Establishment of orders under Peter 1. Establishment of colleges. What was the reform of the central government
Question 20. State reforms of Peter 1.
Reforms of the central authorities and administration: the tsarist government, the Senate, collegiums
Peter I became the first absolute monarch (autocrat) in the history of the Russian state. However, in some works, some of Peter's predecessors on the Russian throne are considered autocratic. But neither Grand Duke Ivan III, nor Ivan IV (the Terrible), the first in Russia to officially take the title of tsar and most actively assert his power, nor Alexei Mikhailovich, became autocratic (absolute) monarchs. For objective reasons, they could not eliminate the representative bodies (primarily the Boyar Duma) from the political arena. Only after the actual merging of all Russian lands into a single state, the separation of the tsar from the old aristocracy, and the reduction of the political role of the latter, did the complete liquidation of the boyar Duma and the Zemsky Sobors become possible. Thus, as a result of the objective maturation of internal and external objective conditions, as well as due to a favorable combination of subjective factors, autocracy (absolutism) really took hold in Russia.
Unfortunately, the tower and one of the most beautiful views of the city are inaccessible to people - the Clementinum is undergoing major renovations and reconstruction due to the decision to leave the library in these historical buildings. Here you can see from the Tower of Prague. At dawn, Pumäja is still the most famous Czech bridge. From this place there is no chance of the tower of the cathedral.
To the south, the Old Town Square is blooming, the flowers don't look too fresh, and at night they were gone. For residents there are underground passages. Watching the hourly parade of apostles, tapes of death and roosters, Orloi can be bought and taken home. The National Library attracts crowds of readers from all over the world.
After the termination of convocations of Zemsky Sobors The Boyar Duma remained in fact, the only body that restrains the power of the king. However, as new bodies of power and administration were formed in the Russian state, the Duma ceased to act as a body of representative power of the boyars by the beginning of the 18th century.
In 1699 was created Near Office (an institution exercising administrative and financial control in the state). Formally, it was the office of the Boyar Duma, but its work was led by a dignitary close to Peter I (Nikita Zotov). Meetings of the increasingly shrinking Boyar Duma began to take place in the Middle Office. In 1708, as a rule, 8 people participated in the meetings of the Duma, all of them managed various orders, and this meeting was called the Council of Ministers. This council turned into the Supreme body of power, which, in the absence of the tsar, ruled not only Moscow, but the entire state. The boyars and the judges of the remaining orders were to come to the Near Office three times a week to resolve cases.
The history of the creation of the Colleges
Alternatively, for beer dumplings. The most characteristic of the Prague Tower - the Church of the Virgin Mary in front of Tyn - is viewed from the trees. And this group of friendly butterflies is a special dedication. The recipient will probably understand that this is for him. This is the work of David Djihoen, which is supposed to recall the twentieth anniversary of the Velvet Revolution and provoke questions about how Czech society has changed over the years as political life in a free, democratic country.
Control over the activities of civil servants
The text itself is not easy to read, the work is attracted by the unusual material from which it was made. The keys glow in the sun, they shimmer and curl. Obviously, this information, along with the name of the company, is not a mystery and is shown on the board next to the "sculpture". I really like Vessigrad. Early, still dim, windy, but already spoiled by the sun, and then, with a blush, colorful, bright. These my spring associations with Vysehrad are perfectly legitimate. It all started here, Vyšehrad is the legendary cradle of the Czech Republic and the site of an early medieval town.
Council of Ministers unlike the Boyar Duma, it met without a tsar and was mainly busy fulfilling his instructions. It was an administrative council that answered to the king. In 1710 this council consisted of 8 members. All of them managed separate orders, and there were no boyars - Duma members who did not manage anything: some acted in the provinces, others simply were not convened in the Duma. And the Duma, thus, by 1710 itself turned into a rather close council of ministers (the members of this close council are called ministers in the letters of Peter, in papers and acts of that time).
When they were here French troops occupying Prague, casemates were built. Peter and Pavel turned into a national necropolis, with a symbolic ensemble of tombstones for the most beloved Czechs - Slavonia. Many tombstones are true works of art. At a distance from the church are two characteristic towers. Longinus, but, most likely, this is the resting place of the rulers. Another legend says that there is a lot of Libyan money in Libya.
