth, rough, etc.);
. orientation in space- gravitational receptors provide information about the position of the body in space.

The largest amount of information (about 90%) a person receives through sight, about 9% through hearing and only 1% through other senses (smell, touch, taste and orientation in space).

A person stores the information received in the form of visual, auditory and other images in memory, processes it with the help of thinking and uses it to control his behavior and achieve his goals. For example, when crossing a road, a person sees traffic signals and moving cars, analyzes the information received and chooses a safe crossing option.

Information in the form of messages. A person cannot live outside of society. In the process of communicating with other people, a person transmits and receives information in the form of messages. At the dawn of human history, sign language was used to convey information, then oral speech appeared. Currently, the exchange of messages between people is carried out using hundreds of natural languages ​​(Russian, English, etc.).

In order for the information to be understandable, the language must be known to all people involved in communication. The more languages ​​you know, the wider your circle of communication. Comprehensibility is one of the properties of information.

According to the biblical legend of the Babylonian pandemonium, the tower under construction in the ancient city of Babylon was not completed and collapsed, as hundreds of builders suddenly spoke in different languages ​​and ceased to understand each other (Fig. 1.5).

Rice. 1.5. Tower of Babel. Painting by Bruegel the Elder

Information in the form of knowledge. From the very beginning of human history, the need arose to accumulate information for its transmission in time from generation to generation and transmission in space over long distances. The process of accumulating information began with the invention in the 4th millennium BC of writing and the first carriers of information (Sumerian clay tablets and ancient Egyptian papyri).

In order for a person to be able to navigate correctly in the world around him, the information must be complete and accurate. Completeness and accuracy are two more properties of information. The task of obtaining complete and accurate information about nature, society and technology is facing science. The process of systematic scientific cognition of the surrounding world, in which information is considered as knowledge, began in the middle of the 15th century after the invention of printing.

For long-term storage of knowledge (transmission from generation to generation) and their dissemination in society (replication), information carriers are needed. The material nature of information carriers can be different.

Up to now, paper is used as the main carrier of information. In the last century, photographic and cinematographic films were widely used for storing graphic information. At present, magnetic media, flash memory and optical media (CD and DVD) are also widely used to store information (Fig. 1.6).

Rice. 1.6. First printed book and modern optical disc

Mass media. The term "mass media" is widely known - mass media (newspapers, radio, television), which bring information to every member of society. Such information must be accurate, current and useful. These are properties of information that are important for the media. Inaccurate information misleads members of society and can cause social upheaval. The irrelevant information has no application at the present moment in time, and therefore no one, except historians, reads last year's newspapers. Useless information creates information noise that makes it difficult to perceive useful information.

Control questions

1. What methods and organs of sense does a person use when perceiving information?

2. What should be the properties of the information presented in the form of messages?

3. What should be the properties of information presented in the form of knowledge?

4. What should be the properties of the information disseminated by the mass media?

Information system concept

Under system they understand any object that is simultaneously considered both as a single whole and as a set of dissimilar elements combined in the interests of achieving the set goals. The systems differ significantly from each other both in composition and in terms of their main goals.

Adding the word “informational” to the concept of “system” reflects the purpose of its creation and functioning. Information systems provide collection, storage, processing, search, and delivery of information necessary in the process of making decisions on problems from any field. They help analyze problems and create new products.

Information system is an interconnected set of tools, methods and personnel used for storing, processing and issuing information in order to achieve the set goal.

The modern understanding of the information system involves the use of a personal computer as the main technical means of processing information. In large organizations, along with a personal computer, the technical base of an information system may include a mainframe or a supercomputer. In addition, the technical implementation of the information system in itself will mean nothing if the role of the person for whom the information is intended is not taken into account and without whom it is impossible to receive and present it.

Attention! Under organization we will understand a community of people united by common goals and using common material and financial means for the production of material and information products and services. In the text, two words will be used on an equal footing: "organization" and "firm".

It is necessary to understand the difference between computers and information systems. Computers equipped with specialized software are the technical base and tool for information systems. An information system is inconceivable without personnel interacting with computers and telecommunications.

Processes that ensure the operation of an information system of any purpose can be conventionally represented in the form of a diagram (Fig. 2.), consisting of blocks:

· Input of information from external or internal sources;

· Processing of input information and its presentation in a convenient form;

· Output of information for presentation to consumers or transfer to another system;

· Feedback is information processed by the people of a given organization to correct the input information.

Rice. 2. Processes in the information system

An information system is determined by the following properties:

· Any information system can be analyzed, built and managed on the basis of general principles of systems construction;

· The information system is dynamic and evolving;

· When building an information system, it is necessary to use a systematic approach;

· The output of an information system is information on the basis of which decisions are made;

· The information system should be perceived as a human-computer information processing system.

Currently, there is an opinion about the information system as a system implemented with the help of computer technology. Although, in the general case, an information system can also be understood in a non-computer version.

To independently consider the concepts: INFORMATION CONTROL SYSTEM, CLASSIFICATION OF INFORMATION CONTROL SYSTEMS, CLASSIFICATION OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES. (Fig 1.1)

§1.1 Information systems and technologies. Their classification in organizational management.

Information technology management: textbook. manual for universities / ed. prof. G.A. Titorenko. - M .: UNITY-DANA, 2002. - 280s.

6. The structure of the automated information system (AIS)

The current stage of development of cybernetics is characterized by an intensive expansion of work on the creation of information systems (IS) for collecting, storing, processing and transmitting large amounts of information necessary for effective management in industry, energy, transport, in solving economic problems, in the banking and financial sector. and in many other areas of human activity.

At present, in our country (and in other countries a little earlier), automated information technologies and systems based on computing complexes, which are called AIS, are being developed and successfully used to solve many problems. They include geographically distributed computers, sources and consumers of information, united by communication channels.

