The beginning of the reign of Napoleon Bonaparte. Post-revolutionary France at the beginning of the 19th century. Napoleon Bonaparte. March of the Great Army

ABSTRACT

on the topic of:

"PNapoleon's reignBonaparte. The first empire in France"

1. Organization of the power of the consulate. Concordat.

The new political regime established in France in 1799 was directed simultaneously against democratic changes in the country and against royalist attempts to restore an absolute monarchy. Its support was large property owners, the “new bourgeoisie” - entrepreneurs and financiers. At the end of 1799, a new Constitution was adopted, which guaranteed the property rights of new owners and declared the alienation of emigrants' estates irrevocable. In France, the republican form of government was maintained. The government, consisting of three consuls, was subject to re-election after a ten-year term. But in fact, power passed into the hands of the first consul - Napoleon Bonaparte, and the other two consuls had only an advisory voice.

The First Consul concentrated in his hands the command of the army, appointment to senior military and civilian positions, and management of all domestic and foreign policy. Legislative power was transferred to the State Council, the Tribunate and the Legislative Corps. Local self-government was destroyed. Since 1800, prefects - proteges of the first consul - were placed at the head of the departments. Mayors of cities and rural communities were appointed as ordinary officials.

In 1802, a plebiscite was held, which assigned Napoleon Bonaparte the post of first consul for life, gave him the right to approve peace treaties and appoint a successor.

The new government sought support from the church. Bonaparte saw religion as one of the most important means of strengthening his power. In 1801 he concluded a concordat with Pope Pius VII. Under the terms of this treaty, Catholicism was declared “the religion of the majority of the French.” The Pope recognized the sold church lands as the legal property of the new owners. Archbishops had to be appointed by the French government and then confirmed by the pope. The Catholic clergy had to support the power of the consuls.

2. Establishment of an empire. Napoleonic Codes.

Conspiracies periodically arose against Bonaparte from both Republicans and Royalists. In February 1804 The police uncovered another attempt at a conspiracy by royalists who were preparing the murder of the first consul. Several conspirators were executed. Bonaparte decided to intimidate foreign courts supporting the Bourbons. In March 1804, he ordered a detachment of dragoons to invade the territory of the neighboring Duchy of Baden, capture and take out the Duke of Enghien, who belonged to the House of Bourbon! The Duke was brought to Paris and soon shot. After these events, Napoleon declared his power hereditary and in May 1804 he accepted the title of Emperor of the French.

The period of Napoleon's reign was marked by the development of new rules of law that consolidated his personal power and new socio-economic and political relations that arose in society. Among the collections of laws developed, the Civil Code, which later became known as the Yapoleon Code, was of particular importance. The main place in it was occupied by articles that strengthened private property. The Code enshrined the principle of freedom of private enterprise and expanded the freedom to dispose of property by will. Much attention was paid to family relationships. The wife's property was considered the full property of the husband; the wife and children had no property rights. In 1807, the Civil Code came into force. The Commercial and Criminal Codes were also introduced (1808). The latter established harsh punishments for the slightest encroachments on private property.

In 1799-1804. The personal power of Napoleon Bonaparte was established. He created a new form of government in the state - a bourgeois monarchy, within which he had unlimited powers.

3. The nature and goals of the Napoleonic wars.

War with the third coalition. Trafalgar and Austerlitz.

After the defeat of the second coalition (1801), Napoleon took full advantage of the results of his victory. In 1802, France captured Piedmont, and the following year contributed to a coup d'etat in Switzerland and established its control over it. In 1803, the war with England resumed, and preparations began for an invasion of its territory.

At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, France was the largest centralized state Western Europe. Its military superiority on the continent was undeniable. France had a first-class army, which was formed on the basis of universal conscription. French artillery and weapon were out of competition. The most capable officers and generals were promoted to command posts. Napoleon developed and perfected warfare using mass armies. His enormous military and administrative talent was combined with boundless ambition, lust for power, thirst for conquest, and merciless cruelty. Relying on the army, Napoleon needed to constantly strengthen his power with new victories and conquests.

During the years of the Consulate and the Empire, the wars of France finally turned from revolutionary into unjust, aggressive, bringing foreign enslavement to the peoples of Europe. The purpose of the wars was to seize and plunder new territories, impose trade agreements beneficial to France, and establish its hegemony in Europe. On the other hand, for the feudal-absolutist countries of Europe, the Napoleonic wars had positive consequences. The defeats inflicted by Napoleon on the absolutist regimes more than once forced their governments to carry out long-overdue reforms and socio-political transformations.

In the summer of 1805, a third anti-French coalition was created, which included England, Russia, Austria, Sweden, Denmark and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. In general, the coalition could field over 500 thousand soldiers. Its goal was the expulsion of French troops from Germany, Italy, Switzerland, Holland and the restoration of monarchical regimes. The Allies concentrated their main forces on the secondary Italian front. Taking advantage of this, Napoleon transferred French troops across the Rhine and forced the Austrian army to capitulate near the Ulm fortress. In November 1805; The French army entered Vienna.

Meanwhile, Russian troops and the remnants of the Austrian army united in the Czech Republic. Napoleon longed for revenge for the crushing defeat of the French fleet at Cape Trafalgar, where the English squadron under the command of Admiral Nelson on October 21, 1805 defeated the French naval forces in the Mediterranean Sea. The British won a complete victory. Only a third of Admiral Villeneuve’s squadron returned to the port of Cadiz; he himself was captured. England remained the maritime mistress of the world.

French troops and the Russian-Austrian army met near the village of Austerlnz. This battle was called the “Battle of the Three Emperors.” Tsar Alexander decided to give battle according to the Austrian plan, drawn up with serious miscalculations and mistakes, rejecting the advice of Commander-in-Chief M.I. Kutuzov not to accept the battle until reinforcements arrived. On December 2, 1805, the Austrian and Russian armies were completely defeated. Incompetent command led to the fact that part of the Russian troops ended up on the thin ice of a large pond, which Napoleon ordered to fire with cannonballs, and the brave Russian soldiers found their death in its cold waters.

After Austerlitz, Austria signed a peace treaty with France in Pressburg (Bratislava). France formed the “Confederation of the Rhine” from the southern German states under its patronage, and annexed Venice, Istria and Dalmatia to the Kingdom of Italy. The Batavian Republic was renamed the Kingdom of Holland, of which Napoleon appointed his brother Louis as king.

4. The defeat of Prussia. War withfourthcoalition. Continental blockade andTilsit world.

Having defeated Austria, Napoleon directed his attack on Prussia and concentrated an army of 200,000 on its borders. In July 1806, an alliance treaty was signed between Russia and Prussia, which marked the beginning of the formation of the fourth coalition. England and Sweden joined the allies. But on October 14, 1806, simultaneously near Jena and Auersteopum, the main forces of the Prussian army were defeated. The fortresses surrendered one after another. Napoleonic army entered Berlin.

On November 21, 1806, Napoleon signed the Berlin Decree on the Continental Blockade. This decree prohibited all states dependent on France from trading with England. Having lost hope of a military invasion of England, Napoleon decided to strangle the country economically by closing European markets to it. Napoleon continued to pursue his policy of conquest mainly on the continent.

In 1807 Napoleon ordered the confiscation of neutral ships calling at the ports of England and its colonies. England, for its part, declared a blockade of the ports of France and its vassals. The English fleet intercepted neutral ships carrying goods to France.

Meanwhile, hostilities continued. After the defeat of Prussia, Napoleon moved his troops against the Russian army. On February 6, 1807, a bloody battle took place near Preussisch-Eylau in East Prussia. Both armies suffered huge losses, but the Russian troops held out on the battlefield. For the first time, Napoleon failed to win. But in the battle of Friedland on June 14, the Russian army was defeated.

