Russian culture of the late xv-xvi centuries. Culture and everyday life of Russia at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries Representatives of Russian culture of the 15th - 16th centuries

The history of the Russian state spans several stages or cycles. Each of them is represented by characteristic cultural characteristics. The decline of Kievan Rus ends the first stage in the development of Russian culture. XIV - XVII centuries - the birth of the Moscow kingdom and the formation of Moscow culture, which will be different from the previous one. The time of fragmentation ended, the annexation of the Russian principalities formed a powerful centralized power: Russia. With the fall of Constantinople, Russia becomes the defender of Orthodox Christianity, in connection with which the role of the church increases, which has a great influence on the life of the state and people.
With the elimination of dependence on the Golden Horde, Russian culture began to develop, its centers were cities that received the status of self-government in the 15th century. Moscow is being rebuilt. The invited Italian craftsmen are constructing the walls and towers of the Kremlin from bricks. Cathedrals of the Assumption, Annunciation and Arkhangelsk, where the traditions of Russian architecture and the advanced technical achievements of Western European architecture are organically combined, are becoming remarkable works of art. The famous Palace of Facets, built in 1487-1491, being the throne room of the royal palace, is considered one of the best structures on the territory of the Kremlin. Its walls are painted with pictures of scenes from Holy Scripture and Russian history.
In addition to Moscow, Pskov, Novgorod, Vladimir are under construction. First of all, churches are erected. The best example of new churches is Novgorod: the Church of Fyodor Stratilat and the Savior on Ilyinka. In Pskov, the grandiose construction of the Pskov Kremlin-fortress begins, which will be fully completed by the 16th century. Stone worldly houses, boyar mansions were also built, cathedral squares were formed. In the 15th century, glass began to be used in the construction of stone houses. It was brought from Constantinople, it was very expensive, and windows were glazed only in rich boyar buildings. The original Russian historian AV Tereshchenko described the courtyards in Moscow as follows: “... almost every Moscow boyar house had a garden where hazel, raspberry, and cherry trees were found in abundance. Pears, plums, melons and watermelons had just begun to be bred, but the finest decoration was the fish ponds. "
Painting received a new development. The names of Theophanes the Greek and Andrei Rublev become known. Brilliantly mastering the skill of tonal painting, they filled the created images with expressiveness and soulfulness. They were the ones who were invited to paint the iconostasis of the Annunciation Cathedral in Moscow. Rublev's brush belongs to the famous "Trinity" - the pinnacle of world icon painting. In it, the master showed a harmonious combination of pure colors that revealed the inner dignity and power of images, their philosophical depth. His frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir and the Trinity Cathedral in Sergiev Posad show the world masterpieces of fresco painting.
Interesting cultural changes are taking place in Russian literature. The chronicle of Moscow begins to come to the fore. In the famous Trinity Chronicle of 1408, Metropolitan Photius for the first time expresses the idea of ​​a single Russian state with centralized power. In the genre of hagiographic literature, the biographies of the great church fathers of Russia were compiled: Metropolitan Peter, the patron saint of Moscow, St. Sergius of Radonezh. And the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin wrote "Walking the Three Seas", where he first spoke about India, which Vasco da Gamma would open for Europeans 30 years later. This work still impresses readers with a colorful description of the life, customs, religion of a distant country.
Gradually, parchment is replaced by paper, and the bulky “charter” with square letters turns into a semi-ustav, representing fluent and free writing, which paved the way for the emergence of Russian typography in the next century.
The travels of Russian merchants, the annexation of the conquered lands, interest in world history led to the emergence of cartography and chronographs (events in world history of that time).
The material culture of Russia in the 15th century made up for the opportunities to create missed during the Golden Horde yoke. Knowledge is needed to build churches, fortresses and new cities. Textbooks were written on the applied sciences of mathematics and geometry.
Smart kids were selected from villages and towns. At the monasteries they were taught to read and write. The state needed technical workers. It is necessary to connect lakes with canals, build bridges and mills. We mastered the casting of copper cannons. At the same time, state institutions appeared. They were called orders. There were land, military, judicial, lay, ambassadorial, town planning and other orders. Boyars were in charge of them, assistants were recruited from among the monasticism or the service nobility.
Christian morality influenced everyday life: marriage, family life, raising children. Church holidays and Sunday were established, when it was forbidden to work, you need to devote time to prayers and pious deeds. On Easter, Christmas, Epiphany, street performances and festivities were held. All sorts of games and amusements were allowed: merry-go-rounds, swings, buffoonery theaters, performances of acrobats, puppeteers. My favorite games were small towns, blind man's buffs, leapfrog, grandmothers. Gambling at cards was frowned upon. There was a state monopoly on entertainment taverns. On holidays, public feasts were held in the squares, where all those present were treated at the same table. The food was simple - porridge, pies with peas, cabbage, eggs, oatmeal jelly.
Russian culture of the 15th century reflected the ideas of spiritual unity of the people in the formation of a centralized state.

After watching this video, you can independently study the topic "Culture and life of Russia at the end of the 15th-16th centuries" from the school history course for grade 10. Students will be able to learn about how the culture of our country changed after the overthrow of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. political and economic factors that influenced the cultural life of Moscow Russia.

Topic: Russia in the 16th century

Lesson: Russian culture of the late 15th-16th centuries.

1. Oral folk art

In the middle of the XVI century. a whole cycle of oral folk tales and historical songs begins to take shape associated with the state activities of Tsar Ivan the Terrible: "The Tale of Barma Yaryzhka - an ordinary man", "Song of Russian gunners", "Song of Kostryuk", "Song of Ivan the Terrible's anger at his son "," Song about Ivan the Terrible and the robbers "," Song about the meeting of the Cossacks with Ivan the Terrible "and" Song about the weeping over the grave of Ivan the Terrible. "

In the same period, a huge number of various historical songs appeared, dedicated to the capture of Kazan, Yermak Timofeevich's campaigns in Siberia, the heroic defense of Pskov against the troops of Stephen Batory, etc.

2. Chronicle and historical knowledge

As before, almost all the annalistic collections created during that period included the previous chronicles, which were subjected to very serious political and ideological processing in the spirit of the times. At the same time, as many experts rightly noted (A. Orlov, D. Likhachev, V. Kuskov), historical literature of the 16th century. follows the path of creating works of great scale, which are distinguished by a special splendor of forms and the complication of the literary style. Among the largest monuments of the official Moscow chronicle should be called "Resurrection Chronicle", "Nikon Chronicle", "Obverse Chronicle Code", "The Royal Book", "The Book of the Stepan Tsar's Genealogy", "The History of the Kazan Khanate", "The Tale of the Coming of Stefan Batory to the city of Pskov "," The Tale of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich "and many others.

Rice. 1. Icon of St. Macarius Zheltovodsky ()

Among the unofficial, inherently oppositional historical works of that time, the famous "History of the Grand Duke of Moscow" by Prince A. Kurbsky, "Life" of Augustine the Blessed and "The Legend of Maxim the Greek", as well as translated books by European authors : "The Source of Knowledge" by John Damascene, "Dialogues" by Gennady Scholarius and "On the Syllogism" by Johann Spangenberg.

3. Social and political thought

XVI century it is often called the century of Russian journalism, which penetrates into the chronicles, and into the "lives of the saints", and into business writing, and into literature, and even into wall painting.

Heresies became a striking phenomenon of the social and political life of the Russian state at the turn of the century, among which the most striking were the heresies of Novgorod (Skharin, Semyon Klyonov, Ivan Zubov) and Moscow (Fedor Kuritsyn, Ivan Cherny, Elena Voloshanka) "Judaizers", from which came "The Tale of Dracula", "Laodicean Epistle", "Righteous Measure" and other bright works.

No less striking phenomenon of Russian journalism was the works of prominent "non-possessors", in particular, one of the followers of Nil Sorsky Vassian Patrikeyev, whose pen was the "Collection of a certain old man", "The word in response to slandering the truth of the Gospel", "Debate with Joseph Volotsky", "Word about heretics ”and“ The Pilot Book ”, as well as Matvey Bashkin and Theodosius the Kosoy.

In the XVI century. several outstanding works of Russian journalism arose that glorified the tsarist power and the official church: "The Epistle of the Monomakh Crown", "The Legend of the Vladimir Princes" and "The Tale of the White Klobuk", which contained a new ideological doctrine of the united Russian state "Moscow is the third Rome ", The author of which was the monk Eliazarov of the Pskov monastery Filofey.

The largest Russian publicists of the XVI century. was Maxim the Greek ("The Legend of the Residence of the Monk of the Holy Mountain", "The Epistle on the Organization of the Athonite Monasteries", "The Epistle on the Franciscans and Dominicans", "Conversation of the Mind with the Soul", "Confessions of the Orthodox Faith"), Fedor Ivanovich Karpov ("Epistles" Maxim the Greek, Nikolai Nemchin, Elder Philotheus, Metropolitan Daniel), Sylvester ("Epistle to Ivan the Terrible", "Domostroy"), Ivan Semenovich Peresvetov ("The Legend of the Books", "The Legend of Mohammed-Saltan" and "The Legend of Tsar Constantine" ) Ermolai-Erasmus ("Prayer to the Tsar", "Seeing Paschalia", "A Teaching to Your Soul", "The Ruler and Survey of the Benevolent Tsar") and Prince Andrei Mikhailovich Kurbsky ("Correspondence" with Ivan the Terrible, "The Story of the Grand Duke of Moscow ").

