ecosystem approach. Ecosystem Approach Ecosystem Approach in Ecological Research

<1>This work was carried out with the information support of "ConsultantPlus".

Brinchuk M.M., Head of the Center for Environmental and Legal Research of the State Institute of Civil Engineering of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Doctor of Law, Professor.

"It is indicative ... that not only people who are far from science, but also many ecologists have not yet realized what is the central point of global environmental changes that have occurred over historical time, and especially over the past 50 - 100 years , as a result of the nature-destroying development of the economy and unbridled demographic growth.

This is not the pollution of the environment, from which the majority of the world's population suffers. And not climate warming, whose connection with the greenhouse effect some researchers still question. The main ecological result of human economic activity is the DESTRUCTION OF NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS (highlighted by me. - M.B.) on vast land areas, as well as in the waters of semi-enclosed seas and coastal oceanic zones "<2>.

<2>Danilov-Danilyan V.I., Losev K.S., Reif I.E. Before the main challenge of civilization. View from Russia. Reflections // Green world. 2006. N 19-20. S. 23.

It is the sharp weakening of the environment-forming and stabilizing function of the biota over large areas that threatens the biosphere with the most catastrophic consequences. Destruction or deformation of natural ecosystems (forest, tropical, steppe, forest-tundra, etc.) as a result of human activities are assessed by experts as an undoubted, most important and essential aspect of the global environmental crisis<3>.

<3>See: Ibid.

The state of ecological systems in the world and Russia

Modern information bases of both Russia and the world contain fairly complete data on the state of natural ecosystems and the dynamics of their change. So, if at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. territories with ecosystems completely destroyed by man occupied only 20% of the land, by the end of the 20th century they already covered 63.8%, and in the Northern Hemisphere three vast zones of environmental destabilization were formed - European, North American and Southeast Asian with a total area 20 million square kilometers<4>.

<4>See: Danilov-Danilyan V.I., Losev K.S., Reif I.E. Before the main challenge of civilization. View from Russia. M.: INFRA-M, 2005. S. 16.

Before everyone's eyes, the barbaric destruction of the forests of the Amazon, tropical Africa and Southeast Asia is taking place. This process has been unfolding especially rapidly in Argentina and Brazil, and in the Philippines over the last 30 years of the 20th century. 30% of tropical forests were destroyed. The social background of this phenomenon is obvious: after all, deforestation is carried out both for commercial purposes and for domestic needs.<5>. The scale of destruction of forests, especially tropical ones, is growing and reaches 13 million hectares annually.

<5>See: State of the World 1999. Moscow: Ves Mir, 1999. S. 364.

Ideas about the scale of disturbance of the state of natural ecosystems in the world can be fully obtained from satellite data published in the journal "Ambio"<6>. According to 1994 data, territories with undisturbed ecosystems occupied 51.9% of the earth's land, or 77 million square meters. km. Moreover, a significant part of them falls on ecologically unproductive glacial, rocky and exposed surfaces - Antarctica, Greenland, the Himalayas, etc. After their deduction, 57 million square meters remain. km, or 37% of the entire biologically productive part of the land, distributed on the surface of the Earth is extremely uneven.

<6>See: Ambio. 1994. No. 4-5. P. 246 - 250.

The two largest massifs are located in the Northern Hemisphere. This is the Northern Eurasian Center (11 million sq. km) - which includes the north of Scandinavia and the European part of Russia and most of Siberia and the Far East, except for their southern regions, and the North American (9 million sq. km), including the northern part of Canada and Alaska.

The areas of natural ecosystems on land continue to decline at a rate of 0.5 - 1% per year. The scale of destruction of forests, especially tropical forests (13 million hectares annually), is expanding, and at the same time, the zone of deserts and arid lands is steadily expanding, covering at least 40% of the land. In general, the area of ​​destroyed land ecosystems increased by the end of the 20th century. up to 63% against 20% at its beginning.

As for the Russian Federation, according to official data, as a result of human activities, 16% of the country's territory, where more than half of the population lives, is characterized as environmentally unfavorable. According to some estimates, approximately 70 million hectares of tundra have been degraded in recent years as a result of destruction of soil and vegetation by mining, development of mining, movement of vehicles, construction, and in some places due to overgrazing of reindeer.<7>.

<7>See: Bobylev S.N. Ecology and economics: a look into the future // Ecological law. 2001. N 2. S. 17.

At the same time, Russia has preserved the largest array of natural ecosystems on the planet (8 million sq. km), which serves as a reserve for the stability of the biosphere<8>.

<8>

According to the doctor of geographical sciences K.S. Losev, the situation with the preserved ecological systems in Russia looks different. "On the territory of Russia, huge regions of ecosystems undisturbed by economic activity have been preserved, which primarily include the East Siberian taiga, including the region of Lake Baikal and Kamchatka, with a total undisturbed area equal to 6077 thousand square kilometers. A significant array of untouched forest vegetation, including wetlands , has been preserved in the province of Western Eurasian taiga, the area of ​​\u200b\u200bwhich (mainly in Western Siberia and the European part of Russia) is up to 3 million sq. km Finally, the high arctic and southern tundras, which occupy about 2.8 million sq. km All this prompts a reassessment of the area remaining on the territory of Russia undisturbed by economic activity: from estimates of about 40 - 45%, it is possible with a high degree of reliability to move to the value of undisturbed at least 65% of the area of ​​Russia with preserved natural ecosystems "<9>. In total, according to K.S. Losev, natural ecosystems in Russia are preserved on an area of ​​11.88 million square meters. km<10>.

<9>Losev K. Ecodynamics of Russia and its interaction with neighboring territories // Green World. 2007. N 11-12. C. 4.
<10>These assessments of natural ecosystems preserved in Russia can be accepted with a certain degree of conditionality. To those K.S. Losev refers, for example, to the East Siberian taiga, including the region of Lake Baikal and Kamchatka. But experts write a lot about the negative impacts on the ecosystems of Lake Baikal in connection with the operation of the Baikal pulp and paper mill, tourism and other factors. Thus, according to Rosprirodnadzor, the amount of damage caused to Lake Baikal only from 4 to 11 November 2007 exceeded 475 million rubles. The calculation was made according to the Methodology for calculating the amount of damage caused to water bodies due to violation of water legislation. See: The right to live Baikal // Ecology and human rights. Dec 15, 2007

In other parts of the territory of the Russian Federation - the European part, the Urals, Eastern Siberia - which are characterized by a high degree of development, natural ecosystems are significantly deformed.

Man's production activity at all times has influenced ecological systems and their components. Such influences reached a special scale in the 20th century. Intensive deforestation and plowing of land, hydrotechnical construction and land reclamation, the rapid growth of cities, the number of enterprises, the laying of transport routes are accompanied by various negative effects - pollution of the natural environment, changes in the equilibrium position in the flora and fauna. Due to the interconnectedness of all components and phenomena in nature, the disturbances that have appeared are inevitably transmitted from one component to another, causing certain changes in the natural environment.

As reasonably noted in the Concept of the transition of the Russian Federation to sustainable development, approved by Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of April 1, 1996 No.<11>, the increased power of the economy has become a destructive force for the biosphere and man. At the same time, civilization, using a huge number of technologies that destroy ecosystems, did not offer, in fact, anything that could replace the regulatory mechanisms of the biosphere. There is a real threat to the vital interests of future generations of mankind.

<11>See: SZ RF. 1996. N 15. Art. 1572.

Ecological systems change not only under the influence of human activities, but also due to natural processes occurring in nature. This refers to such natural phenomena as hurricanes, floods, volcanic eruptions, drought, frosts, epizootics, avalanches, mudflows, fires, etc.

Ecological system concept

The "ecosystem" approach, as the topic of the article is indicated, is derived from the essence of the "ecological system", a concept that is used by both natural sciences and environmental law.

In the Federal Law "On Environmental Protection"<12>a legal definition of this concept is given. "Ecological system" - natural ecological system<13>- an objectively existing part of the natural environment, which has spatial and territorial boundaries and in which living (plants, animals and other organisms) and its non-living elements interact as a single functional whole and are interconnected by the exchange of matter and energy (Article 1).

<12>See: SZ RF. 2002. N 2. Art. 133.
<13>Along with natural ecosystems, there are artificial ecosystems. for instance, an agroecosystem, the main functions of which are supported by agronomic activities: plowing, selection, fertilization and pesticides.

According to the Convention on Biological Diversity (Rio de Janeiro, June 5, 1992)<14>"ecosystem" means a dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism communities, and their non-living environment, interacting as a functional unit.

<14>See: Federal Law of February 17, 1995 N 16-FZ "On Ratification of the Convention on Biological Diversity" // SZ RF. 1995. N 8. Art. 601.

