Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation

Federal Agency for Education

Russian State Vocational Pedagogical University

Institute of Psychology

Department of Theoretical and Experimental Psychology

Examination No. 5

On the course "General psychology"

On the topic "Development of the psyche and consciousness"

Student Minniakhmetova K.A.

DZPP group - 112 s

Yekaterinburg 2007

Plan

Introduction

1. Psyche as a result of the evolution of matter

2. The main stages in the development of the psyche in animals

3. Development of higher mental functions in humans

Conclusion

Literature

Introduction

Each specific science differs from other sciences in the features of its subject, but if in each science the subject and object are distinguished, then in psychology such a distinction causes certain difficulties, since here both the object and the subject are a person.

The very definition of psychology appeared in the 16th century in Western European texts, translated from Latin - psychology, literally, understanding, knowledge of the soul. It is both scientific and everyday in nature. The scientific, on the other hand, differs from the everyday in that, relying on the power of abstraction and universal human experience, it discovers the laws that govern the world. But only by the middle of the 19th century did psychology become an independent science from disparate knowledge, but this does not mean that before that, ideas about the psyche (soul, consciousness, behavior) were devoid of signs of scientific character. They were part of philosophy, pedagogy, medicine.

The basis of scientific psychological knowledge is the doctrine of the human psyche, that is, its properties (character, temperament, abilities), processes (sensation, perception, thinking, etc.) and states (apathy, anger, frustration).

I believe that the most important stage in understanding psychology is the study of the evolution of the psyche and the development of higher mental functions of a person, since this is the basis of his activity and behavior.

Objective:

· consideration of the development of the psyche as a result of the evolution of matter, understanding the main stages in the development of the psyche in animals and the development of human mental functions.

Tasks:

to carry out the analysis of information and reference literature

· Consider the main stages in the development of the psyche in animals and the development of higher mental functions in humans.

The problem of the development of the psyche and consciousness is sufficiently developed in domestic and foreign literature, since it is the basis of psychology. This issue is especially detailed in the works of Rubinshtein S.L., Vygotsky L.S., Gippenreiter Yu.B.

Psyche as a result of the evolution of matter.

Phylogeny - the process of changing the psyche as a product of evolution. In domestic psychology, the methodological basis for studying the problem of the evolution of forms of consciousness is dialectical and historical materialism. The main problems in the study of phylogeny are:

Identification of the main stages in the evolution of the psyche of animals;

· Identification of the conditions for the transition from one stage to another, the general factors of evolution;

· Identification of the main stages of the evolution of forms of consciousness;

· Establishing the relationship between the main stages of phylogenesis and ontogenesis.

Psyche - this is a property of highly organized living matter, which consists in the active reflection of the objective world by the subject, the construction by the subject of a picture of this world inalienable from him and the regulation of behavior and activity on this basis.

Mechanisms of manifestation of the psyche:

· The psyche is a property of only living matter, and only of that which has specific organs that determine the possibility of the existence of the psyche.

· The main feature of the psyche is the ability to reflect the objective world. Highly organized living matter with a psyche is capable of receiving information about the surrounding world

· The information about the surrounding world received by a living being serves as the basis for regulating the environment of a living organism and shaping its behavior, thereby determining the possibility of a long-term existence of this organism in constantly changing environmental conditions.

The psyche arose at a certain stage in the development of life as a mechanism for the active interaction of living beings with the environment. In nature, there are a significant number of forms of living matter that have certain mental abilities. These forms of living matter differ from each other in terms of the level of development of mental properties. The elementary ability to respond selectively to the effects of the external environment is already observed in the simplest (single-celled) organisms.

Irritability - this is the simplest form of biological reflection, it is possessed by all living organisms at all stages of the evolution of plant and animal forms. Irritability is expressed in the manifestation of the forced activity of a living organism. The higher the level of development of the organism, the more complex the manifestation of its activity in the event of a change in environmental conditions. Primary forms of irritability, the so-called taxis (tropism), can be observed even in plants.

Taxis(tropism) - mechanically oriented components of behavioral acts. Congenital ways of spatial orientation towards favorable or from unfavorable environmental conditions, irritations. The further development of irritability in living beings is largely associated with the complication of the living conditions of more developed organisms, which, accordingly, have a more complex anatomical structure. Living organisms of a given level of development are forced to respond to a more complex set of environmental factors, and this predetermines the emergence of more complex forms of response in them, called sensitivity.

Sensitivity - this is the ability to respond to neutral, biologically insignificant stimuli, provided that they signal the appearance of vital influences. Sensitivity to neutral stimuli causes fundamental changes in the forms of life. A living being begins to actively navigate in the environment and respond to every change in it. A complex set of reactions of a living organism to environmental influences is - behavior.

The main stages in the development of the psyche in animals.

There are several stages in the development of the psyche.

Stage of elementary sensory psyche - simple unconditioned reflexes.

Lower level: Animals are characterized by the appearance of elementary forms of movement, a weak plasticity of behavior, this includes protozoa, many lower multicellular organisms living in an aquatic environment.

Highest level: developed motor activity, the ability to respond differentially to external stimuli, these include higher (annulated) worms, gastropods (snails), and some other invertebrates.

Stage of the perceptual psyche - complex unconditioned reflexes (instincts).

Lower level: animals have a complex nervous system, motor skills are formed, motor abilities become more complicated, defensive behavior becomes more developed, and an object-figurative reflection of reality appears.

At this level, there are fish and other lower vertebrates, as well as (partly) some higher invertebrates (arthropods and cephalopods), insects.

Highest level: there are highly developed instinctive forms of behavior, the ability to learn. At this level, there are higher vertebrates (birds and some mammals).

Instinct- a set of innate components of behavior. The instincts of animals are diverse, always associated with biological needs, characterized by stereotypes.

Imprinting - a specific form of learning in higher vertebrates, in which the distinctive features of the objects of some innate behavioral acts of parental individuals as carriers of the characteristics of the species are fixed; deep attachment to the first moving object that was seen by animals after its birth.

stage of intellect- skills.