The basic principles and functions of AIS can be considered on the example of the general structure of the human-machine control system (HMS) (see Fig. 3).

from a person - a request for the required information;

from SOI - the results of information processing,

information necessary for making a decision;

to SOI - information characterizing the state of the system.

Figure 3

Due to the high complexity of the controlled system, often a person is unable to perceive and process all the initial information coming to him. The task of the AIS is to receive, circulate and transform information in order to obtain exactly the information that is currently required by a person to make a decision.

AIS (ASOI) is called the systemic organization of the technological process of performing information procedures using technical and software and mathematical tools to solve the problems of organizational and economic (production, technological, etc.) management.

This definition emphasizes that we are talking about a technology for solving managerial problems using automation tools.

Structurally, there are two main types of AIS (see Fig. 4).

The first type, which is most widespread in industrial enterprises and systems of regional management and planning, is centralized SOI. The second, usually used in private systems, is a decentralized system made up of a set of peer-to-peer computers.

The collection of information characterizing the control system is one of the main tasks arising in the AIS. By the nature of the receipt of information, information sources are divided into internal and external.

Figure 4

The main approach that is used when considering the basic requirements for AIS is that the expected economic effect from the use of the system should exceed the costs associated with its implementation.

The functioning of the ASOI means the operation of the system under certain conditions for solving management problems, maintaining it in a given state that meets technical information and other requirements.

7. Functional elements of AIS

The functional structure of the AIS can be considered from two fundamental positions: first, from the position of organizing the information processing process, i.e. what data, in what volumes enter the system, what algorithms are used to process this data, how the information storage is organized, its protection, etc .; secondly, from a spatial topological point of view, i.e. what and where the technical means of AIS are located and according to what scheme they are connected to the system. At the same time, the solution of the range of tasks related to the organization of the data processing process is more consistent with the engineering component of the AIS, while the spatial-topological problems characterize specific design solutions.

From the point of view of organizing the information processing process, the constituent elements of AIS are:

functional support;

software;

Information Support;

software;

organizational support;

technical support.

The functional support is a model of the subject area, reflecting the processes of information exchange (interaction) of the structural elements of the control object. The forms of representation of the AIS functional support are most often simulation models. In this case, the main requirement for the simulation model is the fullest possible correspondence of the simulated processes to the real processes of information exchange. FO models are probabilistic, graph, algebraic models.

The functionality of the AIS is closely related, and in some cases exactly matches the software. In the general case, the software is a model for calculating any parameters or characteristics of the control object. As a rule, these models have a complete analytical form and allow you to get the exact value of the required parameter. Software is accepted as functional in those cases when it is possible to describe algorithms of information interaction of AIS elements using analytical forms.

Information support is represented by arrays of data, most often organized in the form of tables, i.e. Database. The model presentation of data is determined by the capabilities of a particular DBMS. The main database models supported by modern DBMS are:

· Hierarchical;

· Network;

· Relational.

In addition to the database, information support can be presented as separate files in ASCII format.

AIS software is the most complex component both in terms of the tasks being solved and in terms of the composition of the elements. The main elements of software include operating systems, utilities, DBMS, programming systems, standard and special PPP. At the same time, the listed software elements solve the tasks of automating the process of functioning of the control object and supporting decision-making by the decision-maker. In addition, the depth and quality of software development largely determine the quality of the AIS. and the correct choice of such components as OS, utilities, programming environment determine the capabilities of the system in terms of its expandability and competitiveness of the system.

The organizational support of AIS establishes requirements for the forms of interaction of the system with the environment, for interfaces with users, for the procedure for using information, software and technical means of AIS, for protecting information in AIS, as well as operating conditions, the necessary qualifications of personnel and security measures.

The technical support determines the capabilities of the AIS to interact with senior-level systems (for example, ACS-P, ACS-TP), and also solves the problems of input and output of data and transmission, processing and storage of information. The elements of TO are computers (servers, workstations), printing devices (printers, plotters), scanning devices, network and switching equipment. The survivability of the AIS depends on the choice of maintenance elements, i.e. how long the system will meet the requirements of the time.

The process of AIS functioning, based on the considered positions of the functional structure, is divided into internal, i.e. the process of processing information entering the system, and external, i.e. the process of interaction of technical means of AIS with technical means of senior-level systems (ACS-P, ACS-TP) and the external environment. In this case, the AIS elements providing the organization of information processing (internal process) are combined into a functional diagram (see Fig. 5).

The functioning of the AIS within the framework of the presented scheme is carried out as follows.

Information (initial data necessary for the operation of the system and requests) enter the system through the means of data entry. Depending on the specifics of using AIS, standard devices (keyboard, scanner, network adapter, modem, digital video or camera) or special (sensors) are used. The data input means carry out the primary processing of information in accordance with the algorithms embedded in them. The operation of these devices, as a rule, is controlled by the operating system within which the AIS operates, or in some cases special software.

Figure 5

After going through the initial processing, the data in the OS format is sent to the AIS software part for conversion to the system format and display using the software user interface from the organizational support. This operation should be provided to control the correctness of the entered data, and the control itself can be carried out both automatically using software and by the user.

In the functional part of the AIS, algorithms for the operation of the control object are implemented, in accordance with which the models for calculating the parameters of the system are selected. In this case, the initial data for the calculation models come from the functional part and the information subsystem (database).

The database stores information of a regulatory and reference nature, as well as the results of calculations. The form of storing information in the database is determined by the needs of a particular organization. However, the initial data is usually stored in the form of tables, and the results of calculations are drawn up in the form of reports (by means of a DBMS) or full-text documents. Physically, B is located on a storage device. The management of the physical arrangement of data items is provided by the DBMS. In this regard, the efficiency of the AIS information subsystem is mainly determined by the capabilities of the DBMS to organize the addressing scheme and access to records.