Similarly, in terms of content, this concept is defined in science. Under the ecological system<15>refers to any community of living beings and its habitat, united into a single functional whole, arising on the basis of interdependence and cause-and-effect relationships that exist between individual environmental components<16>. There are micro-ecosystems (for example, the trunk of a rotting tree, etc.), meso-ecosystems (forest, pond, etc.) and macro-systems (ocean, continent, entire biosphere). The global ecosystem, or macrosystem, is one - the biosphere. The biosphere within the territory of the state can be considered as a sub-global ecosystem. Professor N.F. Reimers believed that the ecosystem is a kind of "cell" of the biosphere<17>.

<15>Biogeocenosis is considered a synonym for an ecosystem in natural science. Here is how N.V. Timofeev-Resovsky, a prominent Russian biologist: "... Our Earth is everywhere and always inhabited by more or less complex complexes of many types of living organisms, complex communities, or, as biologists call them, biogeocenoses ... Biogeocenoses are elementary structural divisions of the biosphere and in at the same time - an elementary unit of the biological cycle, i.e. biochemical work taking place in the biosphere". Cit. by: Tyurukanov A.N., Fedorov V.N. N.V. Timofeev-Resovsky - biospheric reflections. M.: RANS, 1996. S. 368.
<16>See: Reimers N.F. Nature management. Dictionary reference. M.: Thought, 1990. S. 599.
<17>See: Ibid. Obviously, this refers to a micro- or meso-ecosystem.

When characterizing the state of ecological systems, managing their protection in science, the category of ecological balance is used. Ecological balance is understood as the state of an ecological system, or biotic community, characterized by stability, the ability to self-regulate, resistance to disturbances, restoration of the original state that existed before the balance was disturbed.<18>.

<18>See: Handbook of Nature Conservation. M., 1980. S. 39.

Understanding the ecological system and reflecting the ecosystem approach in law are of great importance, primarily in connection with the role that ecological systems play in nature in the process of its functioning and development.

The meaning and functions of ecological systems in nature

Natural ecological systems are evaluated by experts as a guarantor of environmental stability, the foundation of life.<19>. Such an assessment has serious natural scientific grounds. Biota plays a special role in natural ecosystems.<20>. The impact of biota on the environment is reduced to the synthesis of organic substances from inorganic substances, the decomposition of organic substances into inorganic components and, accordingly, to a change in the ratio between the reserves of organic and inorganic substances in the biosphere<21>. The natural biota of the Earth is arranged in such a way that it is able to maintain a habitable state of the environment with the highest accuracy.<22>.

<19>See: Danilov-Danilyan V.I., Losev K.S., Reif I.E. Decree. op. S. 104.
<20>The term "biota" was introduced to combine two concepts: fauna and flora. See: Losev K.S., Gorshkov V.G., Kondratiev K.Ya. etc. Problems of the ecology of Russia. Russia in Environmental Crisis. M., 1993. S. 76.
<21>See: Ibid. S. 78.
<22>See: Ibid. P. 82. Living biota plays the role of a mechanism for maintaining suitable
physical and chemical conditions. Using the energy of solar radiation, biota
organizes the processes of transformation and stabilization of the environment in
basis of dynamically closed cycles of substances. And these organized by her
streams provide, or at least have provided so far,
compensation for all destabilizing external
impacts. And this mechanism itself is called biotic regulation and
environmental stabilization<23>. Regarding his actions, the authors
cited work exclaim: "How not to pay tribute to the highest accuracy
this global compensatory mechanism, millennium after millennium
maintaining the optimal concentration of atmospheric CO for the biota!"<24>.
2 <23>See: Danilov-Danilyan V.I., Losev K.S., Reif I.E. Decree. op. S. 108.
<24>There. S. 109.

In addition, plant biota, whose total leaf surface exceeds the area of ​​the World Ocean, serves as a powerful tool for retaining water on land, thereby making a decisive contribution to the processes of continental moisture circulation.<25>.

<25>See: Ibid. S. 110.

Thus, the terrestrial biota has the ability to maintain optimal homeostatic parameters for it, not only within individual ecosystems, but also on the scale of the World Ocean and the biosphere as a whole. Moreover, this is not just one of the aspects of its "work", but, perhaps, the central aspect, in any case, in terms of its global consequences. After all, it ultimately determines the very possibility of life on Earth, preventing the degradation of the planetary environment towards a physically stable, but incompatible with life state.<26>.

<26>See: Danilov-Danilyan V.I., Losev K.S., Reif I.E. Decree. op. S. 114.

Biotic regulation implies the ability of natural communities to compensate for environmental disturbances. In this case, the rate of its recovery is approximately proportional to the magnitude of the deviation from equilibrium. However, this pattern is valid only within certain limits - until the value of the community disturbance has reached a certain critical threshold. After that, negative feedbacks change to positive ones, and the system of biotic regulation, as they say, goes haywire. According to available estimates, this threshold has already been exceeded by one and a half orders of magnitude.<27>. As noted above, the area of ​​destroyed land ecosystems increased by the end of the 20th century. up to 63% against 20% at its beginning.

<27>See: Ibid. S. 121.

It is the sharp weakening of the environment-forming and stabilizing function of the biota over large areas that threatens the biosphere with the most catastrophic consequences. And only reliance on natural forces, on the natural potential of living biota, can, perhaps, prevent the worst option for further development.<28>.

<28>See: Ibid.

The destruction of natural ecosystems and technogenic transformation of the landscape undermines the foundations for the existence of many species and their communities, some of which have already disappeared from the face of the Earth, while others are on the verge of extinction. The situation is further complicated by the fact that many species disappear without even being recognized, which is especially true for the great variety of insects and microorganisms that live under the rainforest canopy.<29>.

<29>See: Danilov-Danilyan V.I., Losev K.S., Reif I.E. Before the main challenge of civilization. View from Russia. Reflections // Green world. 2006. N 19-20. S. 5.

Ecosystem approach and sustainable development

Taking into account the functions of ecological systems in nature and their importance for maintaining (restoring) its favorable state, it is important to pay attention to the importance of preserving or restoring ecosystems to ensure sustainable development<30>.

<30>This issue is very important, given the role and importance assigned by experts to the sustainable development model in maintaining (restoring) a favorable state of the environment in individual states and in the world as a whole. See: Our common future. Report of the International Commission on Environment and Development (ICED). Moscow: Progress, 1989.

Attention is drawn to this both in science, in particular in natural science, and in law.

Experts emphasize that only reliance on natural forces, on the natural potential of living biota, can, perhaps, prevent the worst option for further development - demographic collapse, landslide population decline, erosion of the foundations of modern civilization, etc.<31>.

<31>See: Danilov-Danilyan V.I., Losev K.S., Reif I.E. Decree. op. S. 23.

Such, in any case, is the understanding of the essence and meaning of sustainable development in the light of the theory of biotic regulation of the environment. And if the real goal of sustainable development is to reduce the anthropogenic pressure to a level corresponding to the economic capacity of the biosphere, then, therefore, we should not only stop any kind of "offensive" on nature, but, as the authors of "Beyond Growth" write, , and "retreat, stagnation, healing." And about the retreat is by no means metaphorical, but quite real - in the form of the liberation by man of part of the territories he has mastered, which are absolutely necessary for the biota to fulfill its planetary stabilizing mission.<32>.

<32>See: Ibid.

“It is probably unnecessary to explain how difficult and unprecedented this task (liberation of part of the territories developed by man. - M.B.), given in particular the extreme diversity and inequality of the starting conditions in which individual countries and regions find themselves today. It is enough to compare, for example , some states of Asia and Africa with all their inherent features of late feudalism and the United States of America, which have actually reached the stage of the information society, in order to understand the full depth of the socio-economic and cultural gap that the world community will have to face when solving most global problems. the striking dissimilarity of the socio-political structure, national and religious traditions - and how, one wonders, to fit all this to the common denominator, the role of which is to be played by sustainable development?<33>

<33>See: Ibid.

Nevertheless, there is a criterion that makes it possible to compare and compare the countries of the world, regardless of the financial flows concentrated in them, the development of industrial infrastructure or the richness of the subsoil. This is the degree of preservation of their natural ecosystems.

This is also wealth, and in the long term - much more significant than deposits of diamonds or gold bars in bank safes. Only wealth, not yet understood and appreciated. And if we see the revival of centers of wild nature on Earth as the main goal of sustainable development, then, therefore, the countries where such nature is still preserved should be considered the custodians of this invaluable common heritage. At the same time, countries whose territory is devoid or almost devoid of natural ecosystems are, in theory, "ecological debtors" of the biosphere, even if their natural environment (like many countries of the "third world") has suffered as a result of ruthless exploitation by others, including industrialized states<34>.