Russia was going through difficult days. Military and human resources were running out, and no help was received from England. The Russian government was looking for ways to conclude a separate agreement with Napoleon. On the other hand, France has lost its offensive potential. There was clearly not enough strength for a large-scale war with Russia. The threat to France was posed by Austria, which was recovering from defeats and thirsting for revenge. Peace negotiations began between Alexander I and Napoleon. The meeting of both emperors in Tilsit (now Sovetsk, Kaliningrad region of Russia) ended on July 7, 1807 with the signing of a treaty of peace and alliance.

According to the Peace of Tilsit, Russia recognized the departure from Prussia of a significant part of the lands from which the Kingdom of Westphalia and the Duchy of Warsaw were created; Bialystok with the adjacent district went to Russia; Danzig (Gdansk) was declared a free city. Russia accepted an obligation to end the war with Turkey and become a mediator in peace negotiations between France and England. France pledged to act as a mediator in negotiations between Turkey and Russia. Russia joined the continental blockade. The Peace of Tilsit remained until Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812.

5. French invasion of SpainAndPortugal.War with Austria.

One of the countries that stubbornly refused to join the continental blockade was Portugal. Napoleon's attempts to put pressure on her were unsuccessful. Then he obtained from Spain consent to allow the French army to enter Portugal. England took the side of Portugal, which sent its troops into the territory of this country and the French invasion was repulsed.

After this, Napoleon sent troops to Spain, deprived the Spanish Bourbons of the throne and appointed his brother Joseph as king. At the same time, a large-scale liberation war began in Spain, which forced France to send significant military contingents to this country.

The Austrian government took advantage of the protracted war in Spain and began preparing for revenge. Napoleon was aware of Austria's preparations for war and made great efforts to prevent another clash.

Relations between France and Russia have deteriorated significantly. The meeting of the two emperors in Erfurt did not relieve tensions in relations between the states. The Russian government was extremely dissatisfied with the continental blockade, which ruined Russian landowners and merchants due to the curtailment of trade with England. The French government incited Iran, Turkey, Sweden to take active military action against Russia, and by 1808 Russia was actually fighting three wars.

At the same time, Russia did not want the weakening of Austria and saw in it a counterweight to Napoleonic France. Therefore, Russia sought to avoid participation in military actions against Austria, although at a meeting in Erfurt (October 1808), Alexander I did not exclude the possibility of a war between Russia and Austria. But this was a diplomatic probe. Napoleon, in turn, promised not to interfere with the accession of Moldova, Wallachia and Finland to Russia.

In 1809, England and Austria entered into an alliance and formed the fifth anti-French coalition. The Austrian army was well mobilized and numbered more than 300 thousand people in its ranks. The Austrian soldiers, overwhelmed by patriotic enthusiasm, fought with extreme bitterness and tenacity. July 5-6, 1809 Napoleon, with great difficulty, managed to defeat the Austrian army at Wagram. The total number of killed and wounded on both sides in this battle exceeded 40 thousand people.

October 14, 1809 The Treaty of Schönbrunn was signed. Austria lost its vast territory and access to the sea. Salzburg went to Bavaria. Napoleon united Istria and Trieste with Dalmatia and annexed them to France, calling them the Illyrian province. Austria pledged to join the continental blockade, limit its army to 150 thousand people, and pay indemnity to France.

6 . Preparing France for war with Russia.

The ultimate goal of the Napoleonic Empire was to achieve European and world domination. To do this, France needed to defeat and deprive all the major states of the continent and, above all, England and Russia of their independence. Relations between France and Russia began to deteriorate sharply already in 1810. The alliance concluded in Tilsit began to disintegrate. Napoleon broke his promise not to interfere with the annexation of the Danube principalities to Russia and incited Turkey and Iran to war with Russia. The ongoing continental blockade has also strained relations between the two countries. The reduction in the export of grain, timber, hemp and lard to England ruined Russian landowners and merchants. In 1EDO, duties on the import of French goods into Russia increased. A serious factor that aggravated relations between Russia and France was Napoleon’s use of the Duchy of Warsaw as a military springboard and ally against the Russian Empire.

From the end of 1810, Napoleon began preparing for a war with Russia, after the defeat of which he intended to deal with his last and main enemy - England. The Emperor of France shrewdly avoided a war on two fronts. A huge, so-called “Grand Army” was created, which numbered about 610 thousand people and 1,372 guns, and more than half of it consisted of military contingents of France’s allies - Prussian, Austrian, Bavarian, Saxon, Italian, Polish, Spanish and other units .

Napoleon plotted the dismemberment of Russia, the rejection of its Baltic, Polish and Lithuanian regions. He promised the Polish gentry the revival of the Polish-Lithuanian state. Napoleon intended to transfer the southern regions of Russia to Turkey and Iran. His strategic plans included a march through Transcaucasia to India in order to inflict a crushing defeat on the British there.

The Russian government was aware of the threat of war and sought to delay its outbreak. Russian diplomacy, taking advantage of Napoleon's military and economic difficulties, in particular the war in Spain, managed to somewhat delay the onset of the armed conflict and create a more favorable foreign policy situation for Russia as a result of the conclusion of the Bucharest Peace Treaty of 1812 with Turkey and a secret alliance treaty with Sweden (April 1812). In addition, Russia managed to increase the strength of its army and bring its number to 900 thousand people, including field troops - up to 500 thousand. But, since a significant part of the troops were in Moldova, Crimea, the Caucasus, Finland and inland , on the western borders it was possible by June 1812. concentrate only about 240 thousand people with 934 guns.

These forces were part of three armies: the 1st Army of General M.B. Barclay de Tolly (127 thousand people) deployed in the St. Petersburg direction, the 2nd Army of P.I. Bagration (48 thousand people) covered the Moscow direction, the 3rd Army of General A.P. Tormasova (46 thousand people) was in the Kiev direction. Separate Corps of General P.K. Essesh (18.5 thousand people) was located in the Riga region. There were only a few days left before the start of the war.

7 . Grand Duchy of Warsaw.

After the third partition of Poland, the emigration of Polish officers to the West intensified. Many of them, being in Paris, Dresden, and other European cities, harbored false hopes for the support of Napoleonic France in the revival of a unified Polish state. Legions were created from Polish officers, which were used in the aggressive policy of France. Polish troops served Napoleon during the war of 1806-1807. Napoleon, on the one hand, generously promised the Poles freedom and an independent state in the future. On the other hand, the emperor assured Prussia, Austria and Russia that they would retain Polish lands.

The Duchy of Warsaw or the Principality of Warsaw was created in 1807 as a vassal state of France from part of the Polish lands taken from Prussia. This happened as a result of the signing of the Peace of Tilsit. Napoleon made the Saxon king Frederick Augustus the Prince of Warsaw. The use of the words “Poland” and “Polish” in a political sense was not allowed.

In 1807 In the principality, personal serfdom of peasants was abolished, and in 1808 the French Civil Code was introduced. In the principality, exactions from the French administration intensified, and recruitment increased. In 1809, Napoleon annexed Western Galicia, seized from Austria, to the Duchy of Warsaw. The territory of the principality actually became a springboard for an attack on Russia.

E. The beginning of the war with Russia. -

Napoleon's plan was as follows: from the “Great Army”, over 440 thousand people were in the first line at the Russian border; the remaining troops (160 thousand people) were located in reserve between the Vistula and Oder. Napoleon concentrated his main forces in three directions: the left - under his direct command, the central - under the command of the Viceroy of Italy E. Bogornet and the right - under the command of the Westphalian king Jerome Bonaparte. These troops were supposed to encircle and destroy piece by piece the 1st and 2nd Russian armies with enveloping blows. On the left flank in the Riga region, the Prussian-French corps of J. Macdonald operated and on the right - the Austrian corps of K. Schwarzenberg against the 3rd Russian Army.

On the night of June 24, 1812, Napoleon's army crossed the Russian border on the Neman River in the Kovno (Kaunas) area without declaring war. Alexander made an attempt to stop hostilities and avoid war.

To this end, on June 26, he sent Adjutant General A.D. Balashov from Vilna to the French outposts with his personal letter to Napoleon, but this mission ended in failure.