After the war, when an Allied bomb destroyed the building there, the site on Raunovje novbez Street was undeveloped. The fact that President Vibklav Havel, co-owner of the neighboring house, expressed his hope for the creation of a cultural center of the European Capital of Culture, became a dream for architects and designers. It was not his desire, for many years it was said that this was the ideal place for a library, theater or cafe - a place that would serve the people of Prague. It was clear that this land could not be spent on any kind of architecture.
After the formation of the Senate The Council of Ministers (1711) and the Near Office (1719) ceased to exist.
At the beginning of the 18th century, the spiritual counterbalance to the sole power of the tsar was also eliminated. In 1700, the tenth Russian patriarch died, and the election of a new head of the Orthodox Church was not scheduled. For 21 years the patriarchal throne remained unoccupied. Church affairs were supervised by the "locum tenens" appointed by the tsar, who was later replaced by the Theological College. In the Rules of the Spiritual College (1721), the supremacy of the king's power receives legal consolidation: "The power of monarchs is autocratic, which God himself commands to obey." Consequently, the formation of the Theological College symbolized the transformation of church administration into one of the branches of state administration and testified to the subordination of the church to the king.
The cross was placed high. Sam Miluni explained that he wants to say that he can move, which seems unchanged and confident. The Prague architect invited him to work with his American colleague Frank Owen Gehry. Today, especially abroad, Gehry often thinks about being the sole author of Docker House. It is perfectly located, visible from the opposite bank of the Vistula River, the hills of the castle and Smichov, included in the program of tourist walks in Prague. Unfortunately, the request of President Havil was not fulfilled, cultural life did not find its place in this building, despite the project, which directly hits the energy.
The king retained the functions of the highest judge in the state. He led all the armed forces. All acts of authorities, administration and courts were issued on his behalf, in his exclusive competence was the declaration of war, the conclusion of peace, the signing of treaties with foreign states. The monarch was seen as the supreme bearer of legislative and executive power.
Next to the French restaurant on the top floor, overlooking the beautiful city of Prague, the house has its commercial headquarters. In the dance house silhouette, you can see the outlines of a dancing couple, so it's not surprising that another name that works is Ginger and Fred. It comes from the famous pair of dancers Ginger Rogers and Fred Astaire. The building is photogenic and fits perfectly with the architecture that surrounds it. The bride is at home, next to the cathedral. The bridge and the Charles Bridge have become an architectural symbol of Prague.
Martin, November 11, wine lovers meet for the first glass of this year's wine. The owners of the vineyard sat down with their employees to taste this wine for the first time and thus symbolically close and summarize the past season. From this day on, you can buy wine from this year's harvest in stores. Before a wine producer can use the Svatomartinska stamp, its evaluation must be assessed by an independent commission. The Vineyard of the Holy Sepulcher is one of the five vineyards in the area of modern Prague, which reminds us of the former splendor of the Prague vineyard.
The strengthening of the power of the monarch, characteristic of absolutism, was also expressed in some external attributes, the most important of which was the proclamation of the king by the emperor. In 1721, in connection with Russia's victory in the Northern War, the Senate and the Spiritual Synod presented Peter I with the title of "Father of the Fatherland, Emperor of All Russia." This title was eventually recognized by foreign powers and passed to his successors.
It is most likely a vineyard. After the battle for the white mountain and the unstable situation during the Thirty Years' War, the vineyards were forgotten. One of them was Angelus Kafka, a wine merchant and vineyard tenant. This was due to the liquidation of churches and the transformation of monastic vineyards into gardens. Wines were reintroduced during these years.
Claire, tiny, over Troy Castle. Its builder, Wobklav Vojtěch from Sternberk, dedicated the chapel. Clara, your wife's name. The chapel was intended for people living in the area, who, due to their work on land and frequent floods, were often unable to attend churches in outlying churches. The permit was issued and turned into a spacious baroque building. Next to the chapel there is a beautiful view of the city and a terrace where you can have a private celebration.
On February 22, 1711, Peter himself wrote decree on the composition of the Senate, which began with the phrase: "Determined to be for the absence of Our Governing Senate to govern ...". All members of the Senate were appointed by the king from among his immediate circle (initially - 8 people). All appointments and resignations of senators took place according to nominal royal decrees. The Senate did not interrupt its activities and was a permanent state body. The Governing Senate was established as a collegiate body, whose competence included: administration of justice, resolution of financial issues, general issues of managing trade and other sectors of the economy.