The calculation results obtained during the implementation of the corresponding mathematical models, as a parameter of the current state of the system, enter the functional part of the system for display on the output devices and transfer the system to the next state and into the database for generating reports and storing

The results of the functioning of the AIS are displayed on the monitor screen or displayed on the printing device in accordance with the principles defined in the organizational support. At this stage, the information is converted from the AIS format to the operating system format. The delivery of results to consumers is carried out by information output devices, which are standard output devices (monitors, printers, network adapters, modems) and special devices (DACs, control devices, actuators).

The considered process of AIS functioning does not depend on its spatial and topological location. In the case when the elements of the system are located on different technical means, the information processing process is considered as distributed.

Provision of information - actions aimed at obtaining information by a certain circle of persons or transferring information to a certain circle of persons.

Dissemination of information - actions aimed at obtaining information by an indefinite number of persons or transferring information to an indefinite number of persons.

Each of the following stages of the information circulation process has its own objective laws. Studying them will allow you to competently organize the work of any information system.

1. In information sources, information is created.

In the field of creation (production) of information, there is an objective law of incomplete use of information, which is determined by both the property of redundancy of information and the inability of subjects to use it fully.

From a legal point of view, the creation of information is the generation of information products and resources in the process of creative, industrial and other socially useful activities of a person and citizen, legal entities, bodies and other subjects of the right to information.

Legal regulation is present here in the form of regulatory norms that contribute to the creation of organizational and economic prerequisites for the development and improvement of information production; in the form of guarantees of freedom of creativity, behavior, education, in the form of protection and protection of rights to objects of intellectual property, as well as in the form of prohibitions on the production of "harmful" information, the dissemination of which may harm the legitimate interests of other subjects of information relations.

Gathering information is the process of obtaining information from the outside world and bringing it to the form that is standard for a given information system. The necessary stages in the information collection system are its perception and transformation.

Perception of information is the process of converting information entering a social, technical system or living organism from the outside world into a form suitable for further use. Due to the perception of information, the system is connected with the external environment (which can be a person, an observed object, a phenomenon or a process, etc.). The perception of information is necessary for any information system, as long as it claims to be of some kind.

The processes of information perception are influenced by the following factors: the need for information is the individual's conscious need to obtain and use the information received in practice; interest in information is, first of all, the separation of any information from the stream functioning in a given society. Interest in information is characterized by such parameters as depth, breadth, specialization; sociocultural level of personality. This factor characterizes a person's possession of a certain amount of cultural values.

Modern information systems, created, as a rule, on the basis of a computer, as their component part, have a more or less (depending on the purpose of the system) a developed system of perception. The information perception system can be a rather complex set of software and hardware. Depending on the analyzers (included in the complex of technical means of the perception system), the perception of visual, acoustic and other types of information is organized.

Information transformation is the second stage of information collection, as a result of which information should be presented in a form suitable for its further use. The main forms of information presentation in the information system are analog and digital forms.

The analog form of information presentation is associated with such categories of media used in modern information systems as text, video and voice. One of the first ways that prehistoric people kept in touch was through sound. Sounds indicated emotions such as pleasure, anger and danger, as well as objects of the environment, including, for example, food, tools, and so on. Sounds assumed their meanings in accordance with some conventions by using them multiple times under similar circumstances. Combining parts of sound made it possible to represent more complex concepts, gradually leading to the emergence of speech and, ultimately, to spoken "natural" languages.

In the field of information collection, an objective law of information growth operates - the number of elements involved in the process of ensuring the growth of information in it, q is the coefficient of the level of communication organization in the system, i.e. communicativeness of its elements.

Indeed, any system can acquire information from the external environment. But each subject of the system should strive to receive information that is new for this system, different from that received by all its other subjects. The latter is possible if their actions are well coordinated, if they are informed about the achievements of all other actors. Information is acquired from the external environment in the process of material activity, during scientific and design developments, thanks to life experience, in the process of communication, during training, etc. Hence it follows that the largest number of elements (subjects or objects) should operate in information-intensive areas of activity.

The law of information growth is called the basic law of cybernetics, informatics and social systems.

As a result of the operation of this law in society from 1900 to 1950 the volume of information increased 8-10 times, until the 80s the volume of information doubled every 5-7 years; in the 1980s, doubling occurred every 20 months; in the 90s - annually. This phenomenon is called "information explosion".

The law of information growth predetermines a continuous objective process of increasing the amount of information in nature and society, which we observe in reality.

To search for information of interest in the entire array of circulating information, information must be organized. Consider the basic means of organizing information.

Cataloging and classification are proven tools, often grouped under the general heading "indexing", to provide the necessary level of organization of information. Both were in use as long as libraries existed, but their importance in the so-called information age increased significantly with the use of computers.

The purpose of a catalog is to identify all objects in a collection and to group similar items together. All large libraries of the ancient world were required to have lists and inventories on clay tablets, in stone, on papyrus, parchment, palm leaves, or on bamboo strips. Examples of this can be found in museums around the world.

Thesauri occupy a special place among catalogs. The new use of the term thesaurus, now widespread, dates back to the early 1950s in connection with the work of N.R. Luhn of IBM, who was looking for a computer process capable of generating a list of authorized terms for indexing scientific literature. The list was to include a structure for cross-referencing between concept families. The main thesaurus, and one of the earliest, is Thesaurofacet (1969), a highly detailed list of engineering terms developed by Gene Atchison for the English Electric Company. The thesaurus has proven to be very useful for both indexing and searching machine systems.