The outbreak of war especially worried the British government, which was clearly aware of the threat to the interests of England from Napoleon. On July 18, despite certain contradictions, an alliance treaty was signed between England and Russia.

Napoleon's main goal was to capture Moscow. But the Russian command thwarted Napoleon's strategic plan. Both the first army of Barclay de Tolly and the second army of Bagration, having retreated, managed to escape the imposed general battle and preserve their strength.

Then Napoleon decided to prevent the unification of these Russian armies at all costs. But his plan was thwarted: the Russian armies managed to unite near Smolensk. At the time of the connection at Smolensk, the Russian army numbered 120 thousand people versus Napoleon’s 200 thousand people. It was not possible to defeat the Russian army piece by piece. Napoleon's strategic plan failed. Since the beginning of the war, his army has lost 150 thousand people killed, wounded, sick and deserters. Fighting efficiency and discipline declined, and looting spread.

In the stubborn Battle of Smolensk on August 4-6, Russian troops fought courageously against the rising forces of the enemy, but were still forced to abandon the city. Although Barclay de Tolly's actions were correct, the continuous retreat caused general discontent. Some even accused Barclay de Tolly of treason. This forced Alexander I to appoint General M.I. Kutuzov, who was popular among the troops, as commander-in-chief of all active armies. Kutuzov arrived in the army and took command on August 17 (29), 1812.

8 . The Battle of Borodino and the capture of Moscow.

Battle of Borodino between Russians and French troops took place on August 26 (September 7), 1812 in the area of the village. Borodino is 110 km west of Moscow.

1st Army of M.B. Barclay de Tolly and 2nd Army of General P.I. Bagration, departing from Smolensk on August 5 on the road to Moscow under the pressure of superior enemy forces, reached August 17 this year. Tsarevo-Zaimishche, where M.I. arrived. Kutuzov, appointed commander-in-chief. By the evening of August 22, the main forces of the Russian army, having received 15.6 thousand reinforcements along the way, concentrated in the Borodino area, where Kutuzov decided to give the enemy a general battle.

Napoleon also, in turn, sought to defeat the Russian army in a general battle. Having a numerical superiority, Napoleon was going to break through the center of Russian positions, bypass their left flank and cut off the Russian army’s path to Moscow, in order to then solemnly enter the capital of Russia and force the government of Alexander I to capitulate.

Kutuzov decided to fight at Borodino in order to weaken the French army through stubborn defense and inflict as many losses as possible and stop its advance towards Moscow, while simultaneously preserving the combat effectiveness of the Russian troops. According to this plan, Kutuzov built a deep battle formation. Concentrating more than two-thirds of the troops on the right flank, Kutuzov reliably covered the New Smolensk road and, having imposed a frontal battle on the enemy, retained significant reserves for counterattacks.

Before the Battle of Borodino, the Russian army numbered 120 thousand people and 640 guns. Napoleon's army included 135 thousand people and 587 guns. The general battle was preceded by the battle on August 24 for the Shevardinsky redoubt, where Russian troops under the command of A.I. Gorchakov heroically repelled attacks from superior enemy forces. The Shevardinsky battle made it possible for Russian troops to complete defensive work at the main positions: on Kurgan Heights, where the battery of A. F. Raevsky was located, near the village of Semenovskaya, where earthen fortifications with 36 guns (Bagration’s flushes) were located. This battle allowed Kutuzov to establish that Napoleon's main forces were aimed at the center and left flank of the Russian army.

On September 7, seeing the rising sun, Napoleon exclaimed: “Here it is, the sun of Austerlitz!” The battle has begun. After a powerful artillery barrage, the troops of Marshals Davout, Ney and Murat attacked Bagration’s flushes. Every minute the picture of the battle changed. N.N.’s corps fought heroically. Raevsky, who bled the group of Ney and Murat. In the battle, General P.I. Bagration was mortally wounded. Napoleon did not dare to bring his last reserve, the old guard, into battle: “Eight hundred leagues from Paris, I cannot risk my last reserve.”

Just at this time, Uvarov’s cavalry and Platov’s Cossacks broke through to the French rear. The French attacked furiously, but they failed to defeat Kutuzov's army. The Russian commander-in-chief did not continue the battle the next day. At night, Russian troops formed into marching columns, left the fortifications and set off through Moscow to the south, not allowing the French regiments to come within shooting distance.

The Battle of Borodino is over. The Russian army bled the enemy dry and inflicted irreparable losses on him - over 58 thousand people (or 43%) of all those who took part in the battle. Napoleon's army was missing 10 generals, 39 generals were wounded. The losses of the Russian army were also great: 44 thousand people were killed, including 23 generals, but despite this, the Russian army retained the will to win.

On September 1 (13), Kutuzov convened a military council in Fili. Most of the generals spoke out in favor of a new battle, although they were not sure of its successful outcome. After listening carefully to everyone, Kutuzov announced his decision to leave Moscow without a fight. “With the loss of Moscow,” he said, “Russia is not lost yet... But when the army is destroyed, Moscow and Russia will perish.” Showing great courage and restraint, the commander-in-chief practically took full responsibility for the consequences of this decision upon himself.

On September 2 (14), Russian troops left the city. On the very first day of Napoleon's troops entering Moscow, fires began in the city, which lasted until September 6 (18) and devastated 2/3 of the city. The French rushed through the empty streets, broke into miraculously surviving houses and estates, and robbed the civilian population. Kutuzov gathered troops for decisive action, militias and partisans raided communications, small detachments, caught and killed the French.

The expected peace did not happen. The early cold was setting in. Napoleon decided to leave Moscow. Leaving the city, Bonaparte gave the order to General Mortier to blow up the Moscow Kremlin and St. Basil's Cathedral. The general did not dare to disobey the emperor, but he had little time. And he wasn’t particularly eager to carry out a meaningless assignment. The sappers planted too few explosives. There were explosions. Catherine's palace was blown up, the walls of the Kremlin towers cracked.

9. Retreat and defeat of Napoleon's army.

Kutuzov made a skillful flank maneuver and, having transferred the army from the Ryazan road to the Kaluga road, stopped in the Tarutino camp. Having closed the road to the south of Russia for Napoleon's troops, the field marshal launched intensive preparations for going on the offensive.

Napoleon's army experienced increasing difficulties from the intensifying "small war" - the bold operations of the army partisan detachments, created by Kutuzov, and peasant partisan detachments that besieged Napoleonic troops in Moscow and disrupted their supplies.

The difficult situation forced Napoleon to send the Russian commander-in-chief, French General J.A. Lauriston, to the headquarters with peace proposals addressed to Alexander I. Kutuzov rejected proposals for peace or reconciliation, declaring that the war was just beginning and would not be stopped until the enemy was expelled from Russian land.

According to Kutuzov's plan, in the area between the Western Dvina and Dnieper rivers, the army of Admiral Chichagov and the corps of General Wittgenstein defeated the enemy and drove him out of Polotsk. North of Tarutin on the Chernishna River the selected troops of Marshal Murat were defeated.

On October 6 (18), the “Great Army” ingloriously left the Russian capital. After 4 days, Russian troops entered the capital. Napoleon's attempt to break into the southern regions of the country ended in failure. Russian troops blocked the enemy's path at Maloyaroslavets and, after fierce fighting, forced him to turn onto the Smolensk road, which he had destroyed. Now Napoleon, realizing the collapse of his plans of conquest, in every possible way avoided the decisive battle that the Russian command imposed on him. Kutuzov organized a parallel pursuit of the retreating Napoleonic troops. They were pressed from the rear by the Cossack regiments of Ataman M.Y. Platov, the corps of General M.A. was moving south of the Smolensk road. Miloradovich, flying squads of A.P. Ozharovsky, D.V. Davydov and north of the road - detachments of P.V. Golenishcheva-Kutuzova, P.M. Volkonsky. Due to lack of food in Napoleon's army, a massive loss of horses began, forcing the enemy to abandon their artillery.