A winery leads between rows of different grape varieties, where you can choose a wine and sit at a table, admiring the panoramic view of Prague and enjoying excellent wine. This is a great place, perfect for relaxing away from the crowded and famous Prague. Everyone who loves walks, beautiful views and wine will be happy. The vineyard is located in the area botanical garden Prague, which is also very interesting and worth a visit.
Author's meetings in the living room. At the beginning of the writers' meeting, a local literary event began as a major festival, which is part of the summer cultural offer of Brno and Ostrava. During the festival there are daily meetings with authors from the chosen country and a Czech author or author. This year the festival crosses borders, and the meetings will be held in four cities of three countries - traditionally in Brno and Ostrava, in the Slovak Kosice and Vorok.
Thus, the Senate was the highest judicial, administrative and legislative institution, which submitted for consideration various issues for legislative resolution by the monarch.
Decree of April 27, 1722. “On the position of the Senate” Peter I gave detailed instructions on important issues of the Senate, regulating the composition, rights and duties of senators, established the rules for the relationship of the Senate with the collegiums, provincial authorities and the prosecutor general. Normative acts issued by the Senate did not have the highest legal force of the law, the Senate only took part in the discussion of bills and gave interpretation of the law. The Senate headed the system of state administration and was the highest authority in relation to all other bodies.
Every day in every city there will be writers, a lot of sensations and conversations. Then it was enough to arouse the disturbed. It is worth taking a few words and photos of Brno. However, it took time to visit the historic center and visit the Cathedral of St. Peter and Paul. Brno is the largest city in Moravia, the historical capital of the region and an important cultural, scientific and tourist center. Theatres, philharmonic, several higher educational institutions led by the Masaryk University and the Technical University occupy the central institutions of justice.
The structure of the Senate evolved gradually. Initially, the Senate consisted of senators and the office, later two branches were formed in its composition: reprisal chamber- on court cases (existed as a special department before the establishment of the College of Justice) and Senate office on management issues.
The Senate had its own office, which was divided into several tables: secret, provincial, bit, fiscal and clerical. Prior to the establishment of the Senate Office, it was the only executive body of the Senate. The separation of the office from the presence was determined, which acted in three compositions: the general meeting of members, the Punishment Chamber and the Senate Office in Moscow. The Reprisal Chamber consisted of two senators and judges appointed by the Senate, who submitted monthly reports to the Senate on current affairs, fines and searches. The verdicts of the Punishment Chamber could be canceled by the general presence of the Senate. The Senate verdict (1713) determined the competence of the Punishment Chamber: consideration of complaints about the wrong decision of cases by governors and orders, fiscal reports.
It took me a while and there wouldn't be a day to look closely at the Renaissance and Art Nouveau. In the immediate vicinity of the cathedral is the seat of the Bishopric of Brno, while the hill overlooks the industrial part of the city and the surrounding gardens. After seeing the interior of the cathedral, which gives the impression of a special stained glass window, you may want to visit the cathedral vault. Just an hour stay in Brno leaves you flooded. You have to go back to go out into the streets and use someone under the clock - a common meeting place for the people of Brno.
I was reminded of this guidance of each guide, I had no awareness of its existence prior to this reading. A deep history of the people and the building, which is not only the history of one family and the city, but also of a dozen or so people who were associated with this place. Let the story touch on real events, the fate of real characters and places are still novels, fictitious literary ones. However, it is not difficult to guess who and what is behind the changed names, inventions and events. The use of relief made the entrance from the street leading to the third, third floor of the building.
The Senate had auxiliary bodies (positions), which did not include senators, such bodies were the racket master, the king of arms, provincial commissars.
Reketmeister position was established under the Senate in 1720; If they complained about the red tape - the racket master personally demanded that the case be expedited, if there were complaints about the "injustice" of the boards, then, having considered the case, he reported it to the Senate.
The lower floors open from the garden. This house is a glazed wall, a lot of free space and easy play on the onyx wall. Part of the "interior" - a beautiful view from large windows. The owners of the villa left Czechoslovakia out of fear of the Nazis and never returned home.
In the post-war years, the house was used for various purposes. like high school. And would like to see your own eyes. There are more photos of Brno. The Catholic people are already a complete minority, and the churches are full of them. But to buy the church for the hotel? The boarding house has a patron whose name is still in the official title, but the pilgrim's house is not. And for the privilege of resting your head on a pillow with the same monogram, you have to pay very badly. As a sacred object, as a holy place, when it ceases to be a place of worship, it can perform many other functions.