Thesauri contain subject headings organized in lists that help users find the appropriate heading for a topic (section) of interest, identify related terms used for narrower or broader topics. One of the functions of a managed vocabulary is to select from a large group of synonyms one term that best describes a topic.

The next stage is the transfer of information between various elements of the information system. Information transfer is carried out in various ways: by courier, mailing, delivery by vehicles, remote transmission via communication channels. Remote transmission via communication channels reduces the time of data transmission, but for its implementation, special technical means (fiber-optic networks, modems, faxes, etc.) are required. By automatically collecting information, these technical means can transfer it directly to the computer memory for further processing. It is on this that all modern electronic document management systems are built.

The message from the source to the receiver is transmitted in material and energy form - electrical, light, sound and other signals. A person perceives a message with the senses. Information receivers in technical systems are measuring and recording equipment.

The information channel combines biological, social, technical (radio, television) and psychological processes (perception of information, memorization, reproduction). Information channels are complex telecommunication systems and physical fields (electromagnetic, radio waves). And, of course, communication channels can introduce various kinds of distortions into the transmitted information. Accordingly, there is a need to develop transmission methods that reduce the distortion of information. This is the subject of one of the main theorems of the theory of information about the transmission of signals through communication channels in the presence of interference leading to distortion - Shannon's theorem. Let it be necessary to transmit a sequence of symbols that appear with certain probabilities, and there is a certain probability that the transmitted symbol will be distorted during the transmission. The simplest way to reliably restore the original information from the received one is to repeat each transmitted character a large number of times. However, this will lead to a decrease in the speed of information transfer, practically reducing it to zero. Shannon's theorem states: there exists a positive number, depending only on the indicated probabilities, that at a transmission rate less than or equal to this number, it is possible to restore the original sequence of symbols with a very low probability of error. At the same time, at a speed greater than this number, this is no longer possible.

The central stage in the process of information circulation in an information system is information processing. Depending on the general purpose of the system, at this stage, the collected information is systematized, search, logical or other analytical procedures are implemented. For example, statistical analysis of the collected data or automatic translation into another language of the entered texts is carried out.

The stage of storing information is necessary in the process of circulating information in an information system. Information to be widely disseminated requires repositories external to human memory; the accumulation of human experience, knowledge and learning would be impossible without such memory, making the appearance of writing absolutely necessary.

During the XX century, universal electromagnetic means have opened up new possibilities for recording primary analog information. Magnetic audio tape is used to capture speech and music, magnetic video recording provides a low-cost medium for recording analog voice and video signals directly and simultaneously.

Magnetic technology has other applications for direct recording of analog information, including alphanumeric information. Magnetic symbols, bar codes and special marks are printed on receipts, letterheads and forms for subsequent reading by magnetic or optical devices and converting them into digital form. Banks, educational institutions and retailers are moving completely to this technology. Nonetheless, paper and film continue to be the dominant means for direct storage of text and visual information in analog form.

The versatility of modern information systems is associated with their ability to present information electronically in the form of digital signals and to manipulate them automatically at an extremely high speed. Information is stored in a large number of binary (binary) devices, which are the basic components of digital technology. Since these devices are in only one of two states, information is presented in them either as the absence or as the presence of energy (electrical impulse). It is convenient to denote these two states of binary devices with binary digits - zero (0) and one (1).

In this way, the alphabetic characters of natural language writing can be represented numerically as combinations of zeros (no impulse) and ones (impulse present).

The creation of recording media and recording techniques made it possible for society to begin the formation of repositories of human knowledge. The idea of ​​collecting and organizing written records seems to originate in the Sumerians some 5,000 years ago; Egyptian writing appeared shortly thereafter. Early collections of Sumerian and Egyptian texts in cuneiform on clay tablets and hieroglyphs on papyri contain information regarding legal and economic transactions.

In these and other early collections of documents (for example, Chinese dating back to the Shang dynasty in the 2nd millennium BC, and Buddhist documents in India dating from the 5th century BC), it is difficult to separate the concept of an archive and a library.

From the Middle East, the concept of a collection of documents penetrated into the Greco-Roman world. Roman emperors institutionalized census collections as early as the 6th century BC. The large library in Alexandria, founded in the 3rd century BC, is known as the largest collection of papyri containing inventories, taxes and other payments to citizens, merchants and each other. It is, in short, the ancient equivalent of today's administrative information systems.

The academic brilliance of the Islamic world from the 8th to the 13th century can be largely attributed to the existence of public and private book libraries. So, Beit Al-Hikm ("House of Wisdom"), founded in 830. in Baghdad, contained a public library with a large collection of materials on a wide range of issues, and the library of the X century. Caliph Al-Hakam in Cordoya (Spain) has over 400,000 books.

The belated but rapid development of 16th century European libraries followed the invention of typesetting, which spurred the growth of the print and publishing industry. Since the beginning of the 17th century, literature has become the most important vehicle for the dissemination of knowledge. Primary literature is used to refer to background information in a variety of print media: newspapers, monographs, conference proceedings, educational and business journals, reports, patents, newsletters and newsletters. The academic journal is a classic medium of scientific communication first appeared in 1665. Three hundred years later, the number of periodicals in the world was estimated at more than 60,000, reflecting not only the growth in the number of scientists and the expansion of knowledge due to specialization, but also the maturation of the incentive system. which encourages scientists to publish.

Within a short time, there was a rapid increase in the amount of printed information, which insured any individual from the complete absorption of even a tiny fraction of it. Techniques such as tables of contents, summaries, and indices of various types, which aid in identifying and locating relevant information in primary literature, have been used since the 16th century and led to the creation in the 19th century of what has been called "secondary literature." The purpose of the secondary literature is to "filter" primary information sources - usually in a specific field - and to provide pointers to this literature in the form of reviews, abstracts and indices. Over the past century, subject, national and international abstracting and indexing systems have been created that act as a gateway to several attributes of primary literature: authors, subject matter, publishers, publication dates (and languages), and citations. The professional activity associated with these easy access tools is called documentation.