On November 3, the troops of Milorodovich and Platov defeated the French rearguard of L. Davout near Vyazma. Under the threat of encirclement, Napoleon was forced to leave Smolensk, and soon suffered a major defeat at Krasny (November 15-18), where M. Ney’s rearguard was defeated. During a month of fighting, Russian troops captured 90 thousand prisoners and over 500 guns. The cold weather began, poorly dressed and hungry soldiers of Napoleonic army lost their combat effectiveness. It was still preserved by the guard and the corps of K. Victor and G. Saint-Cyr, which joined the main forces. Of the surviving soldiers of the main forces of the “Great Army,” there were about 40 thousand people in the ranks, the rest were a demoralized mass.

The denouement came on the Berezina River, where the ring of strategic encirclement of Napoleonic army closed. Despite the slowness and lack of coordination of the actions of Chichagov and Wittgenstein, and their inability to unravel Napoleon’s diversionary maneuvers, Kutuzov managed to inflict a crushing defeat on the French troops.

After crossing the river. Berezina November 26 - 28, 1812. The “Great Army” ceased to exist as an organized fighting force. Napoleon, having transferred command to Murat, left for Paris. During Patriotic War Napoleonic army lost up to 550 thousand people. Kutuzov, in his army order, congratulated the troops on expelling the enemy from Russia and called on them to “complete the defeat of the enemy on his own fields.” A little earlier, on November 25, 1812, Alexander issued a Manifesto on the end of the Patriotic War.

10. Allied offensivearmiesto Paris.

Napoleon's abdication.

Returning at the end of 1812 In Paris, Napoleon immediately began to create a new army. From France and the vassal countries, he drew, regardless of anything, human resources, food, and financial resources. Napoleon was in a hurry to strike the Russian and Prussian armies before they received reinforcements, and while the German allies in the Confederation of the Rhine were still loyal to him, and he hoped to neutralize Austria.

IN short term Napoleon put under arms everyone he could recruit - more than 300 thousand people. But the balance of power was not as favorable for him as before. A new, sixth, coalition was formed against France, which included Russia, Prussia, Austria and Sweden. In the spring of 1813 in Saxony, Napoleon managed to inflict a number of defeats on the allies, but by the summer the coalition armies already numbered over a million people.

On October 16 - 19, 1813, a decisive battle took place near Leipzig. More than half a million soldiers took part in it, it was distinguished by extreme cruelty and bloodshed and went down in history under the name “Battle of the Nations.” Napoleon's army suffered a crushing defeat and began a hasty retreat.

In early December, the last parts of the defeated French army crossed the Rhine. After the Battle of Leipzig, French rule in Germany was ended. The Confederation of the Rhine collapsed. French domination in Holland and other European countries ended.

Having been defeated in Spain, the French army was forced to retreat into France.

The Allied troops that entered France were 5 times larger than the military forces that Napoleon still had at his disposal. Nevertheless, Napoleon managed to drag out the war for some time and even inflict a number of defeats on the enemy troops. At the same time, the forces were too unequal. At the end of March 1814, the Allied troops marched on Paris and on March 31 entered the capital of France.

The Bourbon royalists, emboldened by the presence of the huge coalition army, raised their heads. On the initiative of the former Napoleonic minister Talleyrand and other dignitaries of the empire, who had now gone over to the side of the royalists, the Senate decided to depose Napoleon and proclaimed Louis XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI, executed in 1793, king.

Napoleon was forced to abdicate the throne, after which he was exiled to the island of Elba, which was given to him for life. Before leaving, he wished to say goodbye to his guard. The best warriors of France lined up in the ceremonial palace of Fontainebleau. Officers and generals stood in front, veteran soldiers behind. With them; he won all his victories. They never let him down in battle.

Napoleon told them farewell speech: “I would like to squeeze you all And in my arms, but let me kiss the banner. It represents you all." After kissing the banner, the emperor got into the carriage. The guards shouted: “Long live the Emperor!” And many of them burst into tears. Thus, against a high emotional background, the star “set” of Napoleon Bonaparte, who, like some of his predecessors, tried to establish world domination. The peoples of Europe breathed a sigh of relief. The rulers of small countries and great powers took up peaceful problems.

11. Bourbon Restoration. "One hundred days."

The defeat of Napoleon's army at Waterloo.

The Bourbon restoration took place with the help of the troops of European monarchs.

Emigrant nobles returned to France. They were full of hostility towards the revolution and its gains. At the insistence of the allies (especially Alexander I) and French politicians, who understood the impossibility of returning to the old feudal-absolutist order, overthrown a quarter of a century earlier, in 1814 Louis XVIII promulgated the Charter (constitution). A constitutional monarchy regime was established in the country. Only the richest people retained the right to vote; their number ranged from 12 to 15 thousand people. Louis XVIII was also forced to recognize the changes in land ownership made during the years of the revolution and empire and agree to the abolition of class privileges.

At the same time, embittered and vindictive aristocrats, who had cultivated in themselves over the long years of emigration a hatred of everything new, sought to completely return the country to the pre-revolutionary regime. In the circles of former emigrants, the issue of returning to the former owners the land holdings confiscated from them during the revolutions was seriously discussed. The peasantry was threatened by the restoration of feudal duties and church tithes.

Being on about. Elba, Napoleon followed the developments in the country. He subtly felt the hatred caused by the actions of the aristocrats who were trying to throw France back into the past. Naples was also aware of the acute disagreements between the participants in the congress that opened in Vienna in October 1814 - Russia and Prussia, on the one hand, and Austria and England, on the other, as a result of which the unity of the anti-French coalition was seriously undermined. Considering all this, Napoleon decided to resume the fight.

On March 1, 1815, Napoleon landed on the southern coast of France with a small detachment of a thousand people and six cannons. Three weeks later, without firing a single shot, he, at the head of numerous troops sent against him, but who went over to his side, entered Paris triumphantly. Louis XVIII and his court barely had time to flee abroad. But foreign powers sought to prevent the restoration of the Napoleonic empire. Hostility towards Napoleon brought them together again. The participants of the Vienna Congress quickly agreed among themselves. A new, seventh, coalition of European monarchies was formed consisting of England, Russia, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, Spain and other states.

The Allies had an overwhelming advantage in manpower and weapons. Long years of fighting had already exhausted France's resources, and its population was disappointed by Napoleon's intention to maintain the former despotic regime of the empire. On June 18, Napoleonic army was finally defeated by English and Prussian troops near Brussels, near the village of Waterloo. Allied forces invaded France and reoccupied Paris.

After the Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon again abdicated the throne (June 22, 1815). He thought of leaving for America, but was unable to carry out this intention due to the blockade of the coast of France by an English squadron and was forced to surrender to the British. The British government, with the consent of the other allies, sent Napoleon to St. Helena Island (in the South Atlantic Ocean). Here he died in May 1821.

After the secondary reign of Napoleon, which went down in history as the “Hundred Days,” the Bourbons again established themselves in France.

12. Convening of the Congress of Vienna. Final act. Creation of the Holy Alliance.

Soon after the victory over Napoleon, representatives of all European powers (with the exception of Turkey) gathered in the capital of Austria to resolve issues related to the restoration in Europe of feudal orders and legitimate dynasties overthrown during the Napoleonic wars. The Congress of Vienna opened in September 1814. Since in May 1814 The Treaty of Paris was signed between the members of the anti-French coalition, which provided for the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in France and its return to the borders of 1792. The Congress of Vienna focused its attention on the problems of a peaceful settlement in Europe. At the same time, sharp contradictions arose between its participants on this issue .

Russia sought to annex the Duchy of Warsaw to its territory, which England and Austria resolutely opposed. The Russian emperor promised to restore local laws in Poland and adopt a constitution. In an effort to maintain the rivalry of two strong states in Europe - Austria and Prussia, which would act as a counterweight, Russia signed a secret agreement with Prussia on the transfer to it of Saxony, where Russian troops were located.

England, Austria and France opposed the Russian-Prussian alliance, and in December 1814 they signed a secret agreement on joint actions. The Austrian Chancellor Metternich sought to strengthen the influence of the Viennese government on the German states and was opposed to their unification.