At this stage, the ability for intellectual behavior appears when obstacles arise on the way to achieving the goal, but intellectual actions are of a primitive nature and are not the result of knowledge of the objective laws of nature. Animals begin to create and use primitive tools in their activities, while the invented methods of action are not transferred from one animal to another. At this level - monkeys, some other higher vertebrates (dogs, dolphins).

Skill is a complex individual dynamic program of behavior that is formed in the body in the course of its relationship with the outside world.

The stage of consciousness the highest stage of development of the psyche.

At this stage, a person develops speech, the ability to arbitrarily regulate mental processes. Knowledge of the general and essential in reality, abstract thinking.

The evolution of the psyche is not straightforward. In the same environment, animals with very different levels of reflection live, and vice versa, in different habitats, you can find different types of animals with similar levels of reflection. The environment is not something permanent. To this evolving environment, the animal species that lives in it adapts. Moreover, a change in the environment can significantly affect the development of mental functions of some animal species and at the same time not have a significant impact on the development of mental functions of other animal species.

The development of higher mental functions in humans.

PSYCHE

Definition, functions, structure

The key concept of psychology is the psyche. The psyche is a property of highly organized living matter, which consists in the active reflection of the objective world by the subject, in the construction by the subject of a picture of this world inalienable from him and in the regulation of behavior and activity on this basis.

Mental reflection is defined as an active reflection of the world, due to the need, the needs of the subject. In other words, it is a subjective selective reflection of the objective world. Mental reflection makes it possible to correctly reflect the surrounding reality (the correctness of reflection is confirmed by practice), is of a leading nature and ensures the expediency of behavior and activity. The mental image is formed in the process of active human activity.

Functions of the psyche: 1. Reflection of the objective world; 2. Building a subjective picture of the objective world; 3. Regulation of behavior and activity.

The physiological mechanism of human mental activity is higher nervous activity.. In the structure of the human psyche, three groups of mental phenomena are distinguished: processes, states and properties.

Origin and development of the psyche

The process of emergence and change of the psyche as a product of evolution is called phylogenesis. Ideas about the origin and evolution of the psyche have changed in the history of the development of psychology. This means that there were different points of view on spirituality in nature.

Panpsychism. 17th-18th centuries Holbach, Diderot, Helvetius (French materialists). The psyche is inherent in the whole world (the stone grows, radiates energy, affects a person).

Biopsychism. 19th century Hobbes, Hegel, Wundt. The psyche is a property of living nature (it also exists in plants).

Neuropsychism. 19th century Darwin, Spencer. The psyche characterizes organisms that have a nervous system.

Brainpsychism. 20th century Platonov. The psyche is inherent only in organisms with a tubular nervous system that have a brain.

Thus, theories of natural science made attempts to "localize" the psyche in nature. The criteria of the psyche were external: the psyche was attributed to a being only because it belonged to a certain class of objects.

There are also theories based on internal criteria: the ability to search behavior, flexible adaptation to the environment, the ability to play the action in the internal plan.

All of the above prepares understanding hypotheses of the origin of the psyche of Alexei Nikolaevich Leontiev(20th century).

The hypothesis of the origin of the psyche A.N. Leontiev. According to Leontiev, the objective criterion of the psyche is the ability of living organisms to respond to biologically neutral (or abiotic) impact, i.e. those types of energy, properties of objects that do not participate in the metabolism.

Abiotic influences are not useful and not harmful - a living being does not feed on them and they do not destroy his body. For instance. No animal feeds on sound. From the sound of normal intensity, animals do not die. But sounds in nature can be signals of living food or approaching danger. A fox in winter under the snow hears the rustle of a mouse and finds food for itself. The mouse, in turn, can hear the crouching fox and hide, save his life. Hearing sounds means being able to approach food or avoid a deadly attack. Thus, it is useful to reflect sound - it is a potential signal of a biologically significant object or impact. If a living organism acquires the ability to reflect abiotic properties and establish their connection with biologically significant properties, then the possibilities of its survival turn out to be much more significant.

In other words, the reflection of abiotic signals is associated with behavior. When living organisms did not have the ability to reflect abiotic signals, life processes were reduced to the following activity: absorption of nutrients, excretion, growth, reproduction. Activity was directly related to metabolism. With the emergence of the possibility of reflecting abiotic signals, a built-in activity appeared between the actual situation and a vital act. For example, a fox; hungry, but there is no food nearby. But she smells according to her nutritional priorities. She has a search activity - she searches by smell for where the food is. The meaning of search activity is to provide a vital result where conditions do not allow it to be realized here and now. If plants had such activity, then they would have to scatter at the sound of footsteps or a driving car, move to the river in dry weather, and then return to places with more fertile soil. Since plants do not behave this way, it is argued that they do not have a psyche.

Almost all animals are capable of responding to signals by changing their behavior. Signaling behavior is the main sign of the presence of the psyche.

Deepening the understanding of the absence and presence of the psyche in nature, Leontiev points to two aspects of reflection - objective and subjective. Objects of nature that have an objective ability do not have a psyche. Objective reflection is, first of all, a motor reaction. For example, the roots of a plant in the soil react to minerals and, upon contact with their solution, begin to assimilate. Thus, plants respond to vital influences (biotic). This ability of living organisms is called irritability (reaction to biotic influences, primarily motor).

Sensitivity is the ability to reflect abiotic influences that are objectively associated with biotic. The subjective aspect is expressed by an inner experience, a mental process called sensation. A person experiences a sensation when the stimulus acts on the sense organs, on the receptors, the receptors send an excitation along the conduction paths, which reaches the center of the cerebral cortex, where information is processed. Irritability has no subjective aspect.

The assumption that the subjective form of reflection, and, consequently, the psyche, appears for the first time along with reactions to abiotic stimuli is the essence of the presented hypothesis..