Huge masses of printed materials make it impossible, as well as undesirable, for any institution to acquire and store even a small part of them. The management of recorded information has become a public policy issue, as many countries have established national libraries and archives to manage the organized collection and acquisition of documents. As these institutions alone are unable to keep up with the release of new documents and records, new forms of cooperative planning and sharing of recorded materials are evolving, namely public and private, national and regional library networks and consortia.

The advent of digital technology in the middle of the 20th century actively influenced the storage of information accumulated by mankind. Improvements in computer memory, data communication, computer sharing software, and automated text indexing and search techniques are fueling the development of computer databases. Electronic applications to bibliographic management in libraries and archives have led to the development of computerized catalogs and the consolidation of catalogs into library networks. They have also resulted in the introduction of comprehensive automation programs in these institutions.

The explosive development of communication systems after 1990, especially in the academic world, hastened the emergence of the "virtual library". Publicly oriented information is becoming a leading feature of development. Housed in thousands of databases distributed around the world, a growing portion of this vast resource is now available almost instantaneously via the Internet - a convergence of computer networks that connects global user communities. Web resources of electronic information include selected library catalogs, collected works of literature, some abstracting journals, full-text electronic journals, encyclopedias, scientific data from multiple disciplines, program archives, demographic directories, hundreds of thousands of bulletin board messages and e-mails.

As a rule, information systematized and stored in an information system is intended for a certain circle of users. Moreover, not only people, but also other information systems can act as users. Simultaneous provision of the same information to a wide range of users leads to the need for its replication. In the process of replication, identical copies of information are created, which at the next stage should be distributed to addressees. From a technical point of view, all copies are absolutely identical. However, in the process of solving legal problems, the problem of distinguishing between the original and copies of the document arises. Additional procedures are applied to protect the original document, for example, an electronic digital signature.

Dissemination of information is often associated with the need to overcome information barriers. Today in the scientific literature the following information barriers are distinguished: a large amount of information. The avalanche flow of information that has been observed in recent years does not allow a person to perceive it in full; technical barriers. For example, artificial interference that impedes the reliable reception of radio and television programs, i.e. distribution of radio, television and other technical signals in the frequency band in which broadcasting is carried out under license. Industrial interference (i.e., artificial interference arising from the operation of technical devices in the course of economic activity) can also be technical barriers; the barrier of ignorance (ignorance). The consumer does not know that the information he needs really exists; communication barrier. The consumer knows that the information he needs exists, but he is not able to get it. The reasons can be different: from lack of communication between specialists, institutions, countries to explicit or implicit reluctance to widely disseminate information, delay and concealment of information by ministries, departments and other organizations; interlingual and intralingual barriers. The information is available, but written in a language unfamiliar to the consumer. Information may not be perceived due to inconsistency in terminology and sign systems used by different disciplines.

In the field of information dissemination, there is an objective law of information redundancy. Positive redundancy of information aims to optimize the entire communication process. Positive redundancy is actively used in the learning process, when repeated repetitions of typical situations lead to better assimilation by the audience.

Positive redundancy is often used by the legislator as a method of increasing the efficiency of the perception of normative acts. Thus, many provisions of the Constitution of the Russian Federation are repeated in federal laws and the legislation of the constituent entities of the Federation.

Negative redundancy disrupts the normal flow of the information process. It represents a kind of "noise" or "interference". These are, for example, declarative norms and provisions that are not provided with an implementation mechanism. Without performing the functions of regulation and self-regulation, such laws are negatively redundant. A means of overcoming negative redundancy is a high level of preparation of regulatory legal acts.

Another objective law in force in the dissemination of information is the law of information distortion as it moves. This law is associated with the different ability and readiness of subjects to perceive it. That is why, in cases where the reliability and completeness of information is important, the question arises of fixing information on a tangible medium and observing certain requirements for the procedure and method of fixing. So, for example, in order for information to have probative value in the course of legal proceedings, it must be documented in compliance with strictly established procedural requirements.

By the method of distribution, direct and indirect distribution can be distinguished. With direct distribution, the creator of an information product directly affects the consumer (communication itself, the transmission of ideas in the educational and educational environment: lectures, other collective activities, conferences, seminars, meetings, theatrical performances, cultural events). Legal regulation here provides for the establishment of prohibitions on the dissemination of confidential and "harmful" information, including false information and libel, and liability for this, as well as legal protection and protection of copyright and related rights.

In the case of indirect dissemination between the creator of information and the consumer, there is an intermediary - a means of fixing and transmitting information, the presence of which predetermines the mass character of such information relations. With the historical development of means and technologies for disseminating information, the mass character of information exchange and the importance of information in society grew, which predetermined a high degree of legal regulation here.

According to the Law on Information in the Russian Federation, the dissemination of information is carried out freely subject to the requirements established by the legislation of the Russian Federation.

Information disseminated without using the mass media must include reliable information about its owner or about another person disseminating information, in a form and in an amount sufficient to identify such a person.

When using for the dissemination of information means allowing to determine the recipients of information, including mail and electronic messages, the person disseminating the information is obliged to provide the recipient of information with the opportunity to refuse such information.

It is prohibited to disseminate information that is aimed at propaganda of war, incitement of national, racial or religious hatred and enmity, as well as other information, for the dissemination of which criminal or administrative liability is provided.

Introduction

Information processes (collection, processing and transmission of information) have always played an important role in science, technology and society. In the course of the evolution of mankind, there is a steady tendency towards the automation of these processes, although their internal content has essentially remained unchanged.