<34>See: Ibid.

In Russia, however, the Concept of the Russian Federation's Transition to Sustainable Development, adopted as a follow-up to the Declaration on Environment and Development, rightly sets the task of restoring natural ecosystems as a guarantor of environmental stability. In addition, and very importantly, the directive on the gradual restoration of natural ecosystems is being established as a factor in Russia's transition to sustainable development.

Regulation of the ecosystem approach in law

The idea of ​​the need for an ecosystem approach in making decisions about development and the environment is expressed in the Declaration on Environment and Development (Rio de Janeiro, June 14, 1992). The preamble states that the principles proposed in the Declaration are based on the recognition of the complex and interdependent nature of the Earth, our home.

The ecosystem approach is expressed in the Convention on Biological Diversity. According to Art. 1 the objectives of this Convention to be pursued are the conservation of biological diversity<35>sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources, including through the provision of necessary access to genetic resources and through the appropriate transfer of relevant technologies, taking into account all rights to such resources and technologies, and through proper funding.

<35>"Biological diversity" means the variability of living organisms from all sources, including but not limited to terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this concept includes diversity within a species, between species, and diversity of ecosystems (Art. 2).

Since climate change is a serious factor influencing natural ecosystems, the need for their protection is provided for in the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (New York, May 9, 1992)<36>. According to Art. 2 The ultimate goal of the Convention is to achieve stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic impact on the climate system. This level should be achieved within a timeframe sufficient for the natural adaptation of ecosystems to climate change.

<36>See: SZ RF. 1996. N 46. Art. 5204.

In the environmental legislation and law of Russia, the concept of an ecological system is rarely used. At the same time, it is important to emphasize that in the Federal Law "On Environmental Protection", in Art. 4, which defines the objects of environmental protection, contains a very important provision: natural ecological systems, natural landscapes and natural complexes that have not been subjected to anthropogenic impact are subject to protection as a matter of priority (paragraph 2).

In this Law, the concept of an ecological system is mentioned several more times. It is scientifically justified and important in theoretical and practical terms that the sustainable functioning of natural ecological systems is assessed by the legislator as one of the indicators (criteria) of a favorable environment (Article 1).

The conservation of natural ecosystems is regulated by the legislator in the context of the basic principles of environmental protection. In particular, the main principles of environmental protection include: the priority of preserving natural ecological systems, as well as the prohibition of economic and other activities, the consequences of which are unpredictable for the environment, as well as the implementation of projects that can lead to the degradation of natural ecological systems (Art. 3 ).

It is important that relations for the conservation of natural ecosystems are regulated by the Law in relation to one of the most important tools of the environmental legal mechanism - regulation. Thus, the preservation of natural ecological systems, along with the preservation of the genetic fund of plants, animals and other organisms, is defined by the Law as a criterion for the development and approval of environmental quality standards (Article 21). We will return to this assessment later.

Moreover, the sustainable functioning of natural ecological systems in accordance with Art. 1 of the Law is an essential element of such concepts as "standards in the field of environmental protection" and "standards for the permissible anthropogenic load on the environment"<37>.

<37>It is also obvious that the sustainable functioning of natural ecological systems should also be ensured by rationing the maximum allowable use (withdrawal) of natural resources.

In accordance with Art. 44 when placing, designing, building, reconstructing urban and rural settlements, the requirements in the field of environmental protection must be observed, ensuring a favorable state of the environment for human life, as well as for the habitat of plants, animals and other organisms, the sustainable functioning of natural ecological systems<38>. In the practice of domestic urban planning, natural ecological systems in the process of development of settlements, as a rule, are destroyed. Instead, technosphere systems are being created that do not always meet the environmental interests and human needs.

<38>Practice in this respect shows the opposite. Currently, about 60 million people live in areas with an unfavorable ecological situation, occupying 15% of the country's territory. Since 1999, the number of cities with high and very high levels of air pollution has increased by 1.6 times; 60% of the country's urban population lives in them. See: State report on the state and environmental protection of the Russian Federation in 2003. Moscow: Ministry of Natural Resources, 2004, pp. 9 - 10.

According to Art. 51 in order to protect the environment, when handling production and consumption wastes, it is prohibited to place hazardous wastes and radioactive wastes in the territories adjacent to urban and rural settlements, in forest parks, resorts, health-improving, recreational areas, on animal migration routes, near spawning grounds and in other places where a danger to the environment, natural ecological systems and human health may be created.

And finally, in order to ensure the sustainable functioning of natural ecological systems, protect natural complexes, natural landscapes and specially protected natural areas from pollution and other negative impacts of economic and other activities, protective and protected zones are established (Article 52).

To a lesser extent, the concept of ecological systems is mentioned as an object of environmental relations in natural resource legislation. The exception is the Land Code of the Russian Federation of October 25, 2001 No.<39>. Article 12 of the Land Code, which defines the goals of land protection, establishes: the use of land must be carried out in ways that ensure the preservation of ecological systems, the ability of land to be a means of production in agriculture and forestry, the basis for economic and other activities.

<39>See: SZ RF. 2001. N 44. Art. 4147.

Let us pay attention to the fact that in Russian environmental legislation and law, the ecosystem approach is implemented in two ways: ecological systems are declared an independent object of environmental relations regulated by the norms of this industry, as well as by reflecting ecosystem requirements when regulating relations for the use and protection of individual natural resources in natural resource legislation. . In the latter case, the ecosystem approach is implemented as one of the most important principles of environmental law.

Ecological systems as an independent object of legal protection of the environment

As noted above, natural ecological systems are named in the Federal Law "On Environmental Protection" as an independent object of environmental protection. The allocation of ecological systems as an independent object of environmental protection requires the legislator to reflect in more detail in the legislation the provisions aimed at their protection or restoration, in accordance with their specifics.

The idea is that not just "nature is protected", as, as a rule, the provisions in environmental legislation are formulated, but that the norms of the law reflect the features of the protection of objects with specific properties, which, in particular, are manifested through ecological systems. . And this is the difficulty for the legislator - to differentiate the requirements.

The most complete attempt in the current legislation to solve this problem has been made in relation to the ecosystem of Lake Baikal. In the preamble of the Federal Law "On the Protection of Lake Baikal" dated May 1, 1999 No.<40>the prerequisites for the creation of specific legal foundations for the protection of Lake Baikal are determined: the lake is a unique ecological system and belongs to the natural objects of the world heritage.

<40>See: SZ RF. 1999. N 18. Art. 2220.

To preserve the ecological system of Lake Baikal, the Law establishes a number of specific requirements. In particular, one of the main principles for the protection of the Baikal natural territory is the priority of activities that do not lead to the violation of the unique ecological system of Lake Baikal and the natural landscapes of its water protection zone (Article 5). Differentiation of requirements for the use of natural resources of the region and the protection of the ecosystem is promoted by zoning of the Baikal natural territory. At the same time, the central ecological zone, the buffer ecological zone, and the ecological zone of atmospheric influence are singled out. It is fundamentally important that a special legal regime is extended to the catchment area of ​​Lake Baikal within the territory of the Russian Federation. Of great importance is also the allocation by the legislator of the zone of atmospheric influence - the territory outside the catchment area of ​​Lake Baikal within the territory of the Russian Federation up to 200 kilometers wide to the west and north-west of it, on which economic facilities are located, the activity of which has a negative impact on the unique ecological system of Lake Baikal .

The provision of Art. 6 on the types of activities prohibited or restricted in the Baikal natural territory. On the basis of scientific research data, standards for maximum permissible harmful effects on the unique ecological system of Lake Baikal, as well as methods for their determination (Article 13), should be developed and approved. At the same time, the concentrations of harmful substances of all hazard categories for the unique ecological system of Lake Baikal in discharges and emissions should not exceed the maximum permissible concentrations of harmful substances established for each of the ecological zones (Article 14).

Despite the awareness at the state level of the importance of protecting the unique ecosystem of Lake Baikal, on the one hand, and on the other hand, the existence of certain international obligations of Russia in this area, in terms of the implementation of the Federal Law "On the Protection of Lake Baikal" it is appropriate to pay attention to a number of significant problems. These include, in particular, the termination in November 2005 of the implementation of the state target program<41>, the abolition of the coordinating government commission for Baikal. By 2006, the water protection zone of Lake Baikal was not created<42>. Only recently has work begun on the creation of this zone in connection with the prospects for the construction of an oil pipeline "Eastern Siberia - the Pacific Ocean" in the immediate vicinity of Lake Baikal<43>. A significant negative characteristic of the state's activities is its inability to ensure the re-profiling of the Baikal Pulp and Paper Mill, although the relevant state decisions were made at the highest level in 1987 and 1992.