A.N. Leontiev organized a series of experiments on adult subjects. The purpose of the experiment is to develop a conditioned motor response to an insensitive stimulus. The subject placed the finger of his right hand on an electric key, through which he could receive a fairly noticeable electric shock. Before each blow, the palm was illuminated with green light for 45 s; when the light was turned off, they immediately gave the current. The subject was told that his palm would be subjected to a very slight impact before the current was applied; if he feels it, he will be able to remove his finger from the key before the current is applied. To prevent the subject from removing his hand for no reason, he was told that for each "false alarm" he would be punished with electric shock in the next test. As a result, the subjects learned to remove their hand from the key in advance in response to the illumination of the palm. They felt vague, but still noticeable sensations in the palm of their hand.

If the subject was not warned about the flashes and did not try to "catch" them, then he did not develop a conditioned motor reaction to the flashes of the hand and there was no sensation of these influences. It was proved that an invariable condition for the transformation of imperceptible influences into sensible ones is the state of the organism's active search; the described skin sensations were an indispensable condition for the development of a motor reaction.

The function of sensation is to orient the body in relation to significant environmental conditions, to mediate its adaptive acts. The emergence and development of the psyche was subject to the action of the general law of evolution - what is biologically useful is fixed. The psyche provides a more effective adaptation to the environment, adaptation, develops the ability for reasonable actions, for individual learning.

The main trends in the development of the psyche: complication of forms of behavior; improving the ability to individual learning; complication of forms of mental reflection.

In the period of the birth of the psyche, the subject of reflection was separate, isolated properties (the form of elementary sensations). At the next stage, the activity of living beings was already determined by the relations between objects, that is, by whole situations, but it was provided by the reflection of individual objects.

Cultural-historical concept of the development of the psyche of L.S. Vygotsky. The main position of the concept of the origin of the psyche of L. Vygotsky: a person has a special kind of functions that are completely absent in animals. Higher mental functions constitute consciousness - the highest level of the human psyche - and are formed in the course of social interactions.

The concept is structured in 3 parts:

1. Man and nature. In the transition from animals to humans, a fundamental change in the relationship of the subject with the environment took place: - for the animal world - the environment acted on the animal, modified it and forced it to adapt; - for man - man acts on nature and modifies it. Mechanisms of changing nature on the part of man: the creation of tools, the development of material production.

2. Man and his own psyche. In the process of mastering nature, a person learned to master his own psyche - higher mental functions appeared, expressed in the forms of voluntary activity. Higher mental functions - the ability of a person to force himself to remember some material, pay attention to any object, organize his mental activity. A person mastered his behavior and nature with the help of special psychological tools - signs. Signs are artificial means by which a primitive man was able to master his behavior, memory, and other mental processes (a notch on a tree - he remembered what to do; a sign is meaningfully associated with various types of labor operations). Signs-symbols were the triggers of higher mental processes, or psychological tools.

3. Genetic aspects. In the process of joint labor in human society, communication took place between its participants with the help of special signs that determined the actions of the participants: words-orders (verbal signs; “do that”, “take it there”) performed an outwardly command function. A person, having heard a certain sound combination, performed a certain labor operation. In the process of developing activity, a person began to turn these sound combinations onto himself (the organizing function of the word) and learned to control his behavior.

Cultural development of man according to the concept, it took place in two stages: 1. The initial process of mastering signs-symbols - interpsychological(interpersonal) process, when the functions of the person ordering and the person performing are separated; 2. intrapsychological a process (relationship with oneself) when external means-signs (notches, knots) are transformed into internal ones (images, elements of inner speech).

The process of transformation of interpsychological relations into intrapsychological ones is called interiorization.

In the ontogenesis of each person, the same thing is observed in principle: first, an adult influences the child with a word, prompting him to action; the child adopts the way of communication and begins to influence the adult with a word and then - on himself.

Fundamental provisions of the concept:

1. Higher mental functions have an indirect structure.

2. The process of development of the human psyche is characterized by the internalization of relations of control and means-signs.

main conclusion: man is fundamentally different from animals, as he mastered nature with the help of tools.

To master his own psyche, a person uses psychological tools (sign means) that have a cultural origin. Speech is the most universal and most typical sign system.

The higher mental functions of a person differ from the mental functions of animals in terms of properties, structure and origin, i.e. arbitrary, mediated and social.

Mind and body

The human body exists in the natural environment, in the process of systematic exchange of products with the natural environment. Thus, we can talk about the fundamental connection of the human body with nature. The function of the psyche is to display, hold, reproduce and develop this unity.

The environment, the climate, together with the integrity of natural conditions, has a direct impact on human life. Natural conditions determine the primary conditions for the subject-practical activity of people, the dynamics of behavior and response. Actually, the human psyche can form and function successfully under certain biological conditions (body temperature, metabolism, oxygen levels in the blood and brain cells). Of particular importance for mental activity are the individual characteristics of the human body: age, gender, structure of the nervous system and brain, body type, level of hormonal activity.

Brain and psyche

The function of integrating and processing the information received and programming the most adequate response belongs to the central nervous system. This function includes a wide range of processes - from reflexes at the level of the spinal cord to complex mental operations at the level of higher parts of the brain. Damage to any part of the nervous system causes disturbances in the functioning of the body and psyche.

Sensory zones are distinguished in the cerebral cortex (information from the sense organs and receptors is received and processed here), motor zones (they control skeletal muscles and movements) and associative zones (they serve to process information; the zones of the frontal part of the brain are closely related to mental activity, speech, memory, awareness of the position of the body in space).

Individual personality traits are determined by the specifics of the interaction of the cerebral hemispheres. Approximately 90% of people are dominated by the left hemisphere of the brain. The left hemisphere performs the functions of reading maps, diagrams, remembering names, symbols, words, detailed perception and chronological order of the world, positive attitude. The right hemisphere orients a person in the current time and specific space, provides memorization of images, specific events, recognition of the faces of specific people, determination of the emotional state and a holistic figurative perception, a pessimistic worldview. When the right hemisphere is turned off, a person cannot determine the current time of day and season, is not able to navigate in a particular space, and does not perceive the intonation of words. When the left hemisphere is turned off, creative abilities that are not related to the verbal description of forms remain, but a person is accompanied by a depressive state.

The specialization of the hemispheres allows us to consider the world from two different points of view, to cognize it, using not only verbal and grammatical logic, but also intuition; creates a physiological basis for creativity.