Information does not exist by itself, it manifests itself in information processes. A person lives in the world of information and throughout his life participates in all kinds of information processes.

The main information processes are: search, collection, storage, transmission, processing, use and protection of information.

Actions performed with information are called information processes.

The processes associated with the receipt, storage, processing and transmission of information are called informational.

Information process is a set of sequential actions (operations) performed on information (in the form of data, information, facts, ideas, hypotheses, theories, etc.) to obtain any result (goal achievement).

Information manifests itself precisely in information processes that always take place in any systems (social, socio-technical, biological, etc.).

Information processes carried out by certain information technologies form the basis of human information activities. A computer is a universal device for the automated execution of information processes.

Information processes

Search for information

Information retrieval - retrieving stored information.

There are manual and automated methods for finding information in repositories. The main methods for finding information are:

direct observation;

communication with experts on the issue of interest;

reading relevant literature;

watching TV and video programs,

listening to radio broadcasts and audio cassettes;

work in libraries, archives, information systems and other methods.

In order to collect the most complete information and increase the likelihood of making the right decision, it is necessary to use a variety of information retrieval methods.

Finding information can be effective and ineffective. Success will largely depend on how you organize your search for information.

In the process of searching for information, a wide variety of information can be encountered, both useful and useless, both reliable and false, relevant and outdated, objective and subjective. To speed up the process of obtaining complete information on the issue of interest, they began to compile catalogs (alphabetical, subject, etc.).

The next step in speeding up the search for information was the creation of special scientific journals. A true revolution in the storage service, the selection of information was made by automated information retrieval systems (ISS). Using the IRS allows you to save time and effort spent looking through the boxes filled with cards. In addition, libraries have the ability to dramatically reduce directory storage space.

2. Gathering information is the activity of the subject, during which he receives information about the object of interest. The collection of information can be carried out either by a person, or with the help of technical means and systems - hardware.

For example, a user can obtain information about the movement of trains or airplanes by himself, having studied the timetable, or from another person directly, or through some documents drawn up by this person, or using technical means (automatic help, telephone, etc.) ... The task of collecting information cannot be solved in isolation from other tasks - the task of information exchange (transmission).

3. Storage of information.

Information storage is the process of maintaining the initial information in a form that ensures the issuance of data at the request of end users in a timely manner.

Information storage is a process as ancient as the life of human civilization. Already in ancient times, a person was faced with the need to store information: notches in trees, so as not to get lost during a hunt; counting objects with the help of pebbles, knots; depictions of animals and hunting episodes on the walls of the caves.

With the birth of writing, a special means of fixing and spreading thoughts in space and time arose. Documented information was born - manuscripts and handwritten books, original information storage centers - ancient libraries and archives - appeared. Gradually, a written document became an instrument of government (decrees, laws, orders).

The second informational leap was typography. With its appearance, the largest amount of information began to be stored in various printed publications, and to obtain it, a person turns to the places of their storage.

Information is stored either in the memory of a person or on external media. In a person's memory, information can be stored both in a figurative form (I remember how a rose smells), and in a sign (verbal, formulaic). The information stored in memory is called operational. Information stored on external media (sheet of paper, disc, plate, etc.) is called external. It can be transferred to the operational category if it is "read" by a person. External media play the role of “additional” human memory. They can store sound, texts, images.

The devices on which information is stored are called information carriers.

Information should be stored in a way that is easy to find. For this, people have come up with different ways of organizing the storage of information.

Different information requires different storage times: the ticket must be kept only during the trip; TV program - the current week; school diary - academic year; matriculation certificate - until the end of life; historical documents - several centuries.

The computer is designed for compact storage of information with the ability to quickly access it.

4. Transfer of information.

The transmission of information can be carried out in writing, orally or by means of gestures. A person receives information through the senses (vision - 90%; hearing - 9%; smell, touch, taste - 1%). Human thinking can be viewed as a process of information processing. The received information is stored on various types of information carriers: books, photographs of videotapes, laser disks, etc.

The commonality of information processes in wildlife, society and technology has been established. Let's consider some examples:

Vegetable world. Leaves grow in spring, which fall off in autumn. The length of daylight hours, the temperature of the air and soil are signals that are perceived by the cells of living organisms, as information that is processed and affects the metabolic physicochemical processes taking place in a living cell - they control by them. The transmission takes place within its own living cells (from the root to the leaves and vice versa).

Animal world. Animals have a nervous system that controls all stages of the information process: perception, transmission, processing and use of information. Unlike the plant kingdom, animals can transmit information to each other.

In inanimate nature, information processes exist only in technology. Such a technique repeats (simulates) some human actions and is capable of replacing him in these cases. For example, robotic manipulators, etc.

Human activities have always been associated with the transfer of information. The ancient method of transmission is a letter sent with a messenger. By talking, we pass information to each other. Humanity has invented many devices for the rapid transmission of information: telegraph, radio, telephone, television. Electronic computers are among the devices that transmit information at high speed, although it would be more correct to say telecommunication networks.

There are two parties involved in the transfer:

source - the one who transmits the information,

the receiver is the one who receives it.

For example, a teacher communicates information to students. The teacher is the source. The disciple is the receiver. In the African jungle, in the old days, important news was transmitted from one tribe to another by drumming. Sailors sometimes use the flag alphabet. By talking, we pass information to each other. Computer information is displayed on the monitor screen - this is also a transfer of information.

Very often the transmission of information is interfered with. And then the information from the source to the receiver comes in a distorted form.

Errors arising in the transmission of information are of 3 types:

some of the correct information is replaced with incorrect;

extra, extraneous messages are added to the transmitted information;

part of the information is lost during transmission.