4. The beginning of typography

At present, thanks to the works of a number of historians (M. Tikhomirov), it has been precisely established that the initial date of Russian book printing is not 1564, as previously stated, but 1553, when the first printed book "Lenten Triode" was created.

A new stage in the development of book printing began in 1563, when a new printing house was built in Moscow at the expense of the tsarist treasury on Nikolskaya Street, which was headed by Ivan Fedorov (1510-1583) and his student Pyotr Mstislavets. On March 1, 1564, the first accurately dated Russian printed book, Acts of the Twelve Apostles, or Apostle, was published from the walls of this printing house, and then, in 1565, another book was published - The Book of Hours, or ".

Rice. 3. "Apostle" Ivan Fedorov ()

In 1568 Ivan Fyodorov and Pyotr Mstislavets moved from Moscow to Zabludov, and then to Lvov and Ostrog, where they resumed their educational activities and published here "The Teacher's Gospel" (1569), "Psalter with the Book of Hours" (1570) , "ABC" (1574), "Chronology of Andrey Rymsha" (1581) and "Ostrog Bible" (1580-1581). In the meantime, in Moscow, the tradition of printing was continued and in the new printing house, headed by Nevezha Timofeev and Nikifor Tarasiev, another church book, Psalter (1568), was printed. However, after the campaign of the Crimean Khan Devlet-Giray to Moscow, this printing house also burned down (1571).

5. Development of architecture

The formation of a new Moscow style in Russian architecture was directly related to the grandiose restructuring of the Moscow Kremlin, which, with the blessing of Metropolitan Philip, began by Ivan III and Vasily III, under which, under the leadership of the Italian architects Aristotle Fioravanti, Pietra Anthony Solari, Marco Ruffo and Aleviz the New, the walls were erected and the towers of the Moscow Kremlin and built the Assumption (1479), Annunciation (1489), Archangel (1505) cathedrals, the Church of the Deposition of the Robe (1486), Ivan the Great Bell Tower (1600) and the Faceted Chamber.

Rice. 4. Reception of ambassadors in the Faceted Chamber ()

In 1530-1534. the Italian architect Petrok Maly erected brick walls and towers of the famous Kitay-gorod in Moscow, and in the early 1580s. under the leadership of the Russian architect Fyodor Kon, the walls and towers of the White City were built. At the same time, the construction of stone defensive lines began in many Russian cities, in particular in Ivan-gorod (1492), Nizhny Novgorod (1508-1511), Tula (1514-1521), Kolomna (1525-1531). ), Zaraisk (1531), Serpukhov (1556) and a little later in Smolensk (1582-1588).

Many Russian monasteries, including Trinity-Sergiev, Pafnutiy-Borovsky, Simonov, Solovetsky, Kirillo-Belozersky and Iosifo-Volotsky, have undergone major restructuring and strengthening.

Two architectural styles prevailed in cult architecture: the traditional cross-domed style and the new hipped roof style. The most outstanding buildings of the first style were: the Smolensk Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent (1524-1525), the Pyatnitskaya and Vvedenskaya churches of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1547), the Assumption (1552-1557) and the Transfiguration (1556-1566). cathedrals of the Solovetsky Transfiguration Monastery and the Assumption Cathedral of the Trinity-Sergius Monastery (1559-1585). The most graceful buildings of the second style were: the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow (1532), the Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed, or the Intercession Cathedral (1555-1561), built under the leadership of the remarkable Russian architects Barma and Postnik Yakovlev, the temple in the village of Ostrov on the Moskva River (1578) and the Church of Boris and Gleb in the Borisov town near Mozhaisk (1600).

6. Development of pictorial art

The development of Russian pictorial art is traditionally associated with the work of the great Russian painter Dionysius (1440-1519), who took an active part in the painting of the Nativity Cathedral of the Pafnutiy-Borovsky Monastery (1473-1477), the Assumption Cathedral of the Joseph-Volokolamsk Monastery (1481- 1486), the Dormition Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin (1514-1515) and the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Theotokos in the Ferapontov Monastery near Vologda, a number of frescoes of which ("The Vision of Brother Leonty", "The Vision of Peter of Alexandria") have been preserved in their original form.

In addition to fresco paintings, Dionysius and his school (Timothy, Yarets, Horse) painted many magnificent icons that still adorn the altars of many famous temples and churches: "Savior is in Power", "Deesis from the Holidays and from the Prophets", "Apocalypse "," He rejoices in you "," Our Lady of Odigitria "," Life icons "of the Moscow metropolitans Peter and Alexy, Dmitry Prilutsky and Kirill Belozersky.

After the Stoglava Cathedral in 1551, pictorial art becomes more canonical and, according to many authors (M. Alpatov, V. Lazarev), it loses its best dignity, a template begins to prevail in it, craftwork intensifies and the imagination of even the most talented artists fades. In the context of the subordination of pictorial art to the official church in the second half of the 16th century. a new artistic direction appeared, focusing the main attention on the painting technique, which received the name Stroganov school.

The most famous painters of the Stroganov school were Procopius Chirin (icons "Nikita the Warrior", "Tikhvin Mother of God" and "The Vladimir Mother of God with Holidays and the Faces of Saints"), Nikifor Istoma (icon "Militant Church"), Nazariy and Fyodor Savin (icon "Miracle George about the Dragon ") and others.

At the very end of the XVI century. the so-called Godunov school, which, according to a number of art historians (V. I. Yazykov), was the result of a synthesis of the traditions of various icon painting styles. The main feature of the painters of the Godunov school was the return to the traditions of monumental pictorial art of the second half of the 15th century, that is, the era of Andrei Rublev.

Bibliography

1. Budovnits I. U. Russian journalism of the XVI century. - M., 1947

2. Zimin A. A. I. S. Peresvetov and his contemporaries. - M., 1958

3. Ilyin M. A. Russian hipped roof architecture. - M., 1980

4. Kudryavtsev M. P. Moscow - the Third Rome. Historical and urban planning research. - M., 1994

5. Kuzmin A. G. History of Russia from ancient times to 1618 - M., 2003

6. Kuskov V. V. Literature and culture of Ancient Rus. - M., 1994

7. Panchenko A. M. History of Russian literature XI-XVII centuries. - L., 1985

8. Perevezentsev S. V. Russian religious and philosophical thought of the X-XVII centuries. - M., 1999

9. Sinitsyna NV Third Rome: the origins and evolution of the Russian medieval concept. - M., 1998

10. Yazykova NK Theology of icons. - M., 1995

3. Icons and icon painting technique ().

The Mongol-Tatar invasion and the invasion of the German knights put the country on the brink of destruction.

Literature of the XIII century

characterized by tragic pathos and the rise of national-patriotic sentiments. Chronicle stories about the battle on the r. Kalke "The Word about the Destruction of the Russian Land", "The Life of Alexander Nevsky". The memory of the invasion of Russia was preserved in the works of a later time "The Tale of the Ruin of Ryazan by Batu" (XIV century), "The Legend of Kitezh."

The last historical and cultural monument is a cycle of legends about the legendary city of Kitezh, plunged into Lake Svetloyar and thus saved from ruin by the Mongol-Tatars. The cycle took shape over the course of many centuries and finally took shape in the Old Believer "Book, the verb chronicler" (end of the 18th century).

From the 2nd half of the XIV century.

the rise of Russian culture begins, due to the success of economic development and the first major victory over foreign invaders in the Battle of Kulikovo. After this historical event, old cities are revived and new cities-centers of economic life and culture develop.

Moscow is leading the struggle for the unification of the Russian lands, its influence is growing as one of the cultural centers.

The most outstanding work of that time "Zadonshchina" (behind the Don) is dedicated to the victory on the Kulikovo field.

This work was written in the genre of a historical story by Ryazan Zephany in the 80s. XIV century. The author compares the events of his contemporary life with the events described in "The Lay of Igor's Host."

Victory on the Kulikovo field is, as it were, revenge for the defeat of Igor Svyatoslavovich's troops. This victory restored the glory and power of the Russian land.

Architecture was widely developed, primarily in Novgorod and Pskov, cities that were less politically dependent on the Mongol khans. In the XIV-XV centuries. Novgorod was one of the largest centers for the development of art, economic and political life.

Russian architects continued the traditions of architecture of the pre-Mongol period (cultural continuity).

They used masonry of rough hewn limestone slabs, boulders and partly bricks. Such masonry gave the impression of strength and power (and this corresponds to the Russian character). Academician I.E. Grabar noted this feature of Novgorod art as follows: "The ideal of a Novgorodian is strength, and his beauty is the beauty of strength."

The result of new searches for the traditions of old architecture is the Church of the Savior on Kovalevo (1345) and the Church of the Assumption on Volotovo Pole (1352).