<41>See: SZ RF. 2005. N 48. Art. 5060.
<42>This fact means that after the adoption of the Law in 1999, the Russian state did not ensure the determination of the boundaries of the central ecological zone of the Baikal Territory, which has the most stringent protection regime.
<43>See: Ecological dossier of Russia. 2005. No. 7(24). C. 1.

Federal Law of July 31, 1998 "On Inland Sea Waters, the Territorial Sea and the Contiguous Zone of the Russian Federation"<44>does not use the concept of an ecological system, although it is obvious that the components of the natural environment within the marine environment of internal sea waters and the territorial sea form their own, specific ecological systems. The advantage of this Law is that it establishes some special requirements aimed at the conservation of ecological systems, relating, in particular, to regulation and monitoring. According to Art. 33 standardization of the quality of the marine environment of the internal sea waters and the territorial sea is carried out in order to establish the maximum permissible standards for the impact on the marine environment and natural resources of the internal sea waters and the territorial sea, ensuring and guaranteeing the environmental safety of the population and the preservation of the genetic fund, the protection and preservation of the marine environment and natural resources, as well as ensuring the rational use and reproduction of natural resources of internal sea waters and the territorial sea. And Art. 36 provides for state environmental monitoring of the state of internal sea waters and the territorial sea.

<44>See: SZ RF. 1998. N 31. Art. 3833.

Implementation of the ecosystem principle of regulation of environmental relations in natural resource legislation

To a certain extent, the task of differentiating requirements for the preservation of the specific qualities of protected objects, including ecosystems, is solved through the implementation in natural resource legislation - land, water, forestry and others - of an ecosystem approach to regulating relations for the protection and use of a particular natural object. In practice, this implements the ecosystem approach as one of the principles of environmental law. At the same time, the natural resource legislation basically reproduces the constitutional provision on preventing damage to the environment when using land and other natural resources (Article 36).

So, according to Art. 42 of the Land Code of the Russian Federation, owners of land plots and persons who are not owners of land plots are obliged to use land plots in accordance with their intended purpose and belonging to a particular category of land and permitted use in ways that should not harm the environment, including earth as a natural object.

In accordance with Art. 39 of the Water Code of the Russian Federation of June 3, 2006<45>owners of water bodies, water users, when using water bodies, are obliged to prevent violation of the rights of other owners of water bodies, water users, as well as causing harm to the environment.

<45>See: SZ RF. 2006. N 23. Art. 2381.

Any activity that entails a change in the habitat of objects of the animal world and the deterioration of the conditions for their reproduction, feeding, rest and migration routes must be carried out in compliance with the requirements that ensure the protection of the animal world. Economic activities related to the use of objects of the animal world must be carried out in such a way that objects of the animal world permitted for use do not worsen their own habitat and do not harm agriculture, water and forestry (Article 22 of the Federal Law of April 24, 1995 " About the animal world<46>).

<46>See: SZ RF. 1995. N 17. Art. 1462.

Law of the Russian Federation of February 21, 1992 "On Subsoil"<47>established as one of the main duties of subsoil users to ensure compliance with duly approved standards (norms, rules) regulating the conditions for protecting subsoil, atmospheric air, lands, forests, waters, as well as buildings and structures from the harmful effects of work related to the use of subsoil ( article 22).

<47>See: SZ RF. 1995. N 10. Art. 823.

According to Art. 2 of the Federal Law of December 20, 2004 "On Fishing and the Conservation of Aquatic Biological Resources"<48>legislation on aquatic biological resources is based, in particular, on the principle of the priority of conservation of aquatic biological resources and their rational use over the use of aquatic biological resources as an object of property rights and other rights, according to which the owners freely own, use and dispose of aquatic biological resources, if this does not cause damage environment and the state of aquatic biological resources.

<48>See: SZ RF. 2004. N 52 (part 1). Art. 5270.

The importance of reflecting the principle of ecosystem regulation of environmental relations in the natural resource legislation is noted with reference to the position of Professor N.I. Krasnov and in the literature on the general theory of legislation and law. "The interaction of regulatory legal acts of the branches of environmental legislation is manifested in the fact that each of these branches separately (land, water, forestry, mining, etc.) and all of them together must take into account the interconnection of natural objects and the impact of each of them on the state of others"<49>.

<49>Baranov V.M., Polenina S.V. The system of law, the system and systematization of legislation in the legal system of Russia: Proc. allowance. Nizhny Novgorod, 2002, p. 52; Krasnov N.I. Some issues of development of modern science of land law // Development of civil law sciences. M., 1980. S. 80 - 81.

Thus, in the Russian legislation on natural ecosystems, two most important tasks are clearly expressed: to protect and preserve those that have not been subjected to anthropogenic impact, and to restore those that have been disturbed. In this case, the criterion for the degree of recovery is the guarantee of the stability of the environment.

With a legal, as well as scientific, definition of the concept of an ecosystem, it is emphasized that the living and non-living elements that form the ecological system and are included in it interact as a single functional whole and are interconnected by the exchange of matter and energy. This is the basis for an integrated approach to the regulation of environmental relations in environmental law. At the same time, the reflection of environmental protection requirements in natural resource legislation, as we saw above, is an essential characteristic of a differentiated approach.<50>. The importance of the integrated and differentiated approaches in general and the reflection of the ecosystem approach in environmental law in particular can be seen primarily in the fact that they ensure comprehensiveness in the regulation of environmental relations. Comprehensiveness is one of the most important principles of environmental law<51>.

<50>On the essence of integrated and differentiated approaches in the regulation of environmental relations, see: Brinchuk M.M. The Combination of Integrated and Differentiated Approaches - the Basis for the Progressive Development of Environmental Law in the 21st Century // State and Law at the Turn of the Ages. Environmental and natural resource law, labor law, business law. Materials of the All-Russian conference. M., 2001. S. 3 - 10.
<51>See also: Brinchuk M.M. Complexity in environmental law // Ecological law. 2004. N 6. S. 19 - 28.

Determining the importance of the ecosystem approach in environmental law, as well as integrated and differentiated approaches in general, it is important to emphasize that they are objective. Objectivity is due precisely to the functioning of living and non-living elements in the ecological system, in nature as a whole as a whole.

It is important to see the theoretical and practical significance of enshrining these approaches in law, and especially their implementation, in the fact that they serve the more effective operation of environmental law, the achievement of its goals of maintaining and restoring a favorable state of the environment (nature).

However, the effectiveness of the approaches themselves obviously depends on the legal mechanism for their implementation formed in the legislation, as well as its implementation in practice.

There is no clear generally accepted definition of an ecosystem, but it is usually considered that it is a collection of different organisms living together, as well as the physical and chemical components of the environment that are necessary for their existence or are products of their vital activity. As a rule, it is understood that, along with non-living components, an ecosystem includes plants (producers), animals (consumers), bacteria and fungi (decomposers), i.e. a set of organisms that together can carry out a complete cycle of carbon and other basic nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, etc.).

Drawing boundaries between ecosystems is always to some extent a convention, if only because there is necessarily an exchange of matter and energy between ecosystems. But even if we strictly adhere to such a seemingly reliable criterion as the completeness of the biotic cycle, it turns out that for different chemical elements the real dimensions of the physical space within which their cycle closes differ significantly. Consequently, the boundaries of the ecosystem will be defined differently in these cases. No less important is the time scale in which one or another ecosystem is considered.

Let us explain this with the example of a small but rather deep lake located somewhere in the middle lane. In summer, in such a reservoir, a clear temperature stratification is usually observed: the upper heated and mixed layer of water (1-3 m thick) - the epilimnion - is separated from the cold, slow-moving waters of the deep zone - the hypolimnion - by a layer of temperature jump. Within the epilimnion, a large number of small planktonic algae develop, which are intensively eaten by numerous planktonic animals here. The growth in the abundance and biomass of planktonic algae is limited, however, not so much by eating zooplankton, but by the lack of the most important biogenic element - phosphorus. Almost all the phosphorus in the oxen of the epilimnion at this time is bound in the bodies of algae. However, planktonic crustaceans and rotifers that feed on algae in the course of their life activity excrete phosphorus with excretion products, moreover, in a form accessible for assimilation by algae. Phosphorus secreted by zooplankton is immediately absorbed by algae, which ensures their production, part of which (sometimes significant) is eaten by the same zooplankton.