Home test

in psychology. On the topic of:

Psyche: nature, mechanisms, properties.

Consciousness as the highest level of mental reflection.

Psyche: nature, mechanisms, properties. Consciousness as the highest level of mental reflection.

1. Mind as a property of highly organized living matter. Nature and mechanisms of mental phenomena.

2. Irritability. Sensitivity and sensations, their properties and main differences compared to irritability. Behavior as a process of adaptation to environmental conditions.

3. Consciousness as the highest level of mental reflection. "I-concept" and human criticality, their role in shaping human behavior.

4. Activity and intentionality are the main characteristics of consciousness. Reflection and motivational-value character of consciousness.

5. Basic functions of the psyche. Ensuring adaptation to environmental conditions is an integrative function of the psyche. General problems of the origin of the human psyche.

6. The relationship between the development of the brain and human consciousness. The role of labor in the formation and development of human consciousness. The concept of A. N. Leontiev.

Mind as a property of highly organized living matter. Nature and mechanisms of mental phenomena.

The psyche is a property of highly organized living matter, which consists in the active reflection of the objective world by the subject, in the construction by the subject of an inalienable picture of this world from him and in the regulation of behavior and activity on this basis.

From this definition follows a number of fundamental judgments about the nature and mechanisms of manifestation of the psyche. First, the psyche is a property of only living matter. And not just living matter, but highly organized living matter. Consequently, not every living matter has this property, but only that which has specific organs that determine the possibility of the existence of the psyche.

Secondly, the main feature of the psyche is the ability to reflect the objective world. What does this mean? Literally, this means the following: highly organized living matter, which has a psyche, has the ability to obtain information about the world around it. At the same time, the receipt of information is associated with the creation of this highly organized matter of a certain mental, i.e., subjective in nature and idealistic (non-material) in essence, image, which, with a certain measure of accuracy, is a copy of the material objects of the real world.

Thirdly, information about the surrounding world received by a living being serves as the basis for regulating the internal environment of a living organism and shaping its behavior, which generally determines the possibility of a relatively long existence of this organism in constantly changing environmental conditions. Consequently, living matter, which has a psyche, is able to respond to changes in the external environment or to the effects of environmental objects.

It must be emphasized that there is a very significant number of forms of living matter that have certain mental abilities. These forms of living matter differ from each other in terms of the level of development of mental properties.

Irritability. Sensitivity and sensations, their properties and main differences compared to irritability . Behavior as a process of adaptation to environmental conditions.

The elementary ability to respond selectively to the influence of the external environment is already observed in the simplest forms of living matter. So, the amoeba, which is just one living cell filled with protoplasm, moves away from some stimuli and approaches others. At its core, amoeba movements are the initial form of adaptation of the simplest organisms to the external environment. Such an adaptation is possible due to the existence of a certain property that distinguishes living matter from non-living matter. This property is irritability. Outwardly, it is expressed in the manifestation of the forced activity of a living organism. The higher the level of development of the organism, the more complex the manifestation of its activity in the event of a change in environmental conditions. Primary forms of irritability are found even in plants, for example, the so-called "tropism" - forced movement.

As a rule, living organisms of this level react only to direct influences, such as mechanical touches that threaten the integrity of the organism, or to biotic stimuli. For example, plants react to illumination, the content of microelements in the soil, etc. Thus, we will not be mistaken if we say that living organisms of a given level react only to factors that are biologically significant for them, and their response is reactive in nature, i.e. With. a living organism is active only after direct exposure to an environmental factor.

The further development of irritability in living beings is largely associated with the complication of the living conditions of more developed organisms, which, accordingly, have a more complex anatomical structure. Living organisms of a given level of development are forced to respond to a more complex set of environmental factors. The combination of these internal and external conditions predetermines the emergence in living organisms of more complex forms of response, called sensitivity. Sensitivity characterizes the general ability to sense. According to A. I. Leontiev, the appearance of sensitivity in animals can serve as an objective biological sign of the emergence of the psyche.

A distinctive feature of sensitivity in comparison with irritability is that with the appearance of sensations, living organisms get the opportunity to respond not only to biologically significant environmental factors, but also to biologically neutral ones, although for the simplest representatives of this level of development, such as worms, mollusks, arthropods, leading are still biologically significant environmental factors. However, in this case, the nature of the response of animals with sensitivity to environmental factors is fundamentally different from the response of living organisms of a lower level. Thus, the presence of sensitivity allows the animal to respond to an object that makes sense to him before direct contact with him. For example, an animal of a given level of development of the psyche can react to the color of an object, its paws or shape, etc. Later, in the process of developing organic matter, living beings gradually form one of the main properties of the psyche - the ability to anticipate and holistically reflect the real world. This means that in the process of evolution, animals with a more highly developed psyche are able to receive information about the world around them, analyze it and respond to the possible impact of any surrounding objects, both biologically significant and biologically neutral.

In itself, the appearance in a certain class of animals of sensitivity, or the ability to sense, can be considered not only as the birth of the psyche, but also as the appearance of a fundamentally new type of adaptation to the external environment. The main difference between this type of adaptation lies in the appearance of special processes that connect the animal with the environment - the processes of behavior.

Behavior is a complex set of reactions of a living organism to the effects of the external environment. It must be emphasized that living beings, depending on the level of mental development, have behavior of varying complexity. We can see the simplest behavioral responses by observing, for example, how a worm changes its direction of movement when it encounters an obstacle. Moreover, the higher the level of development of a living being, the more complex its behavior. For example, in dogs we are already seeing manifestations of anticipatory reflection. So, the dog avoids meeting with an object that contains a certain threat. However, the most complex behavior is observed in humans, who, unlike animals, have not only the ability to respond to sudden changes in environmental conditions, but also the ability to form motivated (conscious) and purposeful behavior. The possibility of implementing such a complex behavior is due to the presence of consciousness in a person.

Consciousness as the highest level of mental reflection. "I-concept" and human criticality, their role in shaping human behavior.

Consciousness is the highest level of mental reflection and regulation, inherent only to man as a socio-historical being.