Examples of the new style are the Church of Fyodor Stratilat (1361) and the Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior (1374). This style is characterized by elegant external decoration of temples, decoration of facades with decorative niches, sculptural crosses, and niches with frescoes. The Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior, built in Novgorod, is a typical cross-domed church with four powerful pillars and one head.

Simultaneously with the temple, civil construction was carried out.

The Faceted Chamber was built in Novgorod (1433). Novgorod boyars built stone chambers for themselves. In 1302 a stone Kremlin was laid in Novgorod.

Pskov was another major economic and cultural center at that time. The city looked like a fortress. The architecture of the buildings is austere and laconic, almost completely devoid of decorative ornaments. The walls of the large stone Kremlin were nine kilometers long.

Pskov masters won great fame in Russia and had a great influence on Moscow construction.

In Moscow, stone construction began in the 2nd quarter of the 14th century. (construction of the white-stone fortress of the Moscow Kremlin). The Kremlin was constantly being built and expanded.

Construction was carried out in other cities as well. The largest building of that time was the Assumption Cathedral in Kolomna - on a high basement, with a gallery.

A new trend in Moscow architecture was the desire to overcome the "cubicity" and create a new, upward-directed composition of the building due to the stepped arrangement of the vaults.

History of Russian painting of the XIV-XV centuries.

as well as architecture, it became a natural continuation of the history of painting of the pre-Mongol period.

Icon painting is developing in Novgorod and Pskov. Novgorod icons of this period are characterized by laconic composition, clear drawing, purity of colors, impeccable technique.

Wall painting in Russia of this time belongs to the golden age. Along with icon painting, fresco painting was widespread - painting on wet plaster with paints diluted in water.

In the XIV century. fresco painting is formed compositionally, a landscape is introduced, the psychologism of the image is enhanced.

A special place among the artists of the XIV-XV centuries. is occupied by the brilliant Theophanes the Greek (c. 1340 - after 1405). The works of Theophanes the Greek - frescoes, icons are distinguished by monumentality, strength and dramatic expressiveness of images, bold and free pictorial manner. He embodied in his works the spirituality of man, his inner strength. Together with Andrei Rublev, they paint the Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Kremlin (1405).

Another famous master of this time is the great Russian artist Andrei Rublev (c.

1360/70 - c. 1430). His work marked the rise of Russian culture during the creation of a centralized Russian state and the rise of Moscow.

Under him, the Moscow school of painting reached its zenith. The works of Andrei Rublev are distinguished by deep humanity, spirituality of images, the idea of ​​harmony and harmony, the perfection of the artistic form.

His most famous work is the Trinity icon.

In this masterpiece, we see the expression of the deep humanistic idea of ​​harmony and humanity, harmony.

Culture of Russia at the end of the 15th – 16th centuries.

For the historical and cultural development of the Russian lands, the period of the end of the XV-XVI centuries. was a turning point. The formation of a unified Russian state continued, the country finally freed itself from the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the formation of the Russian nationality was completed. All this had a significant impact on the formation of cultural processes.

Secular and democratic elements are gaining strength in Russian culture.

In the literature, there are works that support the new state policy.

The theory of the origin of the Russian state found its expression in the "Tale of the princes of Vladimir". It stated that the Russian sovereigns trace their origin from the Roman emperor Augustus. This idea was supported by the church, which, moreover, linked it with the concept of "Moscow - the Third Rome".

The economic and political achievements of Russia at that time had a noticeable impact on the rise in the level of literacy and education. Literacy was taught in private schools mainly by priests and clerks. In schools they studied the Psalter, and in some - elementary grammar and arithmetic.

An important role in the history of Russian culture was played by the emergence typography. The first attempts at it date back to the end of the 15th century, but it began in 1553.

V 1563 g. was built first printing house in Moscow. Printing became a state monopoly. The printing house was headed by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. In 1564, the first Russian printed book “ Apostle».

Among the literary monuments of that time - a huge 10-volume collection of church literature "Monthly Readings".

These are the biographies of Russian saints written by Metropolitan Macarius, compiled by months in accordance with the days of honor of each saint.

Generalizing chronicle works are created, for example, the Front Chronicle Code - a kind of world history from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century.

The Monument of Russian historical literature is also the Book of Degrees, compiled by Ivan IV's confessor Andrey. It sets out Russian history from Vladimir I to Ivan IV.

The code of everyday rules and instructions contains “ Domostroy».

He defended the patriarchal order in the family. The book gave advice on how to be frugal, etc.

Architecture of the 15th - 16th centuries reflected the growing international role of the Russian state. A new stage begins in both temple and civil architecture.

The creation of the Russian centralized state was marked by the construction on the site of the old new Kremlin, the ensemble of which was finally formed in the late 15th - early 16th centuries.

At this time, brick began to be used in construction. Brickwork replaced the traditional white stone. In 1485 - 1495 the white-stone walls of the Kremlin were replaced with brick ones.

In 1475 - 1479 the new Assumption Cathedral was built, which became a classic example of monumental temple architecture of the 16th century.

In 1484 - 1489 the Annunciation Cathedral was built - the house church of the great dukes.

In 1505 - 1508

the Archangel Cathedral was built, in the external appearance of which the secular style of architecture was clearly expressed. The Archangel Cathedral was a burial vault where all the great dukes were transferred, starting with Ivan Kalita, and then the kings (up to Peter I).

In the Moscow Kremlin, secular buildings were also erected, for example, the Faceted Chamber, which was intended for ceremonial receptions.

The highest achievement of Russian architecture of the 16th century.

Culture and life of Russia at the end of the 15th - 16th centuries.

was the construction of the temple tent type, in which the national originality of Russian traditions was most clearly expressed. An example of a tent-roofed temple was the Intercession Cathedral (St. Basil's Cathedral). The cathedral was built in 1555 - 1560. Russian architects Barma and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan.

In the XVI century. the "fortress building" was on a huge scale.

A line of fortifications was erected in Moscow (Kitay-Gorod, then White City).

These works were supervised by the famous master Fyodor Kon, he also built the Smolensk Kremlin.

Painting of the period of the end of the 15th - 16th centuries. represented by the works of the talented Russian artist Dionisy. He painted the Assumption Cathedral.

The range of painting topics is gradually expanding, interest in non-church subjects, especially historical ones, is growing. The genre of historical portrait is developing.

The painting of this period is characterized by a growing interest in real historical figures and events.

According to academician D.

S. Likhachev, “from all periods of the history of Russian culture, it is the 15th - 16th centuries. are especially important. It was then that the restoration of the interrupted process of creating a single state and the revival of culture take place ... "

Russian culture at the end of the 15th-16th centuries

Cultural development of Russia in the 16th century was determined by factors common to all European peoples: the design of national states, linguistic and ethnic consolidation, the formation of common national styles in art. The spiritual life of society was still determined by the Christian worldview.

1. Features of Russian culture of the 16th century.

1.1. The process has intensified fusion of local cultural traditions and the formation on the basis of their synthesis of a single national Russian culture.

1.2. Formation of a centralized state was a powerful stimulus for the development of culture.

The need to strengthen the internal and foreign policy position of the state led to an unprecedented increase in state needs for the development of various areas of material and spiritual culture.

1.3. An important role in strengthening the defining positions of the Orthodox Church was played by Stoglavy Cathedral 1551, who tried regulate the art.

Creativity was proclaimed as a model in painting Rublev, from the point of view of its iconography, that is, the arrangement of figures, and the use of certain colors, etc. In architecture, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin was put forward as a model, in literature - Metropolitan Macarius and his mug.

By limiting the freedom of creativity, the decisions of the Stoglav Cathedral at the same time contributed to the preservation of a high level of craftsmanship.

1.4. Despite the preservation of the dominant positions of the Church, from the XVI century.

in Russian culture, more tangible than before, begin to manifest secular and democratic elements.

1.5. The formation of domestic culture in the context of the struggle against foreign conquerors predetermined a high degree of patriotism, predominance heroic themes and pronounced freedom-loving tendencies.

The formation of a single centralized state, linguistic and ethnic consolidation did not lead to the destruction of the cultural identity of numerous nationalities, on the basis of which a single Great Russian was formed.

The synthesis of cultures of different peoples was organically combined with the preservation of many features of the local material and spiritual culture. The culture of the new state was clearly multinational character.

2. LITERACY AND EDUCATION. BEGINNING OF BOOK PRINTING.

1. The development of the apparatus of power and international relations in connection with the formation of a single centralized state, the strengthening of the church and the further development of crafts and trade caused growing demand for literate people.

2.2. On a nationwide scale education it was still initial, was of a church nature and was accessible only to a select few. Literacy was spread primarily among the feudal lords, clergy and merchants.

2.2.1. The most widespread was teaching at monasteries.

2.2.2. People of the clergy usually taught at home and in private schools; secular literacy masters were extremely rare.

Theological disciplines formed the basis of any educational process. As a rule, they also taught reading and writing, sometimes the beginnings of arithmetic.

2.2.4. Usually liturgical books were used as teaching aids, only in the second half of the century did special grammars and arithmetic appear.