Thus, the phosphorus cycle does not go beyond the epilimnion, which, according to the criterion of the completeness of the cycle of the main biogenic elements, can be safely interpreted as an independent ecosystem, different from the ecosystem of the rest of the lake. We emphasize, however, that we can only come to the conclusion about the possibility of isolating an independent epplimnion ecosystem if we study the phenomenon described by us in the second half of summer for two to three weeks. If the observations cover a longer time, then we will have to abandon the idea of ​​a separate epilimnion ecosystem. With the onset of autumn cooling, intensive mixing of water masses will begin in the lake: the epilimnion will disappear, its cooled waters will mix with the waters of the hypolimnion, richer in phosphorus. In winter, under the ice in the lake, although slowly, life will flow. Part of the organic matter will be withdrawn from the circulation and buried in bottom sediments. Some deficiency of biogenic elements (including phosphorus) that has arisen in this case will be replenished in the spring with the influx of melt water. It is due to this stock of phosphorus formed in the spring that the primary production of phytoplankton will be formed in the summer.

Thus, the transition to another time scale in the study of the circulation of one of the most important biogenic elements led to a change in the spatial boundaries of the ecosystem. The spatial scale of the study also had to be changed. Obviously, on this new spatiotemporal scale, it is no longer possible to speak of an epilimnion ecosystem, and even the identification of a lake ecosystem becomes indisputable, since the entire watershed area of ​​this lake is involved in the formation of the spring supply of biogenic elements in the water column.

Difficulties in studying the structure and functioning of ecosystems are determined not only by the complexity of their spatial and temporal localization, but also by the very nature of these objects, which include not only individual organisms and any of their aggregates, but also necessarily various inanimate components. Some of these components, actively consumed by living organisms, are classified as "resources", such as mineral nutrients, water and light for plants. Others make up what are called "conditions of existence", such as temperature, the chemical composition of water (for aquatic organisms) and soil (for plants), etc.

The structure of an ecosystem cannot be considered as a simple hierarchical structure of several levels of organization of the "individuals-populations-communities-ecosystem" type, since in this case its inanimate components are outside the ecosystem. Obviously, it is possible to combine its living and non-living components into the concept of an ecosystem only by emphasizing the special role that belongs to the processes of their interaction. In fact, this has long been done by Lindeman (Lindeman, 1942), who defined an ecosystem as "... a system of physico-chemical-biological processes occurring within some space-time unit of any rank."

Despite all the difficulties in establishing the volume of an ecosystem and its boundaries, many researchers believed and continue to believe that it is the ecosystem that is the main object of ecology. Yu. Odum (1986) builds his repeatedly republished training course in general ecology around the concept of an ecosystem. A similar position is taken by the Spanish ecologist R. Margalef (Margalef, 1968), who defines ecology as "the biology of ecosystems." It must be emphasized that the ecosystem approach is by no means homogeneous. Within its limits, it is possible to single out different directions, which differ significantly from each other both in the formulation of problems and in the methods of their solution.

As an example of a direction focused mainly on the study of the structure of ecosystems, biogeocenology, the foundations of which were laid by V.N. Sukachev, should be mentioned. The central concept of biogeocenology is biogeocenosis, that is, a specific set of interconnected organisms and abiotic components that exist in a certain area. Since biogeocenology was formed largely on the basis of phytocenology (the science of terrestrial plant communities), it is not surprising that Sukachev considered the boundaries of biogeocenoses to coincide with the boundaries of phytocenoses.

Since different ecosystems (or biogeocenoses) were distinguished primarily on the basis of dominant plant or animal species, it is not surprising that much attention was paid to the species composition of organisms and the quantitative ratio of different species. However, with the further development of such a structural (which turned out to be largely descriptive) direction in the study of ecosystems, serious difficulties began to emerge, caused by the inconsistency of the accepted research methodology with the nature of the object under study.

Another methodological difficulty lies in the fact that many ecologists, being zoologists or botanists by training and work experience, have approached the study of entire ecosystems in the same way that taxonomists approach an individual organism. Obviously, in the case of finding a new organism, first of all, it is necessary to find out its systematic affiliation. This is important if only because it allows, without conducting additional research, to predict a number of its characteristic features. So, knowing that this animal belongs to the class of mammals, we can be fairly sure that it has a four-chambered heart and seven cervical vertebrae. The approach of the zoologist or systematic botanist, however, has not been so successful in trying to describe and classify the myriad of specific ecosystems. A careful study of them showed that each ecosystem is unique in terms of species composition and the numerical ratio of different species. Their classification is much softer, vague compared to the taxonomic classification of organisms, and most importantly, it is not genetic (establishing kinship relationships) and therefore has incomparably less predictive power. Another direction that exists within the framework of the ecosystem approach is the functional one, which focuses on the study of the vital processes of organisms. By life we ​​usually understand the totality of the main functions performed by the body: nutrition, respiration, photosynthesis, excretion, etc. The study of how these processes proceed in a separate organism is the subject of physiology. The ecologist is primarily interested in the results of this life activity, especially those that have a noticeable impact on other groups of organisms, as well as on the functioning of the ecosystem as a whole.

If the structural direction focused on the living components of the ecosystem, then the abiotic components are no less important for the functional direction, and the processes of transformation of matter and energy in ecosystems become the main subject of research.

The successes achieved within the framework of the functional approach to the study of ecosystems are determined primarily by its ability to give a generalized, integrated assessment of the results of the vital activity of many individual organisms of different species at once. Perhaps this is due to the fact that in terms of their biogeochemical functions, i.e., in terms of the nature of the processes of transformation of matter and energy carried out in nature, organisms are much more similar, more uniform than in their structure, in their morphology (Vinberg, 1981). For example, all higher green plants consume water, carbon dioxide, a similar set of biogenic elements (nitrogen, phosphorus, and some others), and all of them, using the energy of sunlight, form organic substances similar in composition during photosynthesis reactions and release oxygen. There is a clear correspondence between the amount of released oxygen and the amount of organic matter formed, which makes it possible to confidently determine the other by estimating one of these quantities.

It is clear that the assessment of such integral indicators often used in hydrobiology as the primary production of the entire phytoplankton community or the respiration of the totality of all organisms inhabiting the water column is possible only due to the identity of these processes at the level of individual organisms, or, in other words, the similarity of their biogeochemical functions. The similarity of the results of the physiological activity of different organisms allows them to be summarized with each other, i.e., makes them additive. Note that due to the purely physical features of the aquatic environment, many integral indicators of the vital activity of aggregates of organisms are easier to evaluate here than in the air environment. That is why the functional direction in the study of aquatic ecosystems achieved significant success much earlier than in a similar study of terrestrial ecosystems, where the structural approach dominated for a long time.

Annex to COP V Decision/6

A. Description of the ecosystem approach

1. The ecosystem approach is a strategy for the integrated management of land, water and living resources that ensures their conservation and sustainable use in an equitable manner. Thus, the application of the ecosystem approach will help to achieve a balanced solution to all three objectives of the Convention: conservation, sustainable use and fair and equitable distribution of all benefits from the use of genetic resources.

2. The basis of the ecosystem approach is the application of appropriate scientific methodology, covering all levels of biological organization, including the basic structures, processes, functions and relationships between organisms and their environment. This approach recognizes that people, with all their cultural diversity, are an integral part of many ecosystems.

3. The predominant focus on the structure, processes, functions and relationships within an ecosystem corresponds to the definition of an ecosystem given in Article 2 of the Convention on Biological Diversity:

"Ecosystem" means a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities, and their non-living environment, interacting as a functional entity."

Contrary to the Convention's definition of "habitat", this definition does not specify specific spatial boundaries or scales. Thus, the term "ecosystem" does not necessarily correspond to the concepts of "biome" or "ecological zone", but can be referred to any functioning unit of any scale. In fact, the scope of analysis and activity should be determined by the essence of the problem being solved. In this case, objects can be, for example, a grain of sand, a pond, a forest, a biome, or an entire biosphere.

4. The ecosystem approach requires flexible adaptive management that takes into account both the complex and dynamic nature of ecosystems and the lack of a complete understanding of the mechanisms of their functioning. Processes in ecosystems are often non-linear, and their results are often delayed, as a result of which the absence of strict patterns can create some ambiguity or lead to unexpected results. Management must be flexible enough to respond in time to emerging difficulties and use elements of "learning by doing" or feedback from research workers in its tactics. Action may be necessary even when the ultimate relationship between cause and effect has not yet been fully established scientifically.

5. The ecosystem approach is not a substitute for other management and conservation strategies, such as biosphere reserves, protected areas and species conservation programs, and other approaches within existing national policy and legislative frameworks, but should rather facilitate the integration of all of these approaches. and other methods for solving complex problems. There is no single way to implement an ecosystem approach as it depends on local, district, national, regional or global conditions. Indeed, there are many possible ways in which the ecosystem approach can be applied to the practical implementation of the objectives of the Convention.