In March 1815 the work of the congress was unexpectedly interrupted by the news of Napoleon's new attempt to regain power. Moreover, on the eve of Napoleon’s last defeat at Waterloo, in June 1815. The Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna was signed. It provided for the return of France to the borders of 1792, the unification of Belgium and Holland into the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the restoration of the Sardinian Kingdom in Italy with the return of Savoy and Nice to it. In addition, Austria restored its power in Venice and Lombardy, Prussia received Westphalia, the Rhineland and Pomerania. Norway was taken from Napoleon's ally Denmark and annexed to Sweden. England secured the colonies conquered during the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, the most important of which were the Island of Malta, the Cape region in southern Africa and the island of Ceylon.

The Congress of Vienna consolidated the political fragmentation of Germany. The German Confederation was created, which included 34 independent states and 4 free cities. At the same time, the Congress did not dare to restore all German dynasties and completely eradicate the results of the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars.

The Swiss Confederation was formed from 19 cantons, which proclaimed eternal neutrality.

The system of alliances played an important role in maintaining European balance and monarchical regimes. On the initiative of Alexander I in November 1815. Russia, England, Austria and Prussia signed an act creating the Quadruple Alliance, which was supposed to contribute to the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in France and control the implementation of the decisions of the Congress of Vienna.

In September 1815, Russia, Austria and Prussia agreed to create the Holy Alliance. His political task was to maintain the principle of legitimism (legality) in Europe, which in reality meant the protection of feudal-absolutist regimes. At the Congress of the Union in 1820, the right of its members to intervene in the internal affairs of other powers was declared in the event of an immediate threat to monarchical power. Therefore, Austria was able to conduct punitive expeditions in Naples and Piedmont in 1822. The Congress of the Holy Alliance in Verona at the end of 1822 gave France a mandate to suppress the revolution in Spain.

The Holy Alliance collapsed at the end of the 20s, which aggravated disagreements between its members on the issues of national liberation struggle in the Spanish colonies of Latin America and the uprising in Greece in 1821. Based on its own interests, England sought recognition of the independence of the peoples of Latin America, which Austria opposed. Russia supported the uprising of the Greek people against the Ottoman yoke and put forward the idea of Greek autonomy, which caused protest from England and Austria. The split in the Allied camp indicated that the system of European balance could not be strong. The Congress of Vienna recorded a new balance of power in the international arena after the Napoleonic wars and contributed to the temporary stabilization of the situation in Europe based on the restoration of monarchical regimes.

1. Ya. M. Berdichevsky, S.A. Osmolovsky “World History” 2001 P. 111-128.

2. S. L. Bramin “History of Europe”. 1998 pp. 100-109

3. L.A. Livanov "World History" tutorial. 2002 pp. 150-164.

4. Zagladin N.V. World History. History of Russia and the world from ancient times to the end of the 19th century: textbook for grade 10. Ї 6th ed. Ї M.: LLC "TID" Russian wordЇ RS", 2006 (§ 41).

French statesman and commander, Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte was born on August 15, 1769 in the city of Ajaccio on the island of Corsica. He came from the family of an ordinary Corsican nobleman.

In 1784 he graduated from Brienne military school, in 1785 - the Paris Military School. Professional military service began in 1785 as a sub-lieutenant of artillery in the royal army.

From the first days of the Great French Revolution of 1789-1799, Bonaparte became involved in the political struggle on the island of Corsica and joined the most radical wing of the Republicans. In 1792 in Valence he joined the Jacobin Club.

In 1793, supporters of France in Corsica, where Bonaparte was at that time, were defeated. Conflict with Corsican separatists forced him to flee the island to France. Bonaparte became commander of an artillery battery in Nice. He distinguished himself in the battle against the British at Toulon, was promoted to brigadier general and appointed chief of artillery of the Alpine Army. After the counter-revolutionary coup in June 1794, Bonaparte was removed from office and arrested for connections with the Jacobins, but was soon released. He was listed in the reserve of the War Ministry, and in September 1795, after refusing the offered position of commander of an infantry brigade, he was dismissed from the army.

In October 1795, a member of the Directory (French government in 1795-1799), Paul Barras, who led the fight against the monarchist conspiracy, took Napoleon as an assistant. Bonaparte distinguished himself during the suppression of the royalist rebellion in October 1795, for which he was appointed commander of the troops of the Paris garrison. In February 1796, he was appointed commander of the Italian Army, at the head of which he carried out the victorious Italian campaign (1796-1797).

In 1798-1801 he led the Egyptian expedition, which, despite the capture of Alexandria and Cairo and the defeat of the Mamelukes in the Battle of the Pyramids, was defeated.

In October 1799, Bonaparte arrived in Paris, where a situation of acute political crisis reigned. Relying on influential circles of the bourgeoisie, on November 9-10, 1799, he carried out a coup d'etat. The government of the Directory was overthrown, and the French Republic was led by three consuls, the first of whom was Napoleon.

The concordat (agreement) concluded with the Pope in 1801 provided Napoleon with the support of the Catholic Church.

In August 1802 he achieved his appointment as consul for life.

In June 1804, Bonaparte was proclaimed Emperor Napoleon I.

On December 2, 1804, during a magnificent ceremony held in Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris with the participation of the Pope, Napoleon crowned himself Emperor of the French.

In March 1805, he was crowned in Milan, after Italy recognized him as its king.

Napoleon I's foreign policy was aimed at achieving political and economic hegemony in Europe. With his rise to power, France entered a period of almost continuous wars. Thanks to military successes, Napoleon significantly expanded the territory of the empire and made most of the states of Western and Central Europe dependent on France.

Napoleon was not only Emperor of France, which extended to the left bank of the Rhine, but also King of Italy, mediator of the Swiss Confederation and Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine. His brothers became kings: Joseph in Naples, Louis in Holland, Jerome in Westphalia.

This empire was comparable in its territory to the empire of Charlemagne or the Holy Roman Empire of Charles V.

In 1812, Napoleon launched a campaign against Russia, which ended in his complete defeat and became the beginning of the collapse of the empire. The entry of anti-French coalition troops into Paris in March 1814 forced Napoleon I to abdicate the throne (April 6, 1814). The victorious allies retained the title of emperor to Napoleon and gave him possession of the island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea.

In 1815, Napoleon, taking advantage of the people's dissatisfaction with the policies of the Bourbons who replaced him in France and the disagreements that arose between the victorious powers at the Congress of Vienna, tried to regain his throne. In March 1815, at the head of a small detachment, he unexpectedly landed in the south of France and three weeks later entered Paris without firing a single shot. The secondary reign of Napoleon I, which went down in history as the “Hundred Days,” did not last long. The Emperor did not live up to the hopes placed on him by the French people. All this, as well as the defeat of Napoleon I at the Battle of Waterloo, led him to a second abdication and exile to the island of St. Helena in the Atlantic Ocean, where he died on May 5, 1821. In 1840, Napoleon's ashes were transported to Paris, to the Invalides

Organization of the power of the consulate. Concordat.

In 1802, a plebiscite was held, which assigned Napoleon Bonaparte the post of first consul for life, gave him the right to approve peace treaties and appoint a successor.

Establishment of an empire. Napoleonic Codes.

The period of Napoleon's reign was marked by the development of new rules of law that consolidated his personal power and new socio-economic and political relations that arose in society. Among the collections of laws developed, the Civil Code, which later became known as the Yapoleon Code, was of particular importance. The main place in it was occupied by articles that strengthened private property. The Code enshrined the principle of freedom of private enterprise and expanded the freedom to dispose of property by will. Much attention was paid to family relationships. The wife's property was considered the full property of the husband; the wife and children had no property rights. In 1807, the Civil Code came into force. The Commercial and Criminal Codes were also introduced (1808). The latter established harsh penalties for the slightest encroachment on private property.

In 1799-1804. The personal power of Napoleon Bonaparte was established. He created a new form of government in the state - a bourgeois monarchy, within which he had unlimited powers.