Information is transmitted in the form of messages from some source of information to its receiver through a communication channel between them. The source sends the transmitted message, which is encoded into the transmitted signal. This signal is sent over the communication channel. As a result, a received signal appears in the receiver, which is decoded and becomes a received message.

A communication channel is a set of technical devices that ensure the transmission of a signal from a source to a receiver.

Encoder - a device designed for coding (converting the original message of the information source to a form convenient for transmitting information) information.

Decoder - a device for converting a received message into the original one.

a message containing information about the weather forecast is transmitted to the receiver (viewer) from a source - a specialist meteorologist through a communication channel - television transmitting equipment and television.

phone conversation:

The source of the message is the person speaking;

An encoder - a microphone - converts sounds into electrical impulses;

Communication channel - telephone network (wire);

The decoder is the part of the tube that we bring to our ear, where the electrical signal is converted into sound;

The receiver of information is a listening person.

The general scheme of information transfer can be as shown in Fig. 2:

Fig. 2. Information transfer scheme

In the process of transmission, information can be lost, distorted: distortion of sound in the phone, atmospheric interference on the radio, distortion or darkening of the image in television, errors during transmission in the telegraph. This interference (noise) distorts information. Fortunately, there is a science that develops ways to protect information - cryptology.

5. Information processing.

Information processing - getting some information objects from other information objects by performing some algorithms.

Processing is one of the main operations performed on information, and the main means of increasing the volume and variety of information. Information processing means are all kinds of devices and systems created by mankind, and first of all, a computer is a universal machine for information processing. Computers process information by performing certain algorithms. Living organisms and plants process information using their organs and systems.

After solving the problem of information processing, the result should be given to end users in the required form. This operation is implemented in the course of solving the problems of issuing information. The issuance of information, as a rule, is carried out using external computer devices in the form of texts, tables, graphs, etc.

Information processing is carried out by a person or in the mind, or with the help of any auxiliary means (abacus, calculator, computer, etc.). As a result of processing, new information is obtained, which is somehow saved (recorded). Information processing is carried out according to some specific rules (algorithms). The rules themselves can also be processed (supplemented, corrected, clarified).

A person processes information at least at three levels: physiological (with the help of the senses), at the level of rational thinking, at the subconscious level.

The processing process is very complex.

Example: The engine noise of a bus has changed. For the driver, this can serve as information about some kind of malfunction in the engine.

It was reported on the radio that Agassi had won the tennis tournament. If you are not interested in tennis, then the amount of information for you is zero. If you are interested, the volume depends on the specific name of the winner.

In example # 1, engine noise is an indirect source of information. A person refers to the knowledge base that is stored in memory. If the knowledge base is incomplete (a person is poorly educated), it is impossible to obtain reliable information.

The information that is processed is called the original. After processing the original information, new information is obtained.

The student received the condition of the problem (initial information), thinks (processes) and reports the answer (new information).

A service dog finds a person by smell (smell - initial information, where the person went - new).

A computer, a special device created by man to process information. The possibility of automated information processing is based on the fact that information processing does not imply its comprehension.

6. Exchange of information.

Information exchange is a process during which the source of information transmits it and the recipient receives it. If errors are found in the transmitted messages, then a retransmission of this information is organized. As a result of the exchange of information between the source and the recipient, a kind of "information balance" is established, in which, ideally, the recipient will have the same information as the source.

The exchange of information can take place in figurative and symbolic forms. Languages ​​are spoken (Russian, German, etc.), both orally (phonetics) and written (grammar) and formal (in mathematics - the language of formulas, in music - the language of notes, in medicine - Latin).

The exchange of information is carried out using signals that are its material carrier. Sources of information can be any objects of the real world with certain properties and abilities. If an object belongs to inanimate nature, then it generates signals that directly reflect its properties. If the source object is a person, then the signals generated by him can not only directly reflect his properties, but also correspond to those signs that a person develops in order to exchange information.

The received information can be used by the recipient more than once. For this purpose, he must fix it on a material medium (magnetic, photo, cinema, etc.). The process of forming an initial, unsystematized array of information is called the accumulation of information. Recorded signals may include those that represent valuable or commonly used information. Some of the information at a given moment in time may not be of particular value, although it may not be required in the future.

7. Protection of information.

Humans tend to make mistakes. An error can occur during the execution of any information process: when coding information, during its processing and transmission. The more information is processed, the more difficult it is to avoid mistakes.

You have chosen the correct method for solving the problem on the test, but you made a mistake in the calculations. Received the wrong result. You incorrectly expressed your thought and unwittingly offended the interlocutor. They said the wrong word that they wanted and your listeners did not understand you.

Computers are technical devices for processing large amounts of information. Despite the constant increase in the reliability of their work, they can fail, break down, like any other human-made devices.

The computer air defense system of the North American continent once issued a false nuclear alarm, alerting the armed forces. The reason was a faulty 46-cent chip - a small, coin-sized silicon cell.

Hardware and software designers and engineers work hard to protect:

from equipment failures;

from accidental loss or alteration of information stored in the computer;

from deliberate distortion (computer viruses);

from illegal access to information: its use, modification, distribution.

To the numerous, far from harmless computer errors, computer crime has been added, which threatens to develop into a problem, the economic, political and military consequences of which can be catastrophic.

8. Quality of information

The possibility and efficiency of using information is determined by such basic consumer quality indicators as representativeness, meaningfulness, sufficiency, availability, relevance, timeliness, accuracy, reliability, sustainability. The representativeness of information is associated with the correctness of its selection and formation in order to adequately reflect the properties of the object. The most important are: the correctness of the concept, on the basis of which the initial concept and the validity of the selection of essential features and connections of the displayed phenomenon are formulated.

Information process theory(TIP) - a set of statistical methods designed (or used) to analyze information processes (IP) occurring in technical, economic, social, biological, ecological and other systems.