V. Principles of the Ecosystem Approach

6. The 12 principles below are complementary and interrelated.

Principle 1: The tasks of managing land, water and living resources are determined by society.

Rationale: Various sectors of society view ecosystems from the standpoint of their own economic, cultural and social needs. Indigenous peoples and other local communities living off natural resources are also important stakeholders whose rights and interests need to be taken into account. Both cultural and biological diversity are central to the ecosystem approach, which must be taken into account in resource management. The public choice must be expressed as clearly as possible. Ecosystems must be managed with respect to their true values, in a fair and equitable manner, in order to obtain both material and non-material benefits for humans.

Principle 2: Management should be as decentralized as possible.

Rationale: Decentralized governance systems are more efficient and more fair. The governance system should involve all stakeholders and should balance local interests with broader public interests. The closer governance is to the ecosystem itself, the greater the responsibility and accountability, the broader the range of owners and participants, and the more actively local knowledge can be used.

Principle 3: Ecosystem management bodies should take into account the impact of their activities (actual or potential) on adjacent or any other ecosystems.

Rationale: Various management interventions in an ecosystem can often have unknown or unpredictable effects on other ecosystems. Therefore, the possible consequences should be carefully assessed and analyzed. This may require the creation of new structures or mechanisms to enable the organizations involved in decision-making to develop appropriate trade-offs when necessary.

Principle 4: While recognizing the possibility of positive management outcomes, one should nevertheless understand the functioning of the ecosystem and manage it in an economic context. Any such ecosystem management program should:

b) provide incentives for biodiversity conservation and sustainable use;

c) to the extent possible, concentrate all costs and benefits within the ecosystem itself.

Rationale: The greatest threat to biodiversity lies in its replacement by alternative land use systems. This situation is often the result of market disruptions that undermine the value of natural systems and populations and provide perverse incentives and subsidies that promote land transformation into less diverse systems.

Often, those who benefit from the conservation of biological diversity do not pay the costs associated with conservation, and similarly, those who necessitate environmental costs (for example, due to environmental pollution) avoid responsibility. Streamlining incentives allows those who control resources to gain benefits and ensures that those who necessitate environmental spending pay for them.

Principle 5: One of the primary objectives of the ecosystem approach is to preserve the structure and functions of the ecosystem in order to maintain ecosystem services.

Rationale: The functioning and stability of an ecosystem depends on the state of dynamic relationships within individual species, between species, and between species and their non-living environment. In addition, physical and chemical interactions in the environment surrounding the ecosystem are important. Preservation (and, if necessary, restoration) of these relationships and processes are of much greater importance for the long-term conservation of biological diversity than simply the protection of species.

Principle 6: Ecosystem management should be carried out only within the limits of natural functioning.

Rationale: When evaluating the possibilities of achieving the main management objectives, special attention should be paid to environmental factors that limit the natural productivity, structure, functioning and diversity of ecosystems. The functioning of an ecosystem can be affected to varying degrees by temporary, unforeseen or artificially created factors, which should be adequately taken into account in management.

Principle 7: The ecosystem approach should be implemented at appropriate spatial and temporal scales.

Rationale: The ecosystem approach should be applied at temporal and spatial scales that are consistent with the goal. Management boundaries should be defined in practice by users, ecosystem managers, scientists and indigenous and local peoples. Where necessary, connectivity between areas should be promoted. The ecosystem approach takes into account the hierarchical nature of biological diversity, characterized by interaction and integration at the gene, species and ecosystem levels.

Principle 8: Given the temporal variability and potential for long-term effects inherent in ecosystem processes, ecosystem management objectives must be long-term.

Rationale: Processes in the ecosystem are characterized by the variability of time parameters and the possibility of delayed consequences. This is in stark contrast to the human tendency to favor immediate gain over expected gain.

Principle 9: Ecosystem management must take into account the inevitability of change.

Rationale: Ecosystems are constantly changing, including the composition of species and the abundance of populations. Therefore, governments must adapt to these changes. In addition to the already inherent dynamics of change, ecosystems are subject to a range of unidentified or unforeseen factors, both anthropogenic, biological and environmental. Traditional disruptive regimes may be important to the structure and functioning of ecosystems and may need to be maintained or restored. The ecosystem approach requires flexible management that anticipates and adapts to possible changes and events. At the same time, decisions should be taken with caution that may exclude options, but at the same time, the possibility of implementing measures to mitigate the effects of long-term changes, such as climate change, should be considered.

Principle 10: The ecosystem approach should ensure that an appropriate balance is struck between the conservation and use of biological diversity and their integration.

Rationale: Biodiversity is essential not only because of its immediate value, but also because it plays a key role in ecosystem functions and other processes on which humans ultimately depend. In the past, there was a tendency to divide the managed components of biological diversity into protected and non-protected. However, there is now a need to consider the situation more flexibly, when conservation and use are considered in a single context and the whole range of measures is applied independently from strictly protected ecosystems to ecosystems created by man.

Principle 11: The ecosystem approach should take into account all forms of relevant information, including scientific evidence, as well as the knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities.

Rationale: For the development of effective strategies for managing ecosystems, any information is important. Better knowledge of ecosystem functions and the consequences of human activities is desirable. At the same time, all relevant information from any source should be communicated to all interested parties and participants, taking into account any decisions taken in accordance with Article 8 j) of the Convention on Biological Diversity. The assumptions underlying management decisions should be clear and verifiable based on existing knowledge and the views of stakeholders.

Principle 12: All interested groups of society and scientific disciplines should be involved in the implementation of the ecosystem approach.

Rationale: Most biodiversity management issues are complex, with many interlinkages, side effects and consequences, requiring the application of the necessary expertise and the involvement of local, national, regional and international stakeholders as needed.

WITH. Practical guidance for applying the ecosystem approach

7. The following five points are offered as practical guidelines for applying the 12 principles of the ecosystem approach.

1. Focus on functional relationships and processes in ecosystems

8. Many components of biodiversity play a key role in ecosystems, controlling the stocks and flows of energy, water and nutrients, and ensuring their resilience in the event of severe disturbances. More knowledge is required about the functions and structure of an ecosystem and the role of individual components of biological diversity in ecosystems in order to establish: (i) Factors affecting ecosystem resilience, as well as the consequences of biodiversity loss (at the species and genetic levels) and habitat fragmentation; ii) causes of biodiversity loss; and iii) determinants of local biodiversity in policy decisions. Functional biodiversity in ecosystems provides a large number of products of economic and social value. While there is an urgent need to better understand the functionality of biological diversity; Ecosystem management should be carried out despite the lack of knowledge in this area. The ecosystem approach can contribute to the practical implementation of ecosystem management (both at the local level and at the level of public policy).

2. Promoting Equitable Benefits

9. The many beneficial functions of biodiversity at the ecosystem level provide the basis for a secure and sustainable human environment. The ecosystem approach is intended to ensure that the practical benefits arising from these functions are equitably shared and maintained or restored. In particular, these functions should benefit the stakeholders that produce and manage them. This requires, inter alia: empowerment, especially at the level of local communities that manage biodiversity in ecosystems; conducting a proper assessment of all products and services provided by ecosystems; removing perverse incentives that reduce the value of the products and services provided by ecosystems; and, in line with the provisions of the Convention on Biological Diversity, introducing new incentives at the local level to encourage, where appropriate, the implementation of the right management strategy.

3. Using an adaptive control strategy

10. All processes and functions in an ecosystem are complex and changeable. At the same time, the level of their uncertainty increases even more if we take into account the little-studied interaction of ecosystems with social structures. Therefore, ecosystem management should also imply the adaptation of existing methods to real processes of ecosystem management and monitoring. Management programs should focus on contingencies rather than predetermined settings. Ecosystem management must take into account the diversity of social and cultural factors that influence how natural resources are used. Similarly, flexibility is needed in decision making and implementation. Promising, non-changeable solutions are likely to be inadequate or even disruptive. Ecosystem management should be seen as a long-term experiment, the development of which is carried out on the basis of the results obtained during the experiment itself. Such a "learning by doing" strategy will also serve as an important source of information to increase the level of knowledge in the field of monitoring the results of management and assessing the extent to which the goals have been achieved. In this regard, it is desirable to build or strengthen monitoring capacities in Parties.