Duties of the Herald Master(the position was established in 1722) included compiling lists of the entire state, nobles, ensuring that there were no more than 1/3 of each noble family in the civil service.
The positions of provincial commissars, who oversaw local, military, financial affairs, recruitment, maintenance of regiments, were introduced by the Senate in March 1711. Provincial commissars were directly involved in the execution of decrees sent by the Senate and colleges.
Basically, these are galleries, concert halls, museums, etc. and this raises no objections. Like our sensitivity to the realm of the sacred, this allowed these buildings to be used for higher purposes, to communicate with art, culture or science. However, the hotel old church, probably, many of us would be turned on, if not naughty, albeit disgusted.
The building that struck me so much has a façade that reminds me of a temple, but there never was a church. This is Questenberk's palace, in which a hospital was built. Eliza, and later the parochial school. It is located on the south side of the Loreto estate and belongs to the nearby monastery in Strahov, which never had a sacred character. Its façade, which is only a baroque style, has confused many researchers of desecrated objects in the Czech Republic.
Decrees of December 11, 1717 “On the staff of the Colleges and on the opening time of them” and of December 15, 1717 “On the appointment of Presidents and Vice Presidents in the Colleges” 9 colleges were created: Foreign Affairs, Chambers, Justits, Revision, Military, Admiralty, Commerce, State Offices, Berg and Manufactories.
The competence of the Board of Foreign Affairs, which replaced the Embassy Office, by decree of December 12, 1718, was to be in charge of “all kinds of foreign and embassy affairs”, coordinate the activities of diplomatic agents, manage relations and negotiations with foreign ambassadors, and carry out diplomatic correspondence. The peculiarities of the collegium was that “no court cases are judged” in it.
The book by Joanna Derdovskaya, although it is a scientific sociological dissertation, like the best novel. The concept of sacramentalization and desacralization refers not only to places and objects associated with religious worship, but also to those marked by national symbolism or a specific cult of the place - ingenious loci. Many in this text refer to specific locations, which no doubt makes it easier for the reader to travel around the city and make their own confrontation with the magical city of Prague.
Valuable insights into the functioning of the commercialized reality of urban legends, ghosts and mysteries provide a broader view of this amazing city. Back then it was just the removal of burnt specimens and the hard work of decorating with icing, chocolate and all sorts of confectionery. Married, Hermilin, my favorite beer. Spread the cheese. Garlic and onion are thickly cut, divided into 5 parts. Garlic, paprika, cheese and tabasco fall to the bottom of a wide jar - repeat until the end of the ingredients.
Board of Chambers carried out the highest supervision of all types of fees (customs duties, drinking fees), observed the arable farming, collected data on the market and prices, controlled the salt mines and the monetary business. The chamber college had its representatives in the provinces.
Justice College exercised judicial functions in criminal offenses, civil and fiscal cases, headed an extensive judicial system, consisting of provincial lower and city courts, as well as court courts. Acted as a court of first instance in contentious cases. Its decisions could be appealed to the Senate.
Revision Board it was prescribed to exercise financial control over the use of public funds by central and local bodies "for the sake of a decent correction and revision of all accounting matters in income and expenditure." Every year, all collegiums and offices sent account statements to the collegium according to the income and expense books compiled by them, and in case of dissimilarity, the Revision Collegium tried and punished officials for crimes on income and accounts. In 1722 the functions of the collegium were transferred to the Senate.
To the Military College was entrusted with the management of "all military affairs": recruiting the regular army, managing the affairs of the Cossacks, arranging hospitals, and providing for the army. In the system of the Military Collegium there was a military justice, consisting of regimental and general kriegsrechts.
Admiralty board was in charge of "the fleet with all naval military servants, including the maritime affairs and administrations belonging to it." It included the Naval and Admiralty offices, as well as the Uniform, Waldmeister, Academic, Canal offices and Particular shipyard.
College of Commerce contributed to the development of all branches of trade, especially foreign. The Board carried out customs supervision, drew up customs charters and tariffs, monitored the correctness of measures and weights, was engaged in the construction and equipment of merchant ships, and performed judicial functions.
State-offices-collegium exercised control over public spending, constituted the state staff (emperor's staff, staff of all colleges, provinces, provinces). It had its own provincial bodies - renters, which were local treasuries.