The nature and goals of the Napoleonic wars.

War with the third coalition. Trafalgar and Austerlitz.

At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, France was the largest centralized state in Western Europe. Its military superiority on the continent was undeniable. France had a first-class army, which was formed on the basis of universal conscription. French artillery and small arms were beyond competition. The most capable officers and generals were promoted to command posts. Napoleon developed and perfected warfare using mass armies. His enormous military and administrative talent was combined with boundless ambition, lust for power, thirst for conquest, and merciless cruelty. Relying on the army, Napoleon needed to constantly strengthen his power with new victories and conquests.

The defeat of Prussia. War with the fourth coalition. Continental blockade and the Peace of Tilsit.

Invasion of French troops into Spain and Portugal. War with Austria.

After this, Napoleon sent troops to Spain, deprived the Spanish Bourbons of the throne and appointed his brother Joseph as king. However, a large-scale liberation war began in Spain, which forced France to send significant military contingents to this country.

Preparing France for war with Russia.

The ultimate goal of the Napoleonic Empire was to achieve European and world domination. To do this, France needed to defeat and deprive all the major states of the continent and, above all, England and Russia of their independence. Relations between France and Russia began to deteriorate sharply already in 1810. The alliance concluded in Tilsit began to disintegrate. Napoleon broke his promise not to interfere with the annexation of the Danube principalities to Russia and incited Turkey and Iran to war with Russia. The ongoing continental blockade has also strained relations between the two countries. The reduction in the export of grain, timber, hemp and lard to England ruined Russian landowners and merchants. In 1EDO, duties on the import of French goods into Russia increased. A serious factor that strained relations between Russia and France was Napoleon's use of the Duchy of Warsaw as a military base and ally against the Russian Empire.

These forces were part of three armies: the 1st Army of General M. B. Barclay de Tolly (127 thousand people) deployed in the St. Petersburg direction, the 2nd Army of P. I. Bagration (48 thousand people) covered the Moscow direction, the 3rd Army of General A.P. Tormasov (46 thousand people) was in the Kiev direction. A separate corps of General P.K. Essesh (18.5 thousand people) was located in the Riga area. There were only a few days left before the start of the war.

Grand Duchy of Warsaw.

To this end, on June 26, he sent Adjutant General A.D. Balashov from Vilna to the French outposts with his personal letter to Napoleon, but this mission ended in failure.

The outbreak of war especially worried the British government, which was clearly aware of the threat to England's interests from Napoleon. On July 18, despite certain contradictions, an alliance treaty was signed between England and Russia.

The Battle of Borodino and the capture of Moscow.

The Battle of Borodino between Russian and French troops took place on August 26 (September 7), 1812 in the area of the village. Borodino is 110 km west of Moscow.

The 1st Army of M. B. Barclay de Tolly and the 2nd Army of General P. I. Bagration, which had been retreating from Smolensk on the road to Moscow since August 5 under the pressure of superior enemy forces, reached August 17 this year. Tsarevo-Zaimishche, where M.I. Kutuzov arrived, appointed commander-in-chief. By the evening of August 22, the main forces of the Russian army, having received 15.6 thousand reinforcements along the way, concentrated in the Borodino area, where Kutuzov decided to give the enemy a general battle.

Before the Battle of Borodino, the Russian army numbered 120 thousand people and 640 guns. Napoleon's army included 135 thousand people and 587 guns. The general battle was preceded by a battle on August 24 for the Shevardinsky redoubt, where Russian troops under the command of A.I. Gorchakov heroically repelled attacks from superior enemy forces. The Shevardinsky battle made it possible for Russian troops to complete defensive work at the main positions: on Kurgan Heights, where A. F. Raevsky’s battery was located, near the village of Semenovskaya, where earthen fortifications with 36 guns (Bagration’s flushes) were located. This battle allowed Kutuzov to establish that Napoleon's main forces were aimed at the center and left flank of the Russian army.

On September 7, seeing the rising sun, Napoleon exclaimed: “Here it is, the sun of Austerlitz!” The battle has begun. After a powerful artillery barrage, the troops of Marshals Davout, Ney and Murat attacked Bagration’s flushes. Every minute the picture of the battle changed. The corps of N. N. Raevsky fought heroically, bleeding the group of Ney and Murat. In the battle, General P.I. Bagration was mortally wounded. Napoleon did not dare to bring his last reserve, the old guard, into battle: “Eight hundred leagues from Paris, I cannot risk my last reserve.”

On September 1 (13), Kutuzov convened a military council in Fili. Most of the generals were in favor of a new battle, although they were not sure of its successful outcome. After listening carefully to everyone, Kutuzov announced his decision to leave Moscow without a fight. “With the loss of Moscow,” he said, “Russia is not lost yet... But when the army is destroyed, Moscow and Russia will perish.” Showing great courage and restraint, the commander-in-chief practically took full responsibility for the consequences of this decision upon himself.

Retreat and defeat of Napoleon's army.

Napoleon's army experienced increasing difficulties from the intensifying "small war" - the bold operations of army partisan detachments created by Kutuzov, and peasant partisan detachments that besieged Napoleonic troops in Moscow and disrupted their supplies.

The difficult situation forced Napoleon to send the Russian commander-in-chief, French General J. A. Lauriston, to the headquarters with peace proposals addressed to Alexander I. Kutuzov rejected proposals for peace or reconciliation, declaring that the war was just beginning and would not be stopped until the enemy was expelled from Russian land.

On October 6 (18), the “Great Army” ingloriously left the Russian capital. After 4 days, Russian troops entered the capital. Napoleon's attempt to break into the southern regions of the country ended in failure. Russian troops blocked the enemy's path at Maloyaroslavets and, after fierce fighting, forced him to turn onto the Smolensk road, which he had destroyed. Now Napoleon, realizing the collapse of his plans of conquest, in every possible way avoided the decisive battle that the Russian command imposed on him. Kutuzov organized a parallel pursuit of the retreating Napoleonic troops. They were pressed from the rear by the Cossack regiments of Ataman M.Y. Platov, to the south of the Smolensk road moved the corps of General M.A. Miloradovich, the flying detachments of A.P. Ozharovsky, D.V. Davydov, and to the north of the road - the detachments of P.V. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, P.M. Volkonsky. Due to lack of food in Napoleon's army, a massive loss of horses began, forcing the enemy to abandon their artillery.

After crossing the river. Berezina November 26 - 28, 1812. The “Great Army” ceased to exist as an organized fighting force. Napoleon, having transferred command to Murat, left for Paris. During the Patriotic War, Napoleonic army lost up to 550 thousand people. Kutuzov, in his army order, congratulated the troops on expelling the enemy from Russia and called on them to “complete the defeat of the enemy on his own fields.” A little earlier, on November 25, 1812, Alexander issued a Manifesto on the end of the Patriotic War.

The offensive of the Allied armies on Paris.

Napoleon's abdication.

In a short time, Napoleon put everyone he could recruit under arms - more than 300 thousand people. But the balance of power was not as favorable for him as before. A new, sixth, coalition was formed against France, which included Russia, Prussia, Austria and Sweden. In the spring of 1813 in Saxony, Napoleon managed to inflict a number of defeats on the allies, but by the summer the coalition armies already numbered over a million people.

Having been defeated in Spain, the French army was forced to retreat into France.

The Allied troops that entered France were 5 times larger than the military forces that Napoleon still had at his disposal. Nevertheless, Napoleon managed to drag out the war for some time and even inflict a number of defeats on the enemy troops. However, the forces were too unequal. At the end of March 1814, the Allied troops marched on Paris and on March 31 entered the capital of France.

Napoleon said a farewell word to them: “I would like to squeeze you all in my arms, but let me kiss the banner. It represents you all." After kissing the banner, the emperor got into the carriage. The guards shouted: “Long live the Emperor!” And many of them burst into tears. Thus, against a high emotional background, the star “set” of Napoleon Bonaparte, who, like some of his predecessors, tried to establish world domination. The peoples of Europe breathed a sigh of relief. The rulers of small countries and great powers took up peaceful problems.