4. Administration through measures proportionate to the issue at hand and through maximum decentralization where appropriate

11. As noted in section A above, an ecosystem is a functioning unit that can operate at any scale, depending on the nature of the problem or issue being addressed. Based on this understanding, the appropriate level of management decisions and activities should be determined. Very often, this approach implies the decentralization of management to the level of local communities. Effective decentralization implies such a level of authority of the interested party, when the latter assumes responsibility and at the same time has the ability to implement the necessary activities. This requires support in the form of enabling policy decisions and legislative frameworks. When it comes to publicly owned resources, the scope of decisions and management measures should be broad enough to cover all the consequences of the practices of all parties involved. Appropriate structures may be required to adopt such policies, and in some cases to resolve conflicts. Some problems and issues may require even higher levels of action, such as interstate or even global cooperation.

5. Ensuring interagency cooperation

12. As a fundamental basis for all activities under the Convention, the ecosystem approach should be fully taken into account in the development and revision of national strategies and programs for the maintenance of biological diversity. In addition, the ecosystem approach should be implemented in agriculture, the fishing industry, forestry and other fishing and economic systems that have an impact on the state of biological diversity. The management of natural resources in accordance with the ecosystem approach requires the intensification of interdepartmental interaction and cooperation at various levels (state ministries, managing organizations, etc.). Such cooperation can be established, for example, through the creation of interministerial bodies within national governments or through the formation of networks for the exchange of information and experience.

Environmental quality.

Rationing the quality of the environment. Types of rationing. Advantages and disadvantages of each type of regulation.

The most important principles of theoretical ecology for the conservation of ecosystems. Existential potential of ecosystems.

Basic principles and rules of environmental protection.

The main directions for the observance of these principles. The transition to an eco-economy - a change in production priorities.

Environmental protection is closely connected with nature management.

Of course, the development of economic activity is permissible only within the limits of the life-supporting capacity of the planet's ecosystems.

One of the most important environmental issues is preservation of environmental quality.

The main criteria for environmental quality there must be a state and functioning of living organisms inherent in a particular ecosystem.

Therefore, the limits of concentrations of harmful substances should be such

in which:

Not vital functions are disturbed in any of the links in the food chain;

- not the functions regulating the processes of geochemical self-purification of ecosystems are violated;

- the biological productivity of the ecosystem does not decrease;

- the gene pool necessary for the existence of the ecosystem would be preserved.

To comply with these conditions, environmental legislation is directed, in accordance with which regulation of the quality of the natural environment.

Rationing as a whole establishes the boundary conditions (standards) both on the actual sources and factors of influence(primarily due to economic activity), and on environmental characteristics and ecosystem responses.

However, the principles underlying certain types of regulation do not provide for the protection of the ecosystem. Yes, as a basis sanitary and hygienic regulation put P the principle of anthropocentrism. However, a person is not the most sensitive of biological species, and the principle “human is protected - ecosystems are also protected” turned out to be wrong. combined action(simultaneous or sequential action of several substances in the same route of entry), does not take into account the effects complex action(the entry of harmful substances into the body in various ways and with various media - with air, water, food, through the skin) and combined impact the whole variety of physical, chemical and biological environmental factors. There are only limited lists of substances that have summation effects when they are simultaneously contained in the atmospheric air.

Environmental regulation involves taking into account the so-called allowable load on the ecosystem. The allowable load is considered to be such, under the influence of which the deviation from the normal state of the system does not exceed natural changes and, therefore, does not cause undesirable consequences for living organisms and does not lead to a deterioration in the quality of the environment. To date, only a few attempts are known to take into account the load for land plants and for communities of fishery water bodies.

Both environmental and sanitary-hygienic regulation are based on knowledge of the effects of various factors affecting living organisms and determine the quality of the environment in relation to human health and the state of ecosystems, but do not indicate source of exposure and do not regulate its activities.

The requirements for the actual sources of influence reflect scientific and technical standards. Scientific and technical regulation involves the introduction of restrictions on the activities of economic facilities in relation to environmental pollution, in other words, it determines the maximum allowable flows of harmful substances that can come from sources of exposure to air, water, and soil. These include standards for emissions and discharges of harmful substances (maximum allowance and MPD, respectively), waste disposal limits, as well as technological, construction, urban planning norms and rules containing requirements for the protection of the natural environment.

Balanced economic development should be based on the mechanisms of biological stabilization of the environment, which have priority over technical and technological means.

Such a transition requires cardinal transformations, in the center of which is the greening of all the main activities of mankind, the person himself, a change in his consciousness and the creation of a new society.

The “ultimate goal” of moving along this path will be the formation of the noosphere or something similar to it on a planetary scale.

The scientific basis of all measures for the conservation of ecosystems is theoretical ecology, the most important principles of which are focused on maintaining homeostasis or the ability to self-regulate ecosystems and keeping them existential potential or ability to exist and function.

There are the following limits of existence: the limit anthropogenicity– resistance to negative anthropogenic impact, for example, to pesticides; limit stohetotolerance or - resistance to natural disasters (winds, avalanches, etc.); limit potential regenerative- the ability to self-heal.

Environmentally sound rational nature management consists in the maximum possible increase in these limits and the achievement of high productivity of all links of trophic natural ecosystems.

Ecologization of production involves taking into account all types of interaction between the technological process and the environment and taking measures to prevent negative consequences (waste is included in the natural cycles of the circulation of substances).

The strategy of sustainable development, the formation of environmental consciousness, will meet the needs of present and future generations.

To date, there have been O the main principles and rules of environmental protection, the main directions for the observance of these principles.

Basic principles and rules of environmental protection are as follows :

- scientific and technical improvement of production aimed at increasing the completeness of the use of natural resources;

Combination economy With environmental friendliness when using and reproducing natural resources;

- A complex approach to the preservation of a single ecosystem as a whole.

The main directions for compliance with these principles:

- technological(improvement of production technologies);

- economic(improvement of economic mechanisms);

- administrative and legal(application of measures of administrative punishment and legal responsibility);

- environmental education(harmonization of ecological thinking);

- international legal(harmonization of international relations).

At the present stage, a special environmental quality management system has emerged - environmental management.

As life shows, in principle, a new progressive, information space focused on environmental issues, without entering into which no entrepreneur can now professionally engage in his business.

Processes world socio-economic reconstruction gave rise to a target setting for the activities of managers on environmental and safety management and environmental and economic regulation of economic systems at different levels. It turned out that an entrepreneur becomes a leader and achieves an increase in profits and competitiveness both at the national and international levels only if he implements environmental programs into industrial, commercial and financial activities, closely interacting with the government and public structures.

In 2005, the Kyoto Protocol came into force, which sets emission reduction quotas for 35 developed countries.

It is allowed to trade greenhouse gas emission allowances, which can bring considerable profit to countries that do not reach the minimum set for them.

Another profitable mechanism is projects for the joint implementation of the modernization of industrial facilities, the introduction of energy-saving and environmentally friendly technologies for Western investment in exchange for quotas.

With the gradual reorientation of market conditions towards investing in projects involving the development and practical application of resource-saving and low-waste technologies, it is possible to predict a further increase in the role of consulting firms specializing in the field of complex, from a consumer or technical point of view, goods (often still unknown to potential buyers), the market which is little diversified.

The global restructuring of the traditional economic building was facilitated by the transformation environmental protection activities of enterprises into an independent sphere of environmental entrepreneurship. Thus, in the early 1990s, some new forms of private entrepreneurship - cooperatives - specialized in the disposal of waste from a number of industries. Zinc, silver, copper and other valuable products obtained as a result of the purification of exhaust gases, condensate and waste water were sold abroad at world market prices, and the proceeds were invested in new technologies, i.e. prerequisites arose for the multilateral stimulation of private investment in measures that provided a side effect on environmental protection: the improvement of the air basin and water bodies, deep sewage treatment, etc. As you can see, the priorities have changed places, and the commercial interests of private entrepreneurship have led to the results of public interests - the improvement of the natural environment.

Sometimes the initial solution of their own environmental problems allows some enterprises to open up still little explored ways to obtain additional profit through a well-organized exchange of experience, which in a market economy can have a tangible economic effect and create an image of an enterprise as a leading benchmark in the sectoral or regional economy and management.

Another example is when the eyes of entrepreneurs turned to the fuel and energy complexes scattered around the planet, which ensure the normal functioning of mankind. It is known that the real priorities in the field of financing the environmental and economic activities of energy structures and the facilities they serve in many countries correlate with their technogenic load on the environment and with the ranking of energy carriers by the amount of energy produced (coal - fuel oil - natural gas - hydro resources - nuclear fuel - wind resources - energy stored in solar batteries - resource potential of biomass). Energy saving also plays an important role.