The responsibilities of the Berg Collegium included issues of the metallurgical industry, the management of mints and money yards, the purchase of gold and silver abroad, and judicial functions within its competence. A network of local authorities has been established. The Berg Collegium was merged with another - the Manufactory Collegium "according to the similarity of their affairs and duties" and as one institution existed until 1722. The Manufactory Collegium dealt with issues of all industry, excluding mining, and managed the manufactories of the Moscow province, the central and northeastern parts Volga and Siberia. The board gave permission to open manufactories, ensured the fulfillment of state orders, and provided various benefits to industrialists. Also, its competence included: the exile of those convicted in criminal cases to manufactories, the control of production technology, the supply of factories with materials. Unlike other colleges, it did not have its own bodies in the provinces and provinces.
Also in 1721, the Spiritual College was formed, which was then transformed in 1722 into the Holy Governing Synod, which was equal in rights with the Senate and reported directly to the king. The synod was the main central institution for ecclesiastical matters. He appointed bishops, exercised financial control, was in charge of his estates, and exercised judicial functions in relation to such crimes as heresy, blasphemy, schism, and so on. Particularly important decisions were made by the general meeting - the conference.
The Little Russian Collegium was formed by a decree of April 27, 1722, with the aim of "protecting the Little Russian people" from "unrighteous trials" and "oppression" by taxes on the territory of Ukraine. She exercised judicial power, was in charge of collecting taxes in Ukraine.
In total, by the end of the first quarter of the eighteenth century. there were 13 collegiums, which became central state institutions, formed according to a functional principle. In addition, there were other central institutions (for example, the Secret Chancellery, formed in 1718, which was in charge of detecting and prosecuting political crimes, the Chief Magistrate, formed in 1720 and managing the urban estate, the Medical Chancellery).
In contrast to orders that acted on the basis of custom and precedent, collegiums had to be guided by clear legal norms and job descriptions.
The most common piece of legislation in this area was General Regulations (1720), which was a charter for the activities of state collegiums, offices and offices and determined the composition of their members, competence, functions, and procedures. The subsequent development of the principle of official, bureaucratic length of service was reflected in Peter's "Table of Ranks" (1722). The new law divided the service into civil and military. It defined 14 classes, or ranks, of officials. Anyone who received the rank of 8th class became a hereditary nobleman. The ranks from the 14th to the 9th also gave the nobility, but only personal.
The adoption of the "Table of Ranks" testified that the bureaucratic principle in the formation state apparatus, undoubtedly, the aristocratic principle won. Professional qualities, personal devotion and length of service become decisive for promotion. A sign of bureaucracy as a management system is the inclusion of each official in a clear hierarchical power structure (vertically) and his guidance in his activities by strict and precise prescriptions of the law, regulations, instructions.
The positive features of the new bureaucratic apparatus were professionalism, specialization, normativity, while the negative features were its complexity, high cost, self-employment, and inflexibility.
To control the activities of the state apparatus, Peter I, by his decrees of March 2 and 5, 1711, created fiscalate(from lat. fiscus - state treasury) as a special branch of the Senate administration ("to inflict fiscals in all matters"). The head of the fiscals - the chief fiscal - was attached to the Senate, which "was in charge of the fiscals." At the same time, the fiscals were also confidants of the tsar. The latter appointed chief fiscal, who took the oath to the king and was responsible to him. The decree of March 17, 1714 outlined the competence of the fiscals: to inspect everything that “may be to the detriment of the state interest”; to report “on malicious intent against the person of His Majesty or treason, on indignation or rebellion”, “whether spies are sneaking into the state”, as well as the fight against bribery and embezzlement. The basic principle of determining their competence is "recovery of all silent cases."
Fiscal network expanded and gradually two principles of fiscal formation emerged: territorial and departmental. By decree of March 17, 1714, it was prescribed in each province "to be 4 people, including provincial fiscals from which ranks worthy, also from the merchant class." The provincial fiscal supervised the city fiscals and once a year "took" control over them. In the spiritual department, the organization of fiscals was headed by the proto-inquisitor, in the dioceses - provincial fiscals, in monasteries - inquisitors.