2.3. Development of writing was accompanied by a change in the very technique of writing, adapting to the increased demand for books and all kinds of documents.

Culture of Russia 15 - 16 centuries

2.3.1. The main material for writing was paper, which began to be used in the XIV century. They brought her from Italy, France, German states, Poland.

2.3.2. The dominant type of writing finally becomes the one that appeared in the 15th century. cursive - fluent, expedited writing.

2.4. The expensive and time-consuming process of making handwritten books no longer satisfied the increased demand for them.

An important milestone in the development of Russian culture was the emergence typography, the beginning of which dates back to 1553. The first editions had no authors and were not dated. Therefore, the beginning of book printing is often considered 1563, when a printing house was created in Moscow at the expense of the tsarist treasury. Led it Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets. In 1564 the first Russian dated book was published - Apostle, and in 1565 - Book of Hours- a collection of daily prayers. Along with religious books, the first Russian was published by typographic method. primer(in 1574

in Lviv), but only during the sixteenth century. 20 books have been published. The leading place was still occupied by the handwritten book.

3. LITERATURE AND PUBLIC AND POLITICAL THOUGHT

New socio-political conditions led to the advancement of new problems. Much attention in Russian literature began to be paid to the issues of autocratic power, the place and significance of the church in the state, and the international position of Russia. This contributed to the development of new literary genres.

At the same time, genres and trends traditional for Russian literature have retained their significance.

3.1. Still continued to evolve chronicle, subordinate henceforth to a single center and a single goal - to strengthen the Russian centralized state, the authority of the tsarist and ecclesiastical authorities.

The chronicler of the beginning of the kingdom describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible and proves the need to establish tsarist power in Russia. Degree book contains portraits arranged in 17 degrees and descriptions of the reigns of the great Russian princes and metropolitans, from Vladimir I (Svyatoslavich) to Ivan IV. Facial annalistic set (Nikon Chronicle) represents a kind of world history from the creation of the world to the middle of the 16th century.

They were further developed historical stories, in which, as before, the heroic theme prevailed: Kazan capture, On the walk of Stefan Batory to the city of Pskov and etc.

3.3. Significant changes are undergoing travel literature. Secular motives are strengthening, fictional stories are increasingly included in the description of travel.

New genre varieties of travel notes are being formed - stories of Russian ambassadors (article lists, murals), unsubscribes from explorers.

3.4. A characteristic feature of the development of literature of this period is the emergence and rapid development of journalism, which reflected the development of socio-political thought, the emergence of ideological and philosophical polemics.

The first literary and publicistic works supported and substantiated the new state policy. V Legends about the princes of Vladimir and Legends about Vladimir Monomakh found its expression, which originated at the end of the 15th century.

the concept of the hereditary relationship of Russian sovereigns with the Byzantine and Roman emperors. This idea was supported by the Russian Orthodox Church. In the letters of Hegumen Philotheus to the Grand Duke Vasily III, the thesis was finally formulated Moscow is the third Rome, which became the ideological doctrine of the Russian autocracy.

Talented Russian publicist Ivan Peresvetov in their works The Legend of Tsar Constantine, Legend of Mohammed-Saltan and others outlined their program of transformations in the country. He saw the ideal of state structure in a strong autocratic power, based on the local nobility.

Peresvetov advocated the rise of people according to merit, and not according to wealth and nobility.

3.4.3. An interesting publicistic legacy was left by an associate of Ivan the Terrible, Prince Andrey Kurbsky... In his writings ( The story of the Grand Duke of Moscow and others) Kurbsky advocated limiting the power of the tsar.

The famous correspondence between Ivan the Terrible and Andrei Kurbsky, in which they argue about the ways of development of Russia, about the relationship of the monarch with his subjects.

A kind of encyclopedia of household and moral norms of the XVI century. is compiled with the participation of a statesman from the time of Ivan the Terrible, Archpriest SylvesterDomostroy - a moral textbook that determined the behavior of a person, his duties in the family and society.

These rules later became a classic example of the patriarchal way of life in the family, but at that time it contained revolutionary norms, emphasizing the soul-saving nature of labor, giving a higher assessment of a woman at that time, etc.

3.6. Among the literary monuments of the XVI century. it is impossible not to mention the 13-volume collection of church literature Chetya-Minea(Readings monthly) - compiled Metropolitan Macarius and his students a list of all hagiographic literature and all works of Russian medieval writing approved by the Orthodox Church.

ARCHITECTURE

The development of architecture during this period reflected the growth of the international authority of the Russian state. A new stage is beginning in both temple and civil construction, characterized by an organic combination of national traditions and the latest achievements of Russian and European architecture.

Many monuments of the late 15th-16th centuries. are outstanding achievements of not only Russian, but also world architecture.

4.1. Completion of the construction of the ensemble Moscow Kremlin was an important milestone both in the history of Russian architecture and in the history of the Russian state.

Not only the best domestic, but also Italian masters took part in its creation: Pietro Antonio Solari, Aristotle Fioravanti, Mark Fryazin, Aleviz New.

In the years 1485-1495. powerful brick walls and towers were erected around the Kremlin, decorated with teeth in the form of swallow tails characteristic of Italian serf architecture - merlons.

At the same time, an architectural ensemble was formed Cathedral Square.

- A classic example of monumental temple architecture of the 16th century. became Assumption Cathedral(1475-1479) - a cathedral built by the Italian architect Aristotle Fioravanti on the model of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir, but much larger in size.

- During construction Archangel Cathedral(1506-1508), which was before the beginning of the eighteenth century.

the burial vault of Moscow princes and kings, the architect Aleviz Novy combined the traditional cross-domed structure of a five-domed six-pillar temple with the rich architectural decor of the Italian Renaissance.

- The Pskov masters built a nine-domed Blagoveshchensky cathedral(1484-1489) - the house church of the Russian great dukes and tsars; and Church of the Deposition of the Robe(1484-1489) - the house church of the Russian metropolitans.

Secular buildings were also erected in the Moscow Kremlin. Among them Princely palace, consisting of several interconnected buildings. From this palace has survived Faceted Chamber(1487-1491), built by Italian architects Pietro Antonio Solari and Mark Fryazin.

The architectural center of the Kremlin ensemble is Ivan the Great belltower, built in 1505-1508.

and built on in 1600.

The Moscow Kremlin has become a symbol of the greatness and power of the capital of the centralized Russian state.

4.2. In the XVI century. five-domed cross-domed churches were built on the model of the Moscow Assumption Cathedral in almost all Russian monasteries and the main cathedrals of a number of large Russian cities.

Most famous Assumption Cathedral in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, Smolensk Cathedral of the Novodevichy Convent, St. Sophia Cathedral in Vologda, cathedrals in Tula, Suzdal, Dmitrov and other cities.

4.3. The flourishing of Russian architecture was also manifested in the emergence of a new style - tent construction based on the national traditions of wooden architecture, carving, embroidery, painting.

In contrast to the cross-domed temples, hipped roofs do not have pillars inside and the entire mass of the building rests only on the foundation.

One of the first monuments of this style is Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye built in 1532

by order of Grand Duke Vasily III, in honor of the birth of his son Ivan, the future Tsar Ivan the Terrible.

The most famous monument of hipped roof architecture - Intercession Cathedral, named at the end of the century St Basil's Church named after the famous Moscow holy fool, buried under one of its side-chapels.

The cathedral was built in 1555-1561. Russian architects Barmoy and Postnik in honor of the capture of Kazan by the Russian troops .

Hip-roof temples were built in Suzdal, Zagorsk and other cities.

Widespread in the XVI century. received the construction of small stone or wood Posad temples. They were the centers of craft settlements and were dedicated to the saint who patronized this craft.

These buildings practically did not reach us.

4.5. V XVI century there was a rise fortress (fortification) construction.

The construction of fortresses took on an enormous scale. The Kremlin were built in Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Kolomna and other cities.

In Moscow, the brick walls of the Moscow Kremlin were built, which had 20 towers (1516). In 1535-1538. Italian architect Petrok Small the second line of fortifications was erected, which encircled the trade and craft part of the capital, - China town. In 1585-1593.

under the supervision of the city master Fedor Horse, the third line of stone fortifications of Moscow was built - White City(now the Boulevard Ring). At the end of the XVI century.

in connection with the raids of the Crimean Tatars, the last line of the external fortification of Moscow was built - wooden walls on Earthen shaft(now the Garden Ring).

5. FINE ARTS

The visual arts developed in line with the general cultural process and is characterized by two main trends: the erasure of the boundaries of local schools and a noticeable increase in secular elements.

Iconography.

5.1.1. In icon painting dominated Moscow school, formed on the basis of a synthesis of local schools and which became the basis of the general Russian national icon painting school.

5.1.2. Icon painters of township cities more and more often deviated from classical norms, there was a greater variety in plots and colors, elements of everyday life appear.

Icons became widespread of the Theotokos cycle Rejoices about you, which testifies to the special role assigned to the people's consciousness of the Mother of God.