In this regard, it was expected that the modernization of the energy sector would consist in the reconstruction and renewal of equipment, increasing the efficiency of energy use and the practical development of non-traditional energy sources. But practice has shown that energy saving due to the installation of heat, water and gas meters in the same quantities as previously operated is only 25% of the required amount. As a result, an alternative solution arose: changes in the structure of the fuel and energy balance and a decrease in the integral energy intensity of some types of products, which made it possible to create new generation power plants and new grid energy companies as independent electricity producers.

Thus, the transition to eco-economy does not mean a reduction in production per se. It is only about changing the priorities of production.

Main literature: 1, 2, 3

Further Reading:1

Control questions:

1) Describe the quality of the environment;

2) Basic environmental quality criteria;

3) How environmental legislation contributes to the preservation of the quality of the natural environment. Advantages and disadvantages of the measures taken;

4) What does the existential potential of ecosystems mean;

5) Basic principles and rules of environmental protection. The main directions for the observance of these principles.

Main literature:

1. Fundamentals of nature management: environmental, economic and legal aspects. Textbook / A.E. Vorobyov and others - Rostov n / D: Phoenix. 2006. - 544 p.

2. Korobkin V.I., Peredelsky L.V. Ecology (series "Higher Education"). – Rostov n/a: Phoenix. 2003. - 576 p.

3. Nurkeev S.S., Musina U.Sh. Ecology. Textbook allowance.- Almaty: KazNTU. – 2005. 485 p.

Additional literature:

2. Ilyin V.I. Ecology. Tutorial. – M.: Perspective. 2007. - 298 p.

Practical lesson:

Topic. The concept of the transition of the Republic of Kazakhstan to sustainable development for 2007-2024.

Task 1: The concept of the term "sustainable development".

What in your life is considered “sustainable” and what do you think needs to be “developed” in life. Your opinions and reasoning should be entered in the table in short form:

Task 2: Purpose, objectives and stages of transition to sustainable development

Comment on the goal, objectives and stages of transition to sustainable development.

Task 3: Ways to achieve sustainable development goals

Comment on ways to achieve sustainable development goals.

Literature: 2 main, 2 additional

Compiled by:

Associate Professor, Ph.D. Beisekova T.I. - section 2. Strategies and goals of sustainable development.

Associate Professor, Ph.D. Lapshina I.Z. - section 1. Ecology

The term ecosystem was first proposed in 1935 by the English scientist Arthur George Tansley (A.G. Tansley, 1871 - 1955), who believed that ecosystems from the point of view of an ecologist are the main natural units on the surface of the earth", which include not only a complex of organisms, but also the entire complex of physical ( abiotic) factors. He wrote:

“A deeper idea, in my opinion, is an integral system (in the understanding of physics), which includes not only a complex of organisms, but also the entire complex of physical factors that form what we call the environment of a biome - habitat factors in the broadest sense. Although organisms may be of primary interest to us, when we try to think fundamentally, we cannot separate them from the specific environment around them with which they form one physical system.

Ecosystem diagram

Ecosystem (ecological system) - the main functional unit of ecology, which is a unity of living organisms and their habitat, organized by energy flows and the biological cycle of substances. This is the fundamental commonality of the living and its habitat, any set of living organisms living together and the conditions for their existence.

From the point of view of an ecologist, these systems are the basic units of nature on the face of the Earth... In each system, there is a constant mutual exchange of various kinds, not only between organisms, but also between organic and inorganic (parts). These ecosystems in our designation can be of the most diverse types and sizes. They form one (special) category of the diversity of the physical systems of the Universe, from the Universe to the atom)...

Relative to more stable systems, ecosystems are exceptionally vulnerable, both in terms of the number of their own unstable components, and because they are susceptible to the introduction of components from other systems. However, some of the highly developed systems - "climaxes" - maintain themselves for thousands of years...

In an ecosystem, both organisms and inorganic factors are components that are in a relatively stable dynamic balance. Succession and development are examples of universal processes aimed at creating such equilibrium systems” (Tansley, 1935, cited by Kuznetsova, 2001).

Exists two main approaches to the allocation of ecosystems:

1. Functional approach (in which the main attention is paid to the functioning of the system, and not to the features of its structure)

Ecosystem(from Greek. oikos- residence, residence and systema combination, association) ecological system- living organisms and their habitat, functioning (and being studied) as a whole, as a single bio-inert system capable of supporting terrestrial life. Basic functional unit in ecology. Ecology is sometimes referred to as the "study of ecosystems".

functional concept ecosystem(according to F. Evans, 1956) is applicable to objects of different sizes and complexity, in which there is a regular interaction between living and non-living things, both to the biosphere or the World Ocean, and to a rotting stump or a drying up puddle with its inhabitants. The criteria that allow to establish the boundaries of an ecosystem are not rigidly set in advance (they are determined by the researcher himself), therefore the number of ecosystems and their location for any territory is not regulated in advance and depends on the goals and objectives of the study.

The above does not mean at all that "the ecological system has no boundaries." The Federal Law of the Russian Federation "On Environmental Protection" specifically emphasizes that "natural ecological system- an objectively existing part of the natural environment, which has spatial and territorial boundaries and in which living (plants, animals and other organisms) and its non-living elements interact as a single functional whole and are interconnected by the exchange of matter and energy.

In modern ecology absolutely the concept of the ecosystem as a basic functional unit prevails, which differs from the original use of the term.

Characterizing the ecosystem as the main functional unit in ecology, the American ecologist Y. Odum (1986) emphasizes the following points:

“Living organisms and their non-living (abiotic) environment are inextricably linked with each other and are in constant interaction. Any unit (system) that includes all cooperative organisms (biotic community) in a given area and interacts with the physical environment in such a way that the energy flow creates well-defined biotic structures and the circulation of substances between living and non-living parts is an ecological system or ecosystem .

The ecosystem is the main functional unit in ecology, since it includes both organisms and the inanimate environment - components that mutually influence each other's properties and are necessary to maintain life in the form that exists on Earth. If we want our society to move towards a holistic solution of problems that arise at the level of biomes and the biosphere, then we must first of all study the ecosystem level of organization. Ecosystems are open systems, so an important part of the concept are outlet medium and inlet environment».

2. Horological approach(in which the smallest independent cell of the Earth's biosphere is distinguished, similar to a cell in a living organism, an elementary spatial (chorological) unit). We will call such an ecosystem biogeocenosis(according to V.N. Sukachev, 1942) or elementary ecosystem.

The founder of biogeocenology (and a number of other scientific areas in botany, general biology and geography) was an outstanding scientist, academician Vladimir Nikolaevich Sukachev (1880 - 1967). He wrote: “... Since the beginning of the 20th century, foreign countries have been developing not only the concept of a geographical landscape, but also close to biogeocenosis concept of ecosystem. … These terms are not completely equivalent, but they are all applied to natural objects that are close to each other. ... Abroad, the most common term is " ecosystem", and we have - " biogeocenosis"... among geographers there is also the term" facies» (landscape) ... Biogeocenosis- this is a set of homogeneous natural phenomena (atmosphere, rocks, vegetation, fauna and the world of microorganisms, soil and hydrological conditions) over a known extent of the earth's surface, which has its own, special specifics of the interaction of these constituent components ... (Sukachev, 1964).

concept biogeocenosis(according to V.N. Sukachev), strictly speaking, it is applicable only to elementary natural units, peculiar cells or cells of the biogeosphere. The criteria that allow establishing the boundaries of a biogeocenosis (elementary ecosystem) are rigidly set in advance, therefore their number and location for any territory is strictly regulated.

By position in space (chorologically) biogeocenosis approximately correspond: in the geochemistry of the landscape - elemental landscape(according to B.B. Polynov, 1956); in landscape science - landscape facies.

ELEMENTARY LANDSCAPE(according to B.B. Polynov) - “a certain relief element, composed of one rock or sediment and covered at every moment of its existence by a certain plant community. All these conditions create a certain difference in the soil ... ". Conforms to concepts landscape facies and biogeocenosis.

LANDSCAPE GEOGRAPHICAL- the main category of territorial division of the geographical shell, one of the fundamental concepts of geography, the natural system. Geographic landscape - a specific territory, homogeneous in its origin and history of development, having a single geological foundation, the same type of relief, a common climate, a uniform combination of hydrothermal conditions, soils, biocenoses and a regular set of morphological parts - facies and tracts.

LANDSCAPE FACIE- an elementary morphological unit of the landscape, a structural part tracts. Usually coincides with one element of the mesorelief (for example, the top of a hill, the upper part of its northern slope, etc.) or with a separate form of microrelief and is characterized by the uniformity of the parent rock, microclimate, water regime, soil and location within one biocenosis.

STORE- conjugated system of landscape facies, united by a common direction of processes and confined to one mesoform of relief on a homogeneous substrate.