Over time, it was supposed to introduce fiscal system in all departments. After the establishment of the College of Justice, fiscal affairs came under its jurisdiction and fell under the control of the Senate, and with the establishment of the post of Prosecutor General, the fiscals began to obey him. In 1723, a fiscal general was appointed, who was the highest authority for fiscals. In accordance with the decrees (1724 and 1725), he had the right to claim any case for himself. His assistant was the Chief Fiscal.
If the fiscals were partly under the jurisdiction of the Senate, then the prosecutor general and chief prosecutors reported only to the emperor. Prosecutorial oversight extended even to the Senate. Decree of April 27, 1722 "On the position of the Prosecutor General" established his competence, which included: presence in the Senate and control over the fiscals. The Prosecutor General had the right: to raise a question before the Senate to develop a draft decision submitted to the emperor for approval, to make a protest and suspend the case, informing the emperor about it.
Since the institution of fiscals was subordinate to the prosecutor general, the prosecutor's office also supervised covert undercover surveillance.
The prosecutor of the collegium had to attend the meetings of the collegiums, supervise the work of the institution, control finances, consider the reports of the fiscals, check the protocols and other documentation of the collegium.
The system of supervising and controlling state bodies was supplemented by the Secret Chancellery, whose responsibility was to supervise the work of all institutions, including the Senate, Synod, fiscals and prosecutors.
Boards— central administrative bodies, created by Peter I from 1717 to 1722, to replace the orders (the outdated system of executive bodies). Swedish legislation served as the basis for the regulations of the boards, and the system itself was built on the basis of the experience of its functioning in Germany and Sweden.
College system
The establishment of collegiums introduced three newprinciple:
- Sectoral division of departments (orders duplicated each other's functions)
- Deliberative (collegiate) nature of decision-making.
- Uniform norms of activity under the General Regulations of 1720.
Significance of colleges
The creation of a system of colleges was the final stage in the centralization and bureaucratization of the state apparatus. Together with the Governing Senate, the Holy Synod and the Secret Chancellery, the collegiums formed the bodies of central administration (assisting the emperor and acting on his behalf) in the absolutist monarchy of Peter I.
In addition, the creation of collegiums dealt the final blow to the system of parochialism, abolished as early as 1682, but which took place unofficially.
Central authorities management
The history of the creation of the Colleges
Already in 1712, an attempt was made to establish a College of Commerce with the participation of foreigners. In Germany and other European countries, experienced lawyers and officials were recruited to work in Russian state institutions. The Swedish boards were considered the best in Europe, and they were taken as a model.
The college system, however, began to take shape only at the end of 1717. On December 22, 1717, a royal decree was issued “On the staff of the Colleges and on the time of their opening”, which laid the foundation for the reform of the Colleges. It was impossible to quickly change the order system, so the one-time abolition had to be abandoned. The orders were either absorbed by the collegiums or directly subordinated to them (for example, the Justice Collegium included seven different court orders). Peter I himself called "the first" (i.e., the main) only three collegiums - foreign affairs, military and Admiralty collegiums.
In 1718 list was approved first 9 colleges:
- Foreign Affairs.
- Military board.
- Admiralty Board.
- Board of Chambers
- Justice College.
- Commerce College.
- State office.
- Berg Manufactory College.
- Revision Board.
Panoramic view of the building of the Colleges located on Vasilevsky Island in St. Petersburg, made by J. A. Atkinson in the period 1802-1805
In the future, as necessary, new boards were created or existing ones were reorganized:
In 1720, the Collegium of Justice for Livonian, Estonian, and Finnish Affairs was established.
In 1721, the Votchina College was established, replacing the Local Order.
In 1722, the Berg-Manufactory-Collegium was divided into the Berg-Collegium and the Manufactory-Collegium, and the Little Russian College was established, which replaced the Little Russian Order. Thus, answering the question " how many collegiums were under Peter I» you can list them by 1722:
- Foreign Affairs.
- Military board.
- Admiralty Board.
- Board of Chambers
- Justice College.
- Commerce College.
- State office.
- Berg College.
- Manufactory College.
- Revision Board.
- Little Russian Collegium.
- The patrimonial board.
- Justice College of Livonian, Estonian and Finnish Affairs.
The staff of the collegium under Peter I
At the same time, it is worth noting that the Main Magistrate, created in 1720, and in 1721 the Holy Synod (also called the Spiritual College), were formed according to the “collegiate principle”, had the rights and functions of colleges, supplementing the central administrative apparatus of management with administrative units of control at the level of the city and the religious categories of devout Christians.
Loading...