5.1.3. From the end of the 15th century. The fine arts are characterized by an increasing interest in real historical figures and events, the range of painting topics is expanding. Since the Orthodox Church could no longer resist this tendency, the clergy tried to take control of its development.

Cathedral 1553-1554 allowed to depict on icons the faces of kings, princes, and also being a letter, those. historical plots. This decision contributed to the development of the genre historical portrait.

On the frescoes of the gallery of the Annunciation Cathedral, traditional images of saints, great Russian princes and Byzantine emperors are side by side with portraits of ancient poets and thinkers: Homer, Virgil, Plutarch, Aristotle, etc. The golden chamber of the royal palace(the frescoes have not survived).

The largest Russian painter of this period was Dionysius , continued the traditions of Andrei Rublev. His brushes belong to the frescoes of the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin of the Ferapontov Monastery (1490-1503).

5.2. Significant changes have undergone book miniature... Replacing parchment with paper affected her technique and color. The new miniatures were no longer like enamel or mosaics, but like watercolors. The characteristic features of the book miniature are the image of everyday scenes, the versatility of the composition.

The development of art was regulated by the church and the state: workshops were organized, canons of icon painting were established, special decisions were made at church Councils about the permissibility of depicting individual characters and historical events.

The growth of cities and urban settlements, the development of handicrafts contributed to the further development in the 16th century in decorative and applied arts, the main center of which was Moscow.

The best artisans united in the royal and metropolitan workshops.

The crafts of that time were very diverse: wood carving, sewing, silversmithing, chasing, bell casting, copper casting, enamel and others. Outstanding success was achieved by artistic embroidery, in which, instead of silk threads, gold and silver were used, pearls and precious stones were widely used.

The best examples of gold and silver work are kept in the Kremlin's Armory.

6. RESULTS

7.1. In the XVI century. despite the contradictory nature of the evolution of Russian statehood, culture continued to develop, reflecting both the process of centralization and the problems of the second half of the century.

7.2. The formation of common styles in art and common trends in the cultural life of the country is taking place.

7.3. During this period, foundation of multinational Russian culture.

A tendency has arisen to secularization culture: realistic features appeared in works of art.

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Russian culture of the late 15-16 centuries.

2. Folklore.

The leading theme of the UNT continued to be the theme of the heroic struggle against external enemies. In this regard, the epics of the Kiev cycle were revised and modernized. The heroes of the heroic epic became participants in the struggle against the Kazan and Crimean khanates.

Historical songs became one of the most widespread genres of oral folk art in the 16th century.

The songs about the capture of Kazan were especially popular, where the victory over the Kazan Khanate was regarded as the final victory over the Tatar-Mongols.

Ivan the Terrible became one of the heroes of the UNT. His image in folk art is very contradictory.

There are songs where he is connected with the ideal of a good king, and songs where all the negative traits of his character are noted. Malyuta Skuratov became a negative hero of folklore.

A special place is occupied by the cycle of songs about Yermak, where for the first time in Russian folklore the active active popular masses are depicted.

Ermak became the embodiment of the popular ideal of the struggle against the tsarist governors. Liberation from serfdom was presented as a really achievable ideal.

3.Education and typography.

With the development of feudal economy, crafts, trade, especially with the development of the apparatus of power and international relations, the need for literate people increased.

The church also needed them. Education was limited to mastering elementary literacy. The great achievement of Russian culture in the mid-16th century was the beginning of book printing. The first printing house appeared in 1553 and entered the science under the name of anonymous, since the names of the authors are unknown.

The print quality amazes with its strict artistic design and the absence of typos.

In total, until the end of the 16th century, about 20 books were published, all of church-religious content, but neither in the 16th nor in the 17th centuries the printed book could supplant the handwritten one.

Chronicles and stories, legends and lives were written by hand.

4. Literature.

In the 16th century, the first real publicistic works appeared in the form of letters and letters intended not for one addressee, but for a wide audience.

The central place in the secular journalism of the 16th century is occupied by the work of Ivan Semenovich Peresvetov. He put forward a program of reforms affecting various spheres of public life. In the 16th century, chronicle writing continued to develop. The works of this genre include "The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom", which describes the first years of the reign of Ivan the Terrible (1534-1553) and proves the need to establish tsarist power in Russia.

In the middle of the 16th century, Moscow chroniclers prepared a huge collection of chronicles - a kind of historical encyclopedia of the 16th century, the so-called "Nikon Chronicle" (in the 17th century it belonged to Patriarch Nikon). Along with the chronicle, historical stories were further developed, which told about the events of that time - "Kazan capture", "About the arrival of Stefan Batory to the city of Pskov", "History of the Kazan kingdom".

The most striking example of the genre genre of the 16th century was "Domostroy", i.

e. home economics, which contained advice on cooking, receiving guests, housekeeping, paying taxes, raising children. Its author was presumably the archpriest of the Kremlin Cathedral of the Annunciation, Sylvester.

Culture of Russia XV-XVI centuries

In the 16th century, the first textbooks on grammar and arithmetic appeared, as well as dictionaries - "ABCs".

4. Architecture and painting.

In the late 15th and early 16th centuries, a new stage began in the development of Russian architecture. An innovation of this time was the spread of bricks and terracotta (fired colored clay). Brickwork replaced the traditional white stone. Moscow finally acquires the status of an all-Russian art center. The architectural complex of the Kremlin is being completed.

By the beginning of the 16th century, Russian architects had invented a new system of brick floors - a cross vault, resting not on internal pillars, but on external walls.

Such small churches were built in the villages (the Church of the Annunciation on Vagankovo, the Church of St. Nicholas in Myasniki).

Another of the outstanding manifestations of the flourishing of Russian architecture of the 16th century was the construction of hipped-roof temples, dating back to Russian wooden architecture.

Painting of the 16th century is characterized by an expansion of the range of topics, an increase in interest in non-ecclesiastical topics from the world, and especially Russian history. Painting was greatly influenced by the official ideology.

In general, the allegorical nature of the plots is a distinctive feature of the fine arts of the 16th century.

With an increase in interest in historical themes, the development of the genre of historical portraiture is associated, although the depiction of real faces was conditional.

At the end of the 16th century, the Stroganov school appeared. She focused on her own painting technique. Distinctive features were: mastery of external performance (the desire to portray the special refined beauty of figures, clothing), while the inner world of the characters goes into the background. Icon painters begin to sign their works for the first time.

The unity of the Russian lands could not but affect the culture of liberated Russia in the 16th century. Construction was carried out on a grand scale, architecture, painting and literature developed.

Architecture

In the 15-16th centuries. construction was predominantly made of wood, but its principles were applied in stone architecture.

Fortifications, fortresses were restored, and kremlin were built in the cities of Russia.

Architecture of Russia of the 16th century was rich in outstanding buildings of church architecture.

One of these structures is the Church of the Ascension in the village. Kolomenskoye (1532) and St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow (1555-1560).

Many of the erected churches and temples belong to the hip-roof style, which was widespread at that time (typical for wooden temples of Ancient Russia).

Under the leadership of Fyodor Kon, the most powerful fortress (in Smolensk) was erected and the White City in Moscow was surrounded by walls and towers.

Painting

To painting of the 16th century. in Russia it is mainly icon painting.

The Stoglavy Cathedral accepted the works of A. Rublev as a canon in church painting.

The most striking monument of icon painting was the "Militant Church".

The icon was created in honor of the capture of Kazan; it interprets the described event as a victory of Orthodoxy. In the painting of the Golden Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, one could feel the influence of the West. At the same time, the church was opposed to the penetration of genre and portrait painting into the church.

Printing house

In the 16th century. the first printing house appeared in Russia, printing began. Now numerous documents, orders, laws, books could be printed, even though their cost exceeded handwritten work.

The first books were printed in 1553-1556.

By the "anonymous" Moscow printing house. First accurately dated edition refers to 1564, it was printed by Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets and is called "Apostle".

Literature

Changes in politics, consisting in the formation of autocracy, stimulated the ideological struggle, which contributed to the flourishing of journalism.

Literature of Russia of the 16th century includes "Stories of the Kazan Kingdom", "The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir", 12-volume book "Great Cheti-Menaei", containing all revered in Russia works for home reading (works that were not included in the popular collection, faded into the background) ...

In the 16th century. in Russia, boyars' clothes, simple in cut and shape, acquired extraordinary showiness and luxury thanks to decorative ornaments.

Such costumes lent pomp and majesty to the image.

Different peoples lived on the vast territory of Russia, so the clothes differed depending on local traditions. So, in the northern regions of the state, a woman's costume consisted of a shirt, a sundress and a kokoshnik, and in the southern regions, a shirt, a kitsch and a poneva skirt.

Men's suit: long shirt made of homespun linen (up to mid-thigh or knee-length), ports (narrow and tight-fitting legs). At the same time, there were no special differences in the style of clothing of the nobility and peasants.

Question 16.

Time of Troubles Russia at the turn of 16-17 centuries
The beginning of the Time of Troubles (Troubles)

1598-1613 - a period in the history of Russia called the Time of Troubles.

At the turn of the 16-17th centuries.