From a practical point of view, consciousness acts as a continuously changing set of sensory and mental images that directly appear before the subject in his inner world and anticipate his practical activity. We have the right to assume that similar mental activity in the formation of mental images occurs in the most developed animals, such as dogs, horses, dolphins. Therefore, a person is distinguished from animals not by this activity itself, but by the mechanisms of its flow, which originated in the process of human social development. These mechanisms and features of their operation determine the presence in a person of such a phenomenon as consciousness.

As a result of these mechanisms, a person separates himself from the environment and realizes his individuality, forms his “I-concept”, which consists in the totality of a person’s ideas about himself, about the surrounding reality and his place in society. Thanks to consciousness, a person has the ability to independently, that is, without the influence of environmental stimuli, regulate his behavior. In turn, the "I-concept" is the core of his system of self-regulation. A person refracts all the perceived information about the world around him through his system of ideas about himself and forms his behavior based on the system of his values, ideals and motivational attitudes. Of course, human behavior does not always correspond to environmental conditions. The adequacy of human behavior is largely determined by the degree of its criticality.

In a simplified form, criticality is the ability to recognize the difference between "good" and "bad". Thanks to criticality, ideals are formed in a person and an idea of ​​\u200b\u200bmoral values ​​is created. It is the ability to critically evaluate what is happening and compare the information received with one's attitudes and ideals, and also, on the basis of this comparison, form one's behavior that distinguishes a person from an animal. Thus, criticality acts as a mechanism for controlling one's behavior. On the other hand, the presence of such a complex mechanism for the formation and operation of mental images determines whether a person has the ability for conscious activity, the manifestation of which is labor.

In order to realize the importance of this conclusion, let us try to deny it by saying that certain animals also perform useful actions. For example, a dog guards, a horse carries firewood, and some animals perform in the circus, demonstrating actions that at first glance seem reasonable. However, all this is so only at first glance. In order to perform such complex actions, an animal needs a person. Without the participation of a person, without his initiating principle, the animal is not able to perform actions similar to conscious behavior. Consequently, human activity and animal behavior differ in the degree of independence. Thanks to consciousness, a person acts consciously and independently.

Thus, we can distinguish four main levels of development of the psyche of living organisms: irritability, sensitivity (sensations), behavior of higher animals (externally conditioned behavior), human consciousness (self-determined behavior). It should be noted that each of these levels has its own stages of development.

Only man possesses the highest level of development of the psyche. But a person is not born with a developed consciousness. The formation and evolution of consciousness occur in the process of physiological and social development of a particular individual (ontogenesis). Therefore, the process of formation of consciousness is strictly individual, due to both the peculiarities of social development and genetic predisposition.

Activity and intentionality are the main characteristics of consciousness. Reflection and motivational-value character of consciousness.

What characterizes consciousness? Firstly, consciousness is always active, and secondly, it is intentional. Activity itself is a property of all living beings. The activity of consciousness is manifested in the fact that the mental reflection of the objective world by a person is not passive, as a result of which all objects reflected by the psyche have the same significance, but, on the contrary, differentiation occurs in terms of the degree of significance for the subject of mental images. As a result, human consciousness is always directed towards some object, object or image, i.e. it has the property of intention (orientation).

The presence of these properties determines the presence of a number of other characteristics of consciousness, allowing us to consider it as the highest level of self-regulation. The group of these properties of consciousness should include the ability for self-observation (reflection), as well as the motivational-value nature of consciousness.

The ability to reflect determines the ability of a person to observe himself, his feeling, his state. Moreover, to observe critically, that is, a person is able to assess himself and his condition by placing the information received in a certain coordinate system. Such a coordinate system for a person is his values ​​and ideals.

Basic functions of the psyche. Ensuring adaptation to environmental conditions is an integrative function of the psyche. General problems of the origin of the human psyche

The functions of the psyche can be most accurately determined, perhaps, only in one area. This is the sphere of interaction between living organisms and the environment. From this point of view, three main functions of the psyche can be distinguished: reflection of the surrounding reality, preservation of the integrity of the body, regulation of behavior. These functions are interconnected and, in fact, are elements of the integrative function of the psyche, which consists in ensuring the adaptation of a living organism to environmental conditions.

The more developed a living being, the more complex the mechanisms of its adaptation. We observe the most complex adaptation mechanisms in humans. The process of human adaptation to a certain extent is similar to the process of adaptation of higher animals. Just like in animals, human adaptation has an internal and external orientation. The internal orientation of adaptation is that thanks to the process of adaptation, the constancy of the internal environment of the organism is ensured and thereby the integrity of the organism is maintained. The external manifestation of adaptation is to ensure adequate contact of a living being with the external environment, i.e., in the formation of appropriate behavior in more developed creatures or behavioral reactions in less developed organisms. Consequently, both the internal and external aspects of adaptation primarily provide the possibility of the biological existence of a living being. In humans, the construction of contact with the external environment has a more complex structure than in animals, since a person is in contact not only with the natural, but also with the social environment, which functions according to laws different from the laws of nature. Therefore, we have the right to believe that the adaptation of a person is aimed not only at ensuring his biological existence, but also at ensuring his existence in society.

In addition, we have the right to assume that the regulation of the internal state of a person occurs at a more complex level, since the influx of information about the changed conditions of the external environment gives rise to certain changes in the course of mental processes, i.e., a person also undergoes mental adaptation.

The way and level of adaptation of animals to the conditions of existence is determined by the degree of development of the psyche of animals. The available scientific material makes it possible to single out several stages in the development of the animal psyche. These stages differ in the way and level of obtaining information about the surrounding world, which prompts the animal to act. In one case, this is the level of individual sensations, in the other, objective perception.

The highest level of development of the psyche of animals at the stage of objective perception allows us to speak of the simplest intellectual behavior of animals. However, a feature of animal behavior is mainly the satisfaction of their basic biological needs.