Bourbon Restoration. "One hundred days."

The defeat of Napoleon's army at Waterloo.

The Bourbon restoration took place with the help of the troops of European monarchs.

However, the embittered and vengeful aristocrats, who had cultivated in themselves a hatred of everything new over the long years of emigration, sought to completely return the country to the pre-revolutionary regime. In the circles of former emigrants, the issue of returning to the former owners the land holdings confiscated from them during the revolutions was seriously discussed. The peasantry was threatened by the restoration of feudal duties and church tithes.

Being on about. Elba, Napoleon followed the developments in the country. He subtly felt the hatred caused by the actions of the aristocrats who were trying to throw France back into the past. Napoleon was also aware of the acute disagreements between the participants in the congress that opened in October 1814 in Vienna - Russia and Prussia, on the one hand, and Austria and England, on the other, as a result of which the unity of the anti-French coalition was seriously undermined. Considering all this, Napoleon decided to resume the fight.

After the secondary reign of Napoleon, which went down in history as the “Hundred Days,” the Bourbons again established themselves in France.

Convening of the Congress of Vienna. Final act. Creation of the Holy Alliance.

Soon after the victory over Napoleon, representatives of all European powers (with the exception of Turkey) gathered in the capital of Austria to resolve issues related to the restoration in Europe of feudal orders and legitimate dynasties overthrown during the Napoleonic wars. The Congress of Vienna opened in September 1814. Since in May 1814 The Treaty of Paris was signed between the members of the anti-French coalition, which provided for the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in France and its return to the borders of 1792. The Congress of Vienna focused its attention on the problems of a peaceful settlement in Europe. However, sharp contradictions arose between its participants on this issue.

In March 1815 the work of the congress was unexpectedly interrupted by the news of Napoleon's new attempt to regain power. However, on the eve of Napoleon's last defeat at Waterloo, in June 1815. The Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna was signed. It provided for the return of France to the borders of 1792, the unification of Belgium and Holland into the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the restoration of the Sardinian Kingdom in Italy with the return of Savoy and Nice to it. In addition, Austria restored its power in Venice and Lombardy, Prussia received Westphalia, the Rhineland and Pomerania. Norway was taken from Napoleon's ally Denmark and annexed to Sweden. England secured the colonies conquered during the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, the most important of which were the Island of Malta, the Cape region in southern Africa and the island of Ceylon.

The Congress of Vienna consolidated the political fragmentation of Germany. The German Confederation was created, which included 34 independent states and 4 free cities. However, the Congress did not dare to restore all German dynasties and completely eradicate the results of the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars.

The Swiss Confederation was formed from 19 cantons, which proclaimed eternal neutrality.

The Holy Alliance collapsed at the end of the 20s, which was due to disagreements between its members on the issues of the national liberation struggle in the Spanish colonies of Latin America and the uprising in Greece in 1821. Based on its own interests, England sought recognition of the independence of the peoples of Latin America, which was opposed Austria performed. Russia supported the uprising of the Greek people against the Ottoman yoke and put forward the idea of Greek autonomy, which caused protest from England and Austria. The split in the Allied camp indicated that the system of European balance could not be strong. The Congress of Vienna recorded a new balance of power in the international arena after the Napoleonic wars and contributed to the temporary stabilization of the situation in Europe based on the restoration of monarchical regimes.

Beginning of the 19th century was a dramatic period in European history. For almost 15 years in a row, battles raged in Europe, blood was shed, states collapsed and borders were redrawn. Napoleonic France was at the center of the events. She won a number of victories over other powers, but was ultimately defeated and lost all her conquests.

Establishment of the dictatorship of Napoleon Bonaparte

At the end of 1799, a coup d'etat took place in France, as a result of which the Directory was overthrown, and power actually passed to General Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1804 he became emperor under the name Napoleon I. The First Republic, proclaimed in 1792, fell and the First Empire was established in France.

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) was born on the island of Corsica into a poor noble family. After studying at the Paris Military School, he served in the army and became a general at the age of 24. Napoleon worked up to 20 hours a day, read and thought a lot, and studied history and literature well. He combined an iron will with exorbitant ambition, a thirst for power and glory.

The French emperor wanted to rule the country alone. He established dictatorial rule and became an unlimited ruler. Criticism of his policies threatened with arrest and even the death penalty. Napoleon generously rewarded faithful service with lands, castles, ranks and orders.

Napoleon at the Saint Bernard Pass, 1801. Jacques Louis David.
The painting was commissioned by the emperor, executed with painterly brilliance, but cold and pompous
The image of Napoleon is idealized.

Unlike pre-revolutionary royal France, which was dominated by the nobility, imperial France was dominated by the big bourgeoisie. Napoleon defended primarily the interests of bankers, but he was also supported by wealthy peasants. They were afraid that if the overthrown Bourbon dynasty came to power, feudal orders would be restored and the lands acquired during the revolution would be taken away. The emperor was afraid of workers and did not allow them to go on strike.

In general, Napoleon's policy contributed to the growth of industrial and agricultural production, the preservation and increase of wealth, although a lot of funds were spent on military purposes. In 1804, France adopted the “Civil Code” (a set of laws), which provided for the protection of property, large and small, from any encroachment. Subsequently, he served as a model for legislators in many countries.

The main foreign policy goal of the empire was to establish French dominance in Europe and throughout the world. No one has ever managed to conquer the whole world. Napoleon was confident that he could defeat everyone by force of arms. For this purpose, a large, well-armed, trained army was formed, and talented military leaders were selected.

Wars of 1800 - 1807

By the beginning of the 19th century. The French already ruled the territory of a number of modern states - Belgium, Luxembourg, Holland, Switzerland, parts of Germany and Italy. Continuing his aggressive policy, Napoleon defeated Austria in 1800, forced it to recognize all French conquests and withdraw from the war. Of the great powers, only England continued the fight against France. It had the most developed industry and the strongest navy, but the British land army was weaker than the French. Therefore, she needed allies to continue the fight against Napoleon. In 1805, Russia and Austria, who had large ground forces and were concerned about France's plans of conquest, entered into an alliance with England.

Active military operations resumed at sea and on land.

Napoleon Bonaparte. English caricature, 1810.
“At home and abroad, I rule with the help of fear, which I inspire in everyone,” Napoleon said about himself.

In October 1805, an English squadron under the command of Admiral Nelson almost completely destroyed the French fleet at Cape Trafalgar. But on land Napoleon was successful. On December 2, he won a major victory over the Russian-Austrian army near Austerlitz (now the city of Slavkov in the Czech Republic). Bonaparte considered it the most brilliant of the forty battles he won. Austria was forced to make peace and cede Venice and some other possessions to France. Prussia, concerned about Napoleon's victories, entered the war against France.

But Prussia also suffered a crushing defeat, and in October 1806 French troops entered Berlin. Here Napoleon issued a decree on a continental blockade, prohibiting the French and countries dependent on France from trading with England. He sought to strangle his enemy with economic isolation, but France itself suffered from the cessation of the import of many necessary English products.

Military operations meanwhile moved to East Prussia. Here Napoleon won several victories over Russian troops, achieved at the cost of great effort. The French army was weakened. Therefore, on July 7, 1807, in Tilsit (now the city of Sovetsk in the Kaliningrad region), France signed a treaty of peace and alliance with Russia. Napoleon took away more than half of its territory from Prussia.

From Tilsit to Waterloo

After the signing of the Treaty of Tilsit, French troops entered Spain and Portugal. In Spain, they first encountered popular resistance - here a widespread guerrilla movement began - the guerrillas. Near Bailen in 1808, Spanish partisans captured an entire French division. “My troops, it seems, are commanded not by experienced generals, but by postmasters,” Napoleon was indignant. The national liberation movement also intensified in Portugal and Germany.

In the battle of Leipzig, known as the “Battle of the Nations” (October 1813), Napoleon suffered a crushing defeat: 60 thousand soldiers from his 190 thousand army died.