Russia was going through a political and socio-economic crisis. Livonian war and Tatar invasion, and oprichnina Ivan the Terrible contributed to the intensification of the crisis and the growth of discontent in society. This was the reason for the beginning of the Time of Troubles in Russia.

The first period of Troubles

The first stage of the Troubles is characterized by the struggle for the throne. After death Ivan the Terrible his son Fyodor came to power, but he was unable to rule.

In fact, the country was ruled by the brother of the king's wife - Boris Godunov... Ultimately, his policies provoked the discontent of the popular masses.

Trouble began with the appearance in Poland of False Dmitry I (in reality - Grigory Otrepiev), supposedly miraculously surviving son of Ivan the Terrible.

He won over to his side a significant part of the Russian population. In 1605, False Dmitry 1 was supported by the governors, and then by Moscow. And already in June he became the legitimate king. However, he acted too independently, which caused the discontent of the boyars, and he also supported serfdom, which caused a protest from the peasants. On May 17, 1606, False Dmitry I was killed, V.I.

Shuisky on the condition of limiting power. Thus, the first stage of the Troubles was marked by the reign False Dmitry 1st (1605-1606).

Second period of Troubles

an uprising broke out, whose leader was I.I. Bolotnikov. The ranks of the militants included people from different strata of society: peasants, serfs, small and medium feudal lords, servicemen, Cossacks and townspeople. In the battle of Moscow, they were defeated. As a result, Bolotnikov was executed.

Discontent with the authorities continued. And soon appears False Dmitry 2nd.

In January 1608, his army went to Moscow. By June, False Dmitry 2 entered the village of Tushino near Moscow, where he settled. Two capitals were formed in Russia: boyars, merchants, officials worked on two fronts, sometimes they even received salaries from both tsars. Shuisky concluded an agreement with Sweden, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth began aggressive military actions.

False Dmitry 2 fled to Kaluga.

Shuisky was tonsured a monk and sent to the Chudov Monastery. An interregnum began in Russia - the Seven Boyars (a council of seven boyars).

Boyar Duma made a deal with the Polish invaders, and on August 17, 1610, Moscow swore allegiance to the Polish king Vladislav. At the end of 1610, False Dmitry II was killed, but the struggle for the throne did not end there.

So, the second stage of the Troubles was marked by the uprising of I.I. Bolotnikov (1606-1607), the reign of Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), the appearance of False Dmitry II, as well as the Seven Boyars (1610).

Third period of Troubles

The third stage of the Troubles is characterized by the struggle against foreign invaders.

After the death of False Dmitry II, the Russians united against the Poles. The war acquired a national character. In August 1612 militia of K. Minin and D. Pozharsky reached Moscow. And on October 26, the Polish garrison surrendered. Moscow was liberated. The Time of Troubles is over.

Zemsky Cathedral appointed king Mikhail Romanov.

Results of the Troubles

The results of the Time of Troubles were depressing: the country was in a terrible situation, the treasury was ruined, trade and crafts were in decline. The consequences of the Troubles for Russia were expressed in its backwardness in comparison with European countries.

It took decades to restore the economy.

Question 17.Russia after the Troubles, the first novels on the throne.

Culture of Russia in the 16th century: main directions

Board of Mikhail Fedorovich and Alexei Mikhailovich.
Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov
Mikhail Romanov became the first ruler of the Romanov family and the founder of a new dynasty. He was elected in 1613 at the Zemsky Sobor.

It was Mikhail Romanov who turned out to be the closest relative of the former Russian rulers. At that time, the Polish prince Vladislav and the Prince of Sweden Karl-Philip also claimed the throne of Russia.

Mother Mikhail and the future ruler himself were after the liberation of Minin and Pozharsky of Moscow and stayed in the Ipatiev Monastery. After the accession of his son, his father, under the name Filaret, became patriarch.

In fact, it was he who ruled the country until 1633.
The Poles tried to prevent the election of a new tsar. They tried to kill Mikhail who was in the monastery, sending a whole detachment for this. But, all Poles died on the way, thanks to the feat accomplished by Ivan Susanin.
With the beginning of the reign of Mikhail Romanov, the economic life of the country gradually began to improve.

In 1617, it was possible to conclude a peace treaty with Sweden, according to which the territory of the Novgorod region was returned to Russia. In the next 618, after the signing of the treaty with Poland, Polish troops were also withdrawn from Russia. Russia is losing the Chernigov, Smolensk and Seversk lands. However, the prince Vladislav calls himself the Russian tsar, not recognizing the rights to the throne of Michael.
Around the same period, to protect against the Tatars provoked by Turkey, a number of notch features appeared in the South of Russia.

The Cossacks took an active part in the fight against raids on the border lands. On the other hand, quite friendly relations were established with Persia. Due to the lands of Siberia, the territory of the country has noticeably increased.
During the reign of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the taxation of the townspeople was noticeably increased.

This time was also marked by an attempt to create a regular army. Moreover, foreigners became officers in the newly formed regiments. Towards the end of Michael's reign, the first regiments of dragoons appeared, used to guard the border. The biography of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the founder of the great dynasty, ended in 1645. The burden of power passed to his son Alexei.

This period in the life of Russia was marked by major changes.Exactly one hundred years after the Battle of Kulikovo, in 1480, our country forever threw off its dependence on the Golden Horde, but the confrontation did not end there. For more than two hundred years, the Russian people fought against the eastern khanates, into which the Horde fell apart.

At the beginning of the 16th century, the unification of the Russian lands was completed. The Russian state emerged / 17/ , of which Moscow became the capital.

Ideological and political unity brought the long-awaited victory for Russia. But peace did not reign: discord began among the higher clergy and nobility. The question of the position of the church in the Russian state has matured. The fact is that during the period of the unification of the Russian lands, the church was a faithful ally of the Grand Duke, but when this process was completed, the servants of God began to seek to preserve their leading influence in secular affairs.

The Church at that time possessed not only the minds of believers, but also colossal land riches. By the middle of the 16th century, there were one hundred and fifty monasteries in Russia. It is quite natural that the Grand Duke did not like this at all. Serious contradictions arose between Ivan III and Metropolitan Gennady.

However, there was no unity within the church itself. Every now and then there were disputes about her position in the state. The most acute controversy was between the so-called Josephites and the non-possessors; this controversy flared up at the end of the 15th century.

The Josephites (they were called so by the name of their main leader - Abbot of the Volokolamsk monastery Joseph Volotsky) defended the monasteries' right to own land and enrich themselves. In his letters, Joseph, insisting on the right of the church to own land, referred to the fact that monasteries are not only a religious, but also a political force.

The non-possessors or the Trans-Volga elders, monks of the Trans-Volga monasteries, headed by Nil Sorsky, opposed the ideas of the Josephites. In his sermons, Nil Sorsky called on monks to asceticism and self-improvement. The monk himself is called to get food for himself and to renounce everything worldly, therefore, although Nil Sorsky never spoke in his sermons about the possessions of monasteries, it became clear from the context that the church should not own earthly riches. In the palace of the Grand Duke, the ideas of the non-covetous were treated very favorably. Ivan III was very interested in weakening the economic power of the church. If the clergy gave up their riches, the Grand Duke would give them to the nobles - his main allies.

The higher clergy shared the position of Joseph Volotsky. A decisive clash with the non-possessors took place at the Council in 1503. Ivan III, on the advice of Nil Sorsky, made a demand to take away the monastic lands in favor of the treasury. Almost all the participants in the Council, headed by Joseph Volotsky, who ardently defended the rights of the church to land ownership, rose up against it. In the end, Joseph's supporters won. Ivan III had to come to terms with the decision of the Council.

After the death of Ivan III, Joseph Volotsky began to support the Grand Duke Vasily III. He even developed a whole political theory that substantiated the right of the Moscow princes to "self-righteousness." The Moscow sovereign, as Joseph Volotsky wrote, is only "by nature he is like a man, but the power of dignity is like from God." All Christians, clergy too, must obey him. The Grand Duke is the head of "all Russian sovereigns", and the appanage princes must show him "due submission and obedience."

So, the victory remained with the Josephites, who managed to come to terms with the secular authorities; and throughout the 16th century, their influence fully affected the artistic culture of Russia. In addition, the idea of ​​"tyranny" of the great dukes was embodied in Russian art.

Russia becomes a major power, and after the fall of Byzantium - a stronghold of Orthodoxy. Moscow imagines itself as the third Rome. Ivan III was married "the sovereign and autocrat of all Russia." At this time, a theory appeared that the Moscow rulers Rurikovich descended from the emperor Augustus. Ivan III married Sophia Palaeologus, niece of the last Byzantine emperor, after which the Byzantine two-headed eagle became the emblem of the Russian state, and the Grand Duke, as it were, realized his claims to absolute power. A complex and strict court ceremony was called to serve such an ideology, unprecedented honors were given to the ruler of the third Rome. A magnificent, pretentious, solemn style appeared in government papers. To demonstrate the power and wealth of the state, the sovereign-autocrat called on art for help. Architecture came to the fore, which with its external splendor and splendor could emphasize the high position of the Russian state, which it occupied in the world. For the same purpose, magnificent works of applied art, rare in decoration and subtlety, were also intended.