There is another problem of scientific knowledge of the psyche. This is the problem of the origin of the psyche. What is the reason for the existence of such a phenomenon as the psyche? We have already mentioned the existence of different points of view regarding the origin of the psyche. From one point of view - idealistic - the psychic (soul) in its origin is not connected with the body (the biological carrier of the soul) and has a divine origin. From another point of view - dualistic - a person has two principles: mental (ideal) and biological (material). These two principles develop in parallel and to a certain extent are interconnected with each other. From a third point of view - materialistic - the phenomenon of the psyche is due to the evolution of living nature, and its existence should be considered as a property of highly developed matter.

Disputes about the origin of the psyche do not stop to this day. This is due to the fact that the problem of the origin of the psyche is not only one of the most difficult in scientific knowledge, but also fundamental. Many scientists are trying to explain the origin of the psyche within the framework of not only psychological science, but also philosophy, religion, physiology, etc. Today there is still no unambiguous answer to this question.

In domestic psychology, this problem is considered from a materialistic point of view, which involves the use of a rationalistic method of cognition based on experiment. Thanks to experimental research, today we know that there is a certain relationship between the biological and the mental. For example, it is well known that diseases or dysfunctions of certain organs can affect the human psyche. Thus, a long course of treatment using the "artificial kidney" apparatus is accompanied by the phenomenon of a temporary decrease in intellectual abilities, which is associated with the accumulation of aluminum salts in the brain. After the termination of the course of treatment, the restoration of intellectual abilities occurs.

It should be noted that such complex mental mechanisms observed in humans became possible only as a result of the long evolution of living organisms, the historical development of mankind and the individual development of a particular individual.

The relationship between the development of the brain and human consciousness. The role of labor in the formation and development of human consciousness . The concept of A. N. Leontiev.

In domestic psychology, the question is “What causes the emergence and development of consciousness in a person? “, as a rule, are considered based on the hypothesis formulated by A. N. Leontiev about the origin of human consciousness. In order to answer the question about the origin of consciousness, it is necessary to dwell on the fundamental differences between man and other representatives of the animal world.

One of the main differences between man and animal lies in his relationship with nature. If an animal is an element of living nature and builds its relationship with it from the standpoint of adaptation to the conditions of the surrounding world, then a person does not simply adapt to the natural environment, but seeks to subjugate it to a certain extent, creating tools for this. With the creation of tools, the way of life of a person changes. The ability to create tools for the transformation of the surrounding nature testifies to the ability to work consciously.

Work - this is a specific type of activity inherent only to man, which consists in the implementation of influences on nature in order to ensure the conditions for its existence.

The main feature of labor is that labor activity, as a rule, is carried out only jointly with other people. This is true even for the simplest labor operations or activities of an individual nature, since in the process of their implementation a person enters into certain relationships with the people around him. For example, the work of a writer can be characterized as individual. However, in order to become a writer, a person had to learn to read and write, receive the necessary education, i.e., his labor activity became possible only as a result of involvement in the system of relations with other people. Thus, any work, even seemingly purely individual at first glance, requires cooperation with other people.

Consequently, labor contributed to the formation of certain human communities that were fundamentally different from animal communities. These differences consisted in the fact that, firstly, the unification of primitive people was caused by the desire not just to survive, which is typical to a certain extent for herd animals, but to survive by transforming the natural conditions of existence, i.e., with the help of collective labor.

Secondly, the most important condition for the existence of human communities and the successful performance of labor operations is the level of development of communication between members of the community. The higher the level of development of communication between members of the community, the higher not only the organization, but also the level of development of the human psyche. Thus, the highest level of human communication - speech - determined a fundamentally different level of regulation of mental states and behavior - regulation with the help of the word. A person who is able to communicate using words does not need to make physical contact with the objects around him to form his behavior or idea of ​​the real world. To do this, it is enough for him to have information that he acquires in the process of communicating with other people.

It should be noted that it is the features of human communities, which consist in the need for collective labor, that determined the emergence and development of speech. In turn, speech predetermined the possibility of the existence of consciousness, since a person's thought always has a verbal (verbal) form. For example, a person who, due to a certain set of circumstances, got into childhood with animals and grew up among them, cannot speak, and the level of his thinking, although higher than that of animals, does not at all correspond to the level of thinking of a modern person.

Thirdly, for the normal existence and development of human communities, the laws of the animal world, based on the principles of natural selection, are unsuitable. The collective nature of labor, the development of communication not only led to the development of thinking, but also led to the formation of specific laws of the existence and development of the human community. These laws are known to us as the principles of morality and morality.

Thus, there is a certain sequence of phenomena that determined the possibility of the appearance of consciousness in a person: labor led to a change in the principles of building relationships between people. This change was expressed in the transition from natural selection to the principles of organizing a social community, and also contributed to the development of speech as a means of communication. The emergence of human communities with their moral norms, reflecting the laws of social coexistence, was the basis for the manifestation of the criticality of human thinking. This is how the concepts of "good" and "bad" appeared, the content of which was determined by the level of development of human communities. Gradually, with the development of society, these concepts became more complex, which to a certain extent contributed to the evolution of thinking. At the same time, the development of speech took place. She has more and more features. It contributed to a person's awareness of his "I", the isolation of himself from the environment. As a result, speech has acquired properties that make it possible to consider it as a means of regulating human behavior. All these phenomena and patterns determined the possibility of manifestation and development of consciousness in humans.

At the same time, it should be emphasized that such a logical sequence is only a hypothesis stated from rationalistic positions. Today, there are other points of view on the problem of the emergence of human consciousness, including those stated from irrational positions. This is not surprising, since there is no consensus on many issues of psychology. We prefer the rationalist point of view not only because such views were held by the classics of Russian psychology (A. N. Leontiev, B. N. Teplov, and others). There are a number of facts that make it possible to establish patterns that determined the possibility of the emergence of consciousness in humans.

First of all, attention should be paid to the fact that the emergence of consciousness in man, the appearance of speech and the ability to work were prepared by the evolution of man as a biological species. The upright posture freed the forelimbs from the function of walking and contributed to the development of their specialization associated with grasping objects, holding them and manipulating them, which in general contributed to the creation of an opportunity for a person to work. Simultaneously with this, the development of the sense organs took place. In humans, vision has become the dominant source of information about the world around us.