Basic information processes: formation, transformation, collection, storage, processing, distribution, use of information, etc. Each information process is characterized by target function implemented by specific technical means.

Each objective function can be associated with information model described by mathematical expressions, conventions, or symbols ( informational-objective function mathematical model).

Computer science- the field of science and technology, which studies information processes and methods of their automation by means of computer technology. Informatics as a science forms the methodological foundations for building an information model of an object. The creation of such a model (for the organization of purposeful activity in technical, biological, economic, social and other systems) is carried out on the basis of the implementation of information processes.

Information Technology, in a broad sense, is the development of algorithms, programs and their application on a computer for the purpose of analyzing and synthesizing complex systems (technical, informational, biological, economic, social, etc.).

Thus, the relationship between the concepts of "information processes", "informatics" and "information technology" can be expressed as follows:

According to the definition adopted by UNESCO, information Technology- is a complex of interrelated scientific, technological, engineering disciplines that study methods of effective organization of the work of people involved in the processing and storage of information; computing technology and methods of organizing and interacting with people and production equipment, their practical applications, as well as related social, economic and cultural problems.

The main goal of IT- as a result of targeted actions to process the primary information, obtain the information necessary for the user in order to analyze it, and based on it, make a decision on the implementation of any action. The general IT structure can be divided into a sequence of basic procedures:

- Collection new and search for information accumulated in various sources about the state of the studied or used objects, processes and phenomena.

- Broadcast information from the place of collection to the place of processing or use with preservation of information in the presence of interference.

- Adaptation new data to existing models, complex information processing, conducting computational experiments, developing decisions and scenarios for optimal behavior, decision-making.

- Perfection mathematical models, expansion of knowledge bases, expert systems.

- Creation technical and technological means (workstations, information storages, means for displaying models and information, means for editing information, information and analytical centers, communication systems, etc.).

- Planning the optimal information processing system in order to improve the control of information reliability, clarification of options for previously made decisions.

- Analysis practical results of using the informatization system, control of efficiency, forecasting of activities, diagnostics of the operation of subsystems.

Information system(IS) is an organizationally ordered interconnected set of means and methods of IT used to store, process and issue information in order to achieve a set goal. Such an understanding of the information system assumes the use of computers and communication facilities as the main technical means of processing information, implementing information processes and issuing information necessary in the process of making decisions on problems from any field, for the fullest satisfaction of information requests of a large number of users.

Implementation of IS functions is impossible without knowledge of IT oriented towards it. IT can exist outside of the realm of IP as well. Thus, IT is a more capacious concept that reflects the modern understanding of the processes of information transformation in the information society.

Depending on the specific field of application, ICs can vary greatly in their functions, architecture, and implementation. It is possible to highlight the main properties that are common to all ISs:

The structure of the IS, its functional purpose must correspond to the set goals.

Production of reliable, reliable, timely and systematized information based on the use of databases, expert systems and knowledge bases. Since any IS is designed to collect, store and process information, then any IS is based on an environment for storing and accessing data. The environment should provide a level of storage reliability and access efficiency that is appropriate for the scope of the IS.

IP should be controlled by people, understood and used in accordance with the basic principles implemented in the form of an enterprise IP standard. The IP user interface should be easy to understand at an intuitive level.

Use of data transmission networks.

ICs are addressed by the following main goals:

- Search, processing and storage of information, which accumulates for a long time and the loss of which is irreparable. Computerized ICs are designed to process information faster and more reliably, so that people do not waste time, to avoid inherent random errors, to save costs, to make people's lives more comfortable.

- Storing data of different structures... There is no developed IS working with one homogeneous data file. Moreover, it is a reasonable requirement for an information system to be able to evolve. New functions may appear that require additional data with a new structure. In this case, all previously accumulated information should remain saved.

- Analysis and forecasting of information flows of various types and types moving in society... The streams are studied in order to minimize them, standardize them and adapt them for efficient processing on computers, as well as the features of information streams flowing through various channels of information dissemination.

- Research of ways of presenting and storing information, the creation of special languages ​​for the formal description of information of various nature, the development of special methods for compressing and coding information, annotating voluminous documents and abstracting them. Within the framework of this direction, work is being developed to create large-volume data banks that store information from various fields of knowledge in a form accessible to computers.

- Construction of procedures and technical means for their implementation, with the help of which it is possible to automate the process of extracting information from documents that are not intended for computers, but focused on their perception by a person.

- Creation of information-search engines capable of accepting queries to information stores formulated in a natural language, as well as special query languages ​​for systems of this type.

- Creation of networks for storage, processing and transmission of information, which include information data banks, terminals, processing centers and communication facilities.

The specific tasks to be solved by the information system depend on the application area for which the system is intended.

Trends in the development of modern IT lead to a constant increase in the complexity of IP created in various fields. Modern large IP projects are characterized, as a rule, by several features:

- Complexity of description- the presence of a sufficiently large number of functions, processes, data elements and complex relationships between them, requiring careful modeling and analysis of data and processes.

- The presence of a set of closely interacting components (subsystems) that have their own local tasks and goals of functioning (for example, traditional applications related to transaction processing and solving routine tasks, and analytical processing (decision support) applications that use ad hoc requests to large data volumes).

- Lack of direct analogs limiting the use of any typical design solutions and application systems.

Necessary integration existing and newly developed applications.

- Functioning in a heterogeneous environment across multiple hardware platforms.

- Disunity and heterogeneity separate groups of developers by skill level and established traditions of using certain tools.

- Significant time span of the project, caused, on the one hand, by the limited capabilities of the development team, and, on the other hand, by the scale of the customer's organization and the varying degree of readiness of its individual departments to implement IS.

Similar information.