1. ARCHITECTURE

Construction of the Moscow Kremlin.

The architecture of the late 15th-16th centuries was on the rise. New churches were built and old churches were restored, magnificent stone palaces and chambers were erected. For this, construction artels were formed.

From the beginning of 1492, the restoration of the heavily dilapidated buildings of the Moscow Kremlin began. The "Third Rome" needed a new, majestic Kremlin, because the old walls had so many temporary patches that they seemed to foreigners made of wood. The main church, in which the Moscow metropolitans served, fell into complete disrepair, its cathedral vaults were propped up with large logs, otherwise they could collapse. It was necessary to create a new Kremlin in the old place that would meet the demands of the Russian state, to rebuild the old churches of Ivan Kalita. So Moscow wanted to emphasize its connection with the traditions of Ancient Rus.

In 1471, the Grand Duke defeated a powerful rival - Ivan III's campaign against Novgorod ended in success. The victory over "Lord Novgorod the Great" was to be immortalized by the construction of a new Assumption Cathedral in the Kremlin, which was called upon to surpass Sophia of Novgorod with its grandeur. Ivan III and Metropolitan Philip of Moscow spared no expense for the construction of the cathedral. The churches were levied with additional fees, from foreign captivity they ransomed slaves - masters who knew the construction business. The boyars, the father and son of the Khovrins, contracted to build the cathedral, who entrusted the work to be supervised by the masters Ivan Krivtsov and Myshkin. The architect was ordered to build a temple on the model of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. In the spring of 1472, the construction of new walls around the previous building began, then the old foundation was dismantled, but two years later, when the building was brought under the vaults, it collapsed.

The failure with the construction of the Assumption Cathedral was due to the fact that many of the techniques necessary for the construction of stone buildings were lost during the years of the Tatar yoke. Ivan III sent for the builders of Pskov, famous for their skill, but they also refused to continue such a complex work. Then the Grand Duke ordered to gather the best craftsmen from all over Russia and turn to foreigners.

In those years, Italy dominated the art of Europe. Ivan III, not wanting to lag behind the European monarchs, invited Italian architects to his place. In March 1475, the sovereign ambassador to Venice, Semyon Tolbuzin, brought from Italy the best "murol" - a master of stone work, the famous engineer and architect of Boulogne Aristotle Fioravanti. He was entrusted with the construction of the Assumption Cathedral, and he was ordered to take the cathedral in Vladimir as a model.

The famous architect, first of all, built a brick factory for the production of extra strong bricks; showed the maestro how to make lime, which in the morning cannot be broken off even with a knife. The architect willingly taught the Russian masters who worked under his supervision, who thereby became familiar with the high achievements of the Italian Renaissance.

After the foundation of the cathedral, Fioravanti went to Vladimir, then visited Rostov, Yaroslavl, Veliky Ustyug and, possibly, Novgorod, so he got acquainted with the traditions and techniques of Russian architecture.

The magnificent Assumption Cathedral, created by Aristotle Fioravanti, is a work of Russian architecture, for the Italian master in his artistic work proceeded from the classical achievements of ancient Russian architecture. The temple was completed in 1479. He is not a simple imitation of the Vladimir Cathedral, but a completely new, independent work, more magnificent. Taking the general forms of the sample as a basis, the master hid the apses behind the corner pilasters, which made the façade more austere. On the whole, the building turned out to be solemnly stately, there is neither external splendor nor decorativeness that strikes the eyes. The Assumption Cathedral is the embodiment of strength and severity.

Equally strict and majestic is the temple inside. Fioravanti managed to make the church very spacious due to the strong, but unusually thin walls and pillars, which contemporaries called "tree trunks". It is built "in a ward," that is, it is free in it, as in chambers. In 1514-1515, the cathedral was painted by the artists of the school of Dionysius. The fresco painting was "wonderful and executed with all kinds of moldings." Contemporaries highly appreciated the creation of Aristotle Fioravanti: "Being the same church is wonderful majesty, and height, and lordship, and sonority, and space, the same has never happened before in Russia, defied the Church of Vladimir." The Vladimir Icon of the Mother of God was placed here.

The Assumption Cathedral became not only the main church of the country, but also a role model; its forms and proportions were repeated many times in Russian churches of that time.

In 1505-1509, the tomb of the Russian tsars was erected - the largest in the Kremlin after the Assumption Cathedral of the Archangel. It was built by Fioravanti's compatriot Aleviz Novy, who interpreted the peculiarities of the Russian artistic worldview in his own way; there is much less national identity and spirituality in this building. The Archangel Cathedral outwardly resembles a two-story "palazzo"; it was distinguished by elegance and magnificent Renaissance decor.

Of the Russian masters, the Pskovites were especially valued, their work was the construction of the wonderful Cathedral of the Annunciation (1484-1489). The temple served as the home church of the Grand Duke and his family. Taking the white-stone Vladimir cathedrals as a basis, the Pskov architects built a very intimate graceful temple, raising the building to a high basement(ground floor) and surrounding it with a bypass gallery. In comparison with the Assumption and Archangel Cathedrals, the Annunciation seems to be just miniature; however, the masters managed to give him stateliness, crowning with five eyes. Outside, the temple is decorated with a patterned belt made of obliquely placed bricks ("bezenets") - this is a favorite technique of Pskov architects.

The interior of the church is delightful. It is decorated with the "Deisus" of Theophanes the Greek, transferred from the old Cathedral of the Annunciation, and the walls are painted by an artel of painters led by Theodosius, the son of Dionysius.

Ivan III planned to completely rebuild the Moscow Kremlin in order to show the strength and authority of his state. It is very possible that Aristotle Fioravanti took part in drawing up plans for rebuilding the Kremlin, then several more specialists were discharged from Italy: Pietro Antonio Solari, Marco Ruffo and others. In 1485, the construction of new walls and towers of the Kremlin began.

First, the south side was fortified. Anton Fryazin built a passage tower, in which there was a cache for obtaining water, so it was named Taynitskaya. In 1487, in the southeastern corner of the Kremlin, construction began on the Beklemishevskaya tower, which was erected by Marco Ruffo, and in 1488, Anton Fryazin erected the Sviblovskaya (now Vodovzvodnaya) tower in the southwestern corner of the Kremlin. The constructed towers were connected by a wall, thanks to which the southern part of the city, overlooking the Moskva River, was fortified. A little later, the construction of other structures began. On the western side of the Kremlin, towers have grown at the Borovitsky Gate, which was erected by Pietro Solari, he also built a tower on the eastern side at the Constantino-Helen Gate and brought out the wall from Sviblovskaya to Borovitskaya Tower. In 1491, together with Marco Ruffo, Pietro Solari laid the foundation of the Frolovskaya (now Spasskaya) and Nikolskaya towers on the eastern side. An inscription in Russian and Latin was placed on the Spassky Gate, which reads: “John Vasilyevich, by the grace of God, the Grand Duke of Vladimir, Moscow, Novgorod, Tver, Pskov, Vyatka, Ugric, Perm, Bulgarian and other and all Russia sovereign, in the summer of 30 He ordered to build these towers, and Peter Anthony Solarius, a mediolian, did it in the summer from the incarnation of the Lord in 1491 ”. The same Solari erected a wall from the Nikolskaya Tower to the river. Neglinnaya, and in 1492 put the Sobakin (now Corner Arsenalnaya) tower there. Further, the construction of the walls was continued by Aleviz Milanese. He fortified the bank of the Neglinnaya River and laid the last Trinity Tower in 1495. After the completion of its construction, the construction of the entire complex of fortifications, which we still admire, was completed, however, the towers did not yet have their magnificent hipped roofs, which they acquired only in the 17th century.

The internal layout of the Kremlin took shape after the completion of the construction of its walls.

In 1487-1491, the Moscow Kremlin ensemble was decorated with the Faceted Chamber, built by Marco Ruffo and Pietro Solari. A large hall with a huge pillar in the middle was used for ceremonial receptions and feasts. At the end of the 16th century, the Faceted Chamber was painted with frescoes, covering it from floor to ceiling with a wonderful Russian pattern.

Back in the 14th century, the pillar-like church of John Climacus was built about the Kremlin, and in 1505-1506 this church was dismantled, and in its place Bon Fryazin erected the Ivan the Great bell tower, which was built on under Boris Godunov, and an eighty-meter tower-church that possessed amazing perfection of proportions. The temple, which became the main vertical of the capital city, organizing its entire complex and beautiful silhouette.

The Moscow Kremlin is a unique piece of Russian architecture. Built up with white-stone cathedrals, sparkling with gold domes and crosses, surrounded by new walls adapted for "firefight" with a clear jagged silhouette of a "dovetail", the Kremlin was very picturesque. Its outline was striking in its magnificence.

On the other bank of the Moskva River, opposite the Kremlin, a huge Tsar's garden was built, where all of Moscow came for a walk.

From Cathedral Square - the center of the Kremlin - they diverged by the radii of the street. The city grew very quickly. To defend against the invaders, it was necessary to build three more rings of fortifications - four lines of walls with one hundred and twenty towers encircled Moscow. The capital city has become beautiful and impregnable.