The French emperor first decided to pacify the Spaniards and, at the head of a large army, entered Madrid. But soon he had to return to Paris, as a new war with Austria was brewing. The conquest of the Iberian Peninsula was never completed.

The Franco-Austrian War of 1809 was short-lived. In July, Napoleon won a decisive victory at Wagram and took away a significant part of Austria's possessions.

The French Empire reached the pinnacle of its power and glory. Its borders extended from the Elbe to the Tiber, and it was home to 70 million people. A number of states were vassals of France.

Napoleon considered the next task to be subjugation to the Russian Empire. The campaign against Russia in 1812 ended in complete disaster for him. Almost the entire French army was killed, the emperor himself barely escaped. Exhausted France was unable to stop the advance of the troops of its opponents (Russia, Prussia, Austria) - on March 31, 1814, they entered Paris. Napoleon abdicated the throne and was exiled by the victors to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean Sea. In France, the Bourbon dynasty, overthrown by the revolution of the 18th century, was restored, and Louis XVIII became king.

Within a few months, the reign of Louis XVIII, who sought to revive the pre-revolutionary order, caused strong discontent among the population. Taking advantage of this, Napoleon landed in the south of France with a small detachment of a thousand soldiers and marched on Paris. The peasants greeted him with cries of “Death to the Bourbons!” Long live the Emperor!” The soldiers went over to his side.

On March 20, 1815, Napoleon entered Paris and restored the empire. But a military alliance was formed against him, which included many European states. On June 18, 1815, English and Prussian troops inflicted a final defeat on Napoleon's army at Waterloo in Belgium. After 100 days of reign, Napoleon abdicated the throne for the second time and was exiled to the island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean. This episode in French history is called the “Hundred Days” period.

On the island of St. Helena, Napoleon dictated his memoirs, in which he acknowledged the invasion of Spain and Russia as his two biggest mistakes. May 5, 1821 Napoleon died. In 1840, his ashes were reburied in Paris.

Results and significance of the Napoleonic wars

The Napoleonic Wars had a controversial impact on European history. Being aggressive in nature, they were accompanied by robberies and violence against entire nations. About 1.7 million people died in them. At the same time, Napoleon's bourgeois empire pushed the feudal countries of Europe onto the path of capitalist development. In the territories occupied by French troops, feudal orders were partially destroyed and new laws were introduced.

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A striking example testified to the unusual dependence and servility of French newspapers. After Napoleon's landing in France in March 1815, the tone of newspaper reports changed daily as he approached Paris. “The Corsican cannibal has landed in Juan Bay,” the first message said. Later newspapers reported: “The tiger has arrived at Cannes,” “The monster has spent the night in Grenoble,” “The tyrant has passed through Lyon,” “The usurper is on his way to Dijon,” and finally, “His Imperial Majesty is expected today in his faithful Paris.”

References:
V. S. Koshelev, I. V. Orzhekhovsky, V. I. Sinitsa / World History of Modern Times XIX - early. XX century, 1998.

ABSTRACT

on the topic of:

"The Reign of NapoleonBonaparte. The first empire in France"

1. Organization of the power of the consulate. Concordat.

In 1802, a plebiscite was held, which assigned Napoleon Bonaparte the post of first consul for life, gave him the right to approve peace treaties and appoint a successor.

2. Establishment of an empire. Napoleonic Codes.

The period of Napoleon's reign was marked by the development of new rules of law that consolidated his personal power and new socio-economic and political relations that arose in society. Among the collections of laws developed, the Civil Code, which later became known as the Yapoleon Code, was of particular importance. The main place in it was occupied by articles that strengthened private property. The Code enshrined the principle of freedom of private enterprise and expanded the freedom to dispose of property by will. Much attention was paid to family relationships. The wife's property was considered the full property of the husband; the wife and children had no property rights. In 1807, the Civil Code came into force. The Commercial and Criminal Codes were also introduced (1808). The latter established harsh penalties for the slightest encroachment on private property.

In 1799-1804. The personal power of Napoleon Bonaparte was established. He created a new form of government in the state - a bourgeois monarchy, within which he had unlimited powers.

3. The nature and goals of the Napoleonic wars.

War with the third coalition. Trafalgar and Austerlitz.

4. The defeat of Prussia. War withfourth coalition. Continental blockade and the Peace of Tilsit.

5. Invasion of French troops into Spain and Portugal.War with Austria.

6. Preparation of France for war with Russia.

The ultimate goal of the Napoleonic Empire was to achieve European and world domination. To do this, France needed to defeat and deprive all the major states of the continent and, above all, England and Russia of their independence. Relations between France and Russia began to deteriorate sharply already in 1810. The alliance concluded in Tilsit began to disintegrate. Napoleon broke his promise not to interfere with the annexation of the Danube principalities to Russia and incited Turkey and Iran to war with Russia. The ongoing continental blockade has also strained relations between the two countries. The reduction in the export of grain, timber, hemp and lard to England ruined Russian landowners and merchants. In 1EDO, duties on the import of French goods into Russia increased. A serious factor that strained relations between Russia and France was Napoleon's use of the Duchy of Warsaw as a military base and ally against the Russian Empire.

7. Grand Duchy of Warsaw.

E. The beginning of the war with Russia. -

To this end, on June 26, he sent Adjutant General A.D. Balashov from Vilna to the French outposts with his personal letter to Napoleon, but this mission ended in failure.

8. Battle of Borodino and capture of Moscow.

The Battle of Borodino between Russian and French troops took place on August 26 (September 7), 1812 in the area of the village. Borodino is 110 km west of Moscow.

9. Retreat and defeat of Napoleon's army.

After crossing the river. Berezina November 26 - 28, 1812. The “Great Army” ceased to exist as an organized fighting force. Napoleon, having transferred command to Murat, left for Paris. During the Patriotic War, Napoleonic army lost up to 550 thousand people. Kutuzov, in his army order, congratulated the troops on expelling the enemy from Russia and called on them to “complete the defeat of the enemy on his own fields.” A little earlier, on November 25, 1812, Alexander issued a Manifesto on the end of the Patriotic War.

10. The offensive of the Allied armies on Paris.

Napoleon's abdication.

Having been defeated in Spain, the French army was forced to retreat into France.

The Allied troops that entered France were 5 times larger than the military forces that Napoleon still had at his disposal. Nevertheless, Napoleon managed to drag out the war for some time and even inflict a number of defeats on the enemy troops. However, the forces were too unequal. At the end of March 1814, the Allied troops marched on Paris and on March 31 entered the capital of France.

11. Bourbon Restoration. "One hundred days."

The defeat of Napoleon's army at Waterloo.

The Bourbon restoration took place with the help of the troops of European monarchs.

After the secondary reign of Napoleon, which went down in history as the “Hundred Days,” the Bourbons again established themselves in France.

12. Convening of the Congress of Vienna. Final act. Creation of the Holy Alliance.

Soon after the victory over Napoleon, representatives of all European powers (with the exception of Turkey) gathered in the capital of Austria to resolve issues related to the restoration in Europe of feudal orders and legitimate dynasties overthrown during the Napoleonic wars. The Congress of Vienna opened in September 1814. Since in May 1814 The Treaty of Paris was signed between the members of the anti-French coalition, which provided for the restoration of the Bourbon dynasty in France and its return to the borders of 1792. The Congress of Vienna focused its attention on the problems of a peaceful settlement in Europe. However, sharp contradictions arose between its participants on this issue.

The Swiss Confederation was formed from 19 cantons, which proclaimed eternal neutrality.

Bibliography

1. Ya. M. Berdichevsky, S.A. Osmolovsky “World History” 2001 P. 111-128.

2. S. L. Bramin “History of Europe”. 1998 pp. 100-109

3. L.A. Livanov “World History” textbook. 2002 pp. 150-164.

4. Zagladin N.V. World History. History of Russia and the world from ancient times to the end of the 19th century: textbook for grade 10. - 6th ed. ― M.: LLC TID “Russian Word - RS”, 2006 (§ 41).