We have the right to believe that the development of the sense organs could not occur in isolation from the development of the nervous system as a whole, since with the advent of man as a biological species, significant changes are noted in the structure of the nervous system, and above all the brain. Thus, the volume of the human brain exceeds the volume of the brain of its closest predecessor - the great ape - more than twice. If in a great ape the average brain volume is 600 cm 3, then in humans it is 1400 cm 3. The surface area of ​​the cerebral hemispheres increases even more in proportion, since the number of convolutions of the cerebral cortex and their depth in humans is much greater.

However, with the advent of man, there is not only a physical increase in the volume of the brain and the area of ​​the cortex. There are significant structural and functional changes in the brain. For example, in humans, in comparison with the great ape, the area of ​​projection fields associated with elementary sensory and motor functions has decreased in percentage terms, and the percentage of integrative fields associated with higher mental functions has increased.

Such a sharp growth of the cerebral cortex, its structural evolution is primarily due to the fact that a number of elementary functions, which in animals are entirely carried out by the lower parts of the brain, in humans already require the participation of the cortex. There is a further corticalization of the control of behavior, a greater subordination of elementary processes to the cortex in comparison with what is observed in animals. It can be assumed that the evolution of the cerebral cortex in the process of human phylogenesis, along with its socio-historical development, led to the possibility of the emergence of the highest form of development of the psyche - consciousness.

Today, thanks to clinical research, we know that conscious activity and conscious human behavior is largely determined by the prefrontal and parietal areas of the cerebral cortex. So, with the defeat of the anterior frontal fields, a person loses the ability to consciously and intelligently manage his activity as a whole, to subordinate his actions to more distant motives and goals. At the same time, the defeat of the parietal fields leads to the loss of ideas about temporal and spatial relationships, as well as logical connections. An interesting fact is that the frontal and parietal fields in humans, compared with great apes, are developed to the greatest extent, especially the frontal. If the frontal fields in monkeys occupy about 15% of the area of ​​the cerebral cortex, then in humans they occupy 30%. In addition, the anterior frontal and lower parietal areas in humans have some nerve centers that are absent in animals.

It should also be noted that the results of the evolution of motor organs affected the nature of structural changes in the human brain. Each muscle group is closely associated with certain motor fields of the cerebral cortex. In humans, the motor fields associated with a particular muscle group have a different area, the size of which directly depends on the degree of development of a particular muscle group. When analyzing the ratios of the sizes of the areas of the motor fields, attention is drawn to how large the area of ​​the motor field associated with the hands is in relation to other fields. Consequently, the human hands have the greatest development among the organs of movement and are most associated with the activity of the cerebral cortex. It must be emphasized that this phenomenon occurs only in humans.

Thus, we can draw a twofold conclusion about the relationship between labor and the mental development of a person. First, the most complex structure that the human brain has and which distinguishes it from the brain of animals is most likely associated with the development of human labor activity. Such a conclusion is classical from the point of view of materialistic philosophy. On the other hand, given that the volume of the brain of modern man has not changed significantly since the time of primitive people, we can say that the evolution of man as a biological species contributed to the emergence of people's ability to work, which in turn was a prerequisite for the emergence of human consciousness. The absence of indisputable evidence confirming or refuting one of the conclusions has given rise to different points of view on the causes of the emergence and development of human consciousness.

However, we will not focus our attention on theoretical disputes, but only note that the emergence of consciousness in a person as the highest known form of development of the psyche became possible due to the complication of the structure of the brain. In addition, we must agree that the level of development of brain structures and the ability to perform complex labor operations are closely related. Therefore, it can be argued that the emergence of consciousness in humans is due to both biological and social factors. The development of wildlife has led to the emergence of a person with specific features of the structure of the body and a more developed nervous system compared to other animals, which generally determined the ability of a person to work. This, in turn, led to the emergence of communities, the development of language and consciousness, that is, the logical chain of patterns that was mentioned above. Thus, labor was the condition that made it possible to realize the mental potentials of the biological species Homo Sapiens.

It must be emphasized that with the advent of consciousness, man immediately stood out from the animal world, but the first people, in terms of their level of mental development, differed significantly from modern people. Thousands of years passed before man reached the level of modern development. Moreover, the main factor in the progressive development of consciousness was labor. So, with the acquisition of practical experience, with the evolution of social relations, there was a complication of labor activity. A person gradually moved from the simplest labor operations to more complex activities, which entailed the progressive development of the brain and consciousness.

Used Books:

1. Maklakov A. G. General psychology - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2001.

2. Gippenreiter Yu. B. Introduction to General Psychology: A Course of Lectures: Textbook for High Schools. - M., 1997.

3. Nemov R. S. Psychology: Textbook for students. higher ped. textbook institutions: In 3 books. Book. 1: General foundations of psychology. - 2nd ed. - M.: Vlados 1998.

4. Psychology / Ed. prof. K. N. Kornilova, prof. A. A. Smirnova, prof. B. M. Teplov. - Ed. 3rd, revised. and additional - M.: Uchpedgiz, 1948.

5. Simonov P. V. Motivated brain: Higher nervous activity and natural science foundations of general psychology / Ed. ed. V. S. Rusinov. - M.: Nauka, 1987.

The main distinguishing feature of the human psyche is the presence of consciousness, and conscious reflection is such a reflection of objective reality, in which its objective stable properties are distinguished, regardless of the subject’s relationship to it.

The criterion for the appearance of the rudiments of the psyche in living organisms is the presence of sensitivity, that is, the ability to respond to vital environmental stimuli (sound, smell, etc.), which are signals of vital stimuli (food, danger) due to their objectively stable connection. The criterion of sensitivity is the ability to form conditioned reflexes. Reflex - a natural connection of an external or internal stimulus through the nervous system with a particular activity. The psyche arises and develops in animals precisely because otherwise they could not orient themselves in the environment and exist.

The human psyche is a qualitatively higher level than the psyche of animals. Consciousness, the human mind developed in the process of labor activity, which arises due to the need to carry out joint actions to obtain food during a sharp change in the living conditions of primitive man. And although the specific morphological features of a person have been stable for thousands of years, the development of the human psyche took place in the process of labor activity. Labor activity has a productive character: labor, carrying out the production process, is imprinted in its product (that is, there is a process of embodiment, objectification of their spiritual forces and abilities in the products of people's activities). Thus, the material, spiritual culture of mankind is an objective form of the embodiment of the achievements of the mental development of mankind.