Architecture of the 16th century

The beauty and grandeur of the "Third Rome" became a model for all of Russia, many Russian cities were built on the model and likeness of Moscow. One after another, beautiful white-stone cathedrals and impregnable fortresses were erected. The Smolensk Kremlin, built by the Russian architect Fyodor Kon, was called “the necklace of the Russian land” for its amazing beauty.

In the 15th century, there was a transition to firearms, so the appearance of fortresses and monasteries changed, their walls became more powerful, towers, loopholes and watchtowers appeared. The fortresses were rebuilt by Moscow craftsmen. Powerful towers arose on the walls of the Novgorod and Pskov Kremlin. Kremlins were built in Tula, Kolomna, Zaraisk, Serpukhov.

The ensembles of monasteries erected "after the model of Moscow" are magnificent and majestic. Russian masters subtly understood the connection between architecture and landscape, knew how to arrange the building so skillfully that when entering the monastery, they would reveal themselves in all their beauty and grandeur. And now we are amazed by the nobility of forms and harmony of the light churches of the Kirillo-Belozersky, Trinity-Sergiev, Borisoglebsky monasteries.

In fact, the architecture of Moscow has left its mark on all Russian architecture. Since the end of the 15th century, the capital has been setting trends in art.

Beautiful monasteries and temples of this time prepared Russian architecture for the construction of those amazing buildings that were created in the 16th century. These structures were distinguished by a special form - "tent up". Tent temples are one of the highest achievements of ancient Russian architecture. Wooden hipped roof temples have long been famous in Russia, and in the 16th century Russian architects began to erect stone tents, which became a purely Russian architectural form, undoubtedly associated with folk art; the tent was replaced by a cross-domed church that came from Byzantium, marking a new take-off of Russian architecture.

The first such temple was the Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye, built in 1532, amazing in its beauty and grandeur. The name of the genius Russian architect did not come down to us, but already contemporaries wrote with delight: "But the church is great for its height and beauty and grace, such is not the case, first of all, in Russia." The Tsar's summer residence was located in the village of Kolomenskoye. The Church of the Ascension was built by Grand Duke Vasily III in honor of the birth of his son Ivan (the future Ivan the Terrible). The completion of the construction was marked by celebrations and feasts, which were attended by the Grand Duke and the Metropolitan. The latter, as it were, legitimized the stone tent in Russian architecture. The red and white church rises sixty meters above the ground. Almost half of it is occupied by an octahedral tent that merges with the quadrangular building of the temple (the so-called "octagon on a quadrangle"). The protruding vertical pilasters, alternating keeled kokoshniks, oblong window frames, slender edges of the tent, decorated with a giant mesh-shaped ornament of faceted stones - all this creates a delightful impression of upward striving. Where once the hordes of Edigei stood, on the steep bank of the Moskva River stands a triumphal monument to the glory of Russia - the Church of the Ascension.

Fifteen years later, next to Kolomenskoye, in the village of Dyakovo, where the royal servants - clerks lived, the temple of John the Baptist was erected. It was built in honor of the wedding of Ivan IV to the kingdom. This massive temple is quite peculiar, the struggle between rest and movement is expressed in the complex play of its forms and details. One form seems to grow into another. Dyakovsky temple has five octahedral limits, closely adjacent to the central "pillar" of the multi-tiered tower. The main tower ends with an impressively finished drum, decorated with cylindrical pillars, and a lush cornice. The Dyakovskaya Church is solemn and elegant, it makes a completely different impression than the Church of the Ascension: the Church of John the Baptist is more static and heavy, it seems to be frozen in its decorative dress.

We do not know the name of the builder of the Dyakovsky Church, but the names of the architects who built one of the most magnificent temples in the world - the Intercession Cathedral, on the moat, which is now called, by the name of one of its limits, the Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed - have come down to us. Its creators were the Russian architects Barma and Postnik Yakovlev, who built it from 1555 to 1561. “What's in the ditch” meant being adjacent to a ditch that passed nearby. In the name of Basil the Blessed, the cathedral was named in honor of the holy fool, who greatly revered the Russian people, and who was buried near the walls of the temple .

The church was erected to commemorate the capture of Kazan. The beauty, power and glory were expressed by the cathedral erected in honor of the great victory. Tsar Ivan the Terrible and Metropolitan Macarius ordered the construction of a church with eight thrones, since they wanted to surround the central church with seven independent boundaries in honor of those saints whose holidays fell on the days of the Kazan campaign. But Barma and Postnik, at their own peril and risk, changed the tsar's plan. They erected nine thrones "not as if they were commanded, but as if by the Bose reason was bestowed upon them in the dimension of the foundation." The craftsmen placed eight limits around one - the central one, which was required by elementary symmetry.

The cathedral, as it were, unites nine small churches, which symbolizes the unification of the Russian lands under the rule of Moscow. The main church is located in the center, under the tent, four stand at the ends of the cross, four more, smaller in size, are located along the diagonal cross. All nine are stacked on the same foundation and connected to each other by a gallery. When the temple was built, it delighted the eye with a combination of red brick and white stone, which was in harmony with the glittering chapters covered with "white iron". And in the 17th century, according to the fashion of that time, the cathedral received its present, variegated color, at the same time the cover of the chapters was changed.

Bright and elegant, it rose next to the Kremlin, evoking delight in Russian hearts, when, like a "heavenly building", stood on Red Square as a monument to the great Russian victory. The cathedral looked little like a religious building, foreigners wrote that the temple was built more "for decoration than for prayer." He was compared with a fabulous giant plant, a group of fruits and flowers, with a frozen verbose tale. The temple embodied all the power of the Russian architectural genius; it is the highest point in the development of Russian architecture of the 16th century.

2. FINE AND APPLIED ARTS

Creativity of Dionysius.

The "golden age" of ancient Russian painting was approaching decline, but it was prolonged by the worthy successor of the great masters, the skillful Dionysius. His work was an expression of the brilliant flourishing of culture in the era of the formation of the Moscow state.

We know very little about Dionysius, although he was glorious during his lifetime. Dionysius was one of the most beloved artists of Ivan Sh, the famous ideologist and church writer Joseph Volotsky highly appreciated his art. The Volokolamsk monastery, of which Volotsk was abbot, owned 87 images of the letter of Dionysius. For decorating the new church with icons, Dionysius received from the abbot a huge sum for those times - one hundred rubles. Contemporaries considered the icons painted by him "wonderful nobles", and the artist was called "notorious and wise."

Dionysius was born around 1440 or 1450, and died, according to researchers of his work, in 1519. Unlike Rublev, he was not a monk and worked as an artisan. Dionysius was helped by his sons: Theodosius and Vladimir, both excellent artists. Because of this artel organization of labor, it is now difficult to accurately attribute the work of Dionysius. However, the individuality of the artist manifests itself in his works so clearly that the seal of his skill is quite easy to recognize in unsigned works.

The era in which Dionysius worked was different from the era of Rublev. The Russian state, under the auspices of Moscow, triumphed over the Horde and became a powerful centralized state. The task of art in such conditions is to reflect the greatness and glory of the country. From painting it was required pomp, splendor and majesty, the strictest observance of the canons as unshakable as the sovereign's power.

All this left a bright imprint on the work of Dionysius. In his creations, he fulfilled the orders of the Grand Duke and the Metropolitan, embodying in them the idea of ​​the greatness of the Russian state.

A sufficient number of works by Dionysius and his school have survived to our time. This is part of the frescoes of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin, the painting of the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in the Ferapontov Monastery and several icons.

The frescoes of the Ferapontov Monastery are the most significant of what remains to us from the work of Dionysius. The monastery was founded in the 14th century by a monk Ferapont who came from Moscow. Far in the north of Russia, a beautiful cathedral was erected, dedicated to the Mother of God, her majesty and mercy. The Mother of God was revered as the patroness of Moscow, so a famous Moscow painter was invited to decorate the temple. His frescoes have come down to us almost completely. Moreover, an ancient inscription has been preserved on the walls, which says that this cathedral was painted by "the icon-painter Dionysius with his children."

The painting is dedicated to the Nativity of the Virgin, and the master glorified this event as a joyous holiday. The frescoes are striking in their elegance and wealth. Light and joyful colors are reminiscent of delicate and transparent watercolors. The murals spread throughout the temple, covering it from floor to ceiling. The figures are slender, graceful and exaggeratedly elongated. Their movements are restrained, strictly measured and slow, full of nobility - so it was ordered to move according to the palace ceremony of the then grand ducal court. Mountains with ledges, columns, throne, draperies emphasize the solemnity of the composition. Gracefully elongated human figures and buildings float in the air above and around you, giving the impression of lightness and spirituality. The composition of Dionysius' frescoes is based on the absolute balance of all its parts. The master's painting pleases and delights us, taking us away from the hard and rough world of reality into the world of harmony, where there is no sorrow, doubt, excitement and struggle.

The murals adorn not only the interior of the temple, but also its facade, which depicts the main plot - "The Nativity of the Virgin". On the wall is