In the process of the historical development of society, a person changes the ways and methods of his behavior, transforms natural inclinations and functions into "higher mental functions" - specific and human, socially historically conditioned forms of memory, thinking, perception (logical memory, abstract logical thinking), mediated by the use of auxiliary means, speech signs created in the process of historical development. The unity of higher mental functions forms the consciousness of man.

Consciousness is the highest form of a generalized reflection of the objective stable properties and patterns of the surrounding world, characteristic of a person, the formation of an internal model of the external world in a person, as a result of which knowledge and transformation of the surrounding reality is achieved.

The functions of consciousness consist in the formation of the goals of activity, in the preliminary mental construction of actions and the prediction of their results, which ensures a reasonable regulation of human behavior and activity.

Consciousness develops in a person only in social contacts. In phylogenesis, human consciousness develops and becomes possible only under conditions of active influence on nature, labor activity. Consciousness is possible only under the conditions of the existence of language, speech, which arises simultaneously with consciousness in the process of labor.

A person comes into this world to know it, to leave something good behind, to feel the fullness and joy of life. The sphere of emotions, sensations, inner world, consciousness develops in a person constantly. The formation of the psyche is the result of human interaction with the outside world.

It is logical to conclude that the physical health of a person depends on what he drinks and eats. Quality natural food rich in proteins, vitamins and minerals is the foundation for building a healthy strong body. Pure, spring or mineralized purified water fills the cells of the body with health, gives longevity.

Mental self-improvement depends on the environment. Each emotion received as a result of life experience and knowledge of the world contributes to the formation of the psyche.

In the evolution of the psyche, the stages of development are distinguished:

1. Formation of sensory abilities. Cognition of the world begins with the development of the sense organs and the inclusion of the mechanism of unconditioned reflexes. The child feels, analyzes, learns to adapt to the world around him, gets the first experience - the skills to eat, drink, hold an object in his hand, turn around, crawl, walk, understand speech, speak. With the help of loving relatives, the child provides an idea of ​​the world around him, gains experience, and lays the foundation for the development of the psyche.
2. perception of information and analysis of the environment. Through the development of the nervous system, motor memory and the ability to understand the world, the child learns to express and control his emotions.
3. intellectual stage. His algorithm is simple - set a goal, find a way out, then praise yourself for a job well done. This technique of success must be mastered in childhood.
4. Physical and psychological development. The first three years of life are very important for a child. During this period, the musculoskeletal system, abstract thinking, speech are formed, new skills are taught.
5. Formation of consciousness. The desire for activity and knowledge of the world around manifests in a person his best sides - he cognizes the world through creativity, art, literature. It is possible to develop from birth to old age, because all the conditions for this have been created on earth.
6. Self-awareness. The determining factors of its development are in the experience that a person receives from communication with other people and a personal relationship with himself, as well as with his environment. You should improve your inner "I", not suppress thoughts and desires, but manifest them. At this stage, it is important to accept an element of self-control, there are limits of decency, culture, self-organization, beyond which it is not recommended to go.
7. social behavior. Communication as a factor in the development of the psyche is very important for a child and an adult. It is impossible to develop all the skills necessary for the formation of a stable psyche alone. Throughout life, people improve their abilities, learn to interact, get results that affect mental health.

If we consider the evolution of the psyche in phylogeny, we can see that the development of man has gone further than that of animals due to the formation of consciousness and mental abilities.

There are patterns that affect a healthy mental state.

External world:

• physical interaction - weather, people around, comfort level;
• psychological climate - from the behavior, culture, communication of the surrounding people, a picture of psychological well-being is formed;
• the influence of the media, the traditions of society and morality;
• personal view of the situation.

Inner world:

• physical health;
• genetics;
• physiological state and level of comfort in the proposed conditions;
• emotional condition;
• habits;
• willpower, intelligence.

What factors will affect the development of the psyche to a greater or lesser extent is a personal matter for everyone, and it requires individual consideration.

Leading psychological theories of the formation of the psyche and consciousness

Since the emergence of society to the present day, scientists have been looking for answers to the questions of how the psyche is formed, what is the nature of this process, what is more important: the external environment or the influence of genetic factors.

The main concepts are within the framework of psychoanalysis and cognitive theories.

Psychological theories of the formation of the psyche and consciousness are diverse and worthy of attention. The most famous theories are the teachings of Freud, Jung, James, Adler, Assagioli, Spranger, Allport, Lewin, Frankl, Rogers.

The human psyche can be viewed as the result of the reflection of the world, which has passed through the prism of the mind. Thanks to a developed psyche, a person finds his place in life, builds relationships in society, and finds ways out of life situations.

The role of a specific influence on the formation of the psyche is constantly monitored by scientists and psychologists, new theories appear. A person has a powerful inner potential from birth. To reveal it, you need to constantly develop your abilities, build interpersonal relationships against the backdrop of a positive attitude towards yourself and the world around you.

Formation of the child's psyche - the role of the family and the media

The formation of the child's psyche begins at an early age. For preschool children, a lot of educational games, toys, creative kits have been created. At this age, the child learns his strength, sees and evaluates the results of his work, learns to evaluate his actions and deeds. Awakening, the inclusion of mechanisms of introspection, internal development occurs in adolescence. This is an important period. Moreover, ideally, it occurs at the age of 15, but it often happens that after 40 years people are looking for themselves and cannot cross the barrier of self-control and internal development.

In childhood and adolescence, a large role is allocated to the media in the formation of the psyche of the student. Promotion of violence, smoking, alcohol, drugs is a bad example for a fragile psyche. How to save a child? The ban on watching programs and commercials will only bring protest, so the help of the elders is needed.

To show by example that the main thing in life is not a TV or a tablet, but sports, communication, passion - this is the task of a loving parent. The child himself must make a choice, and parents to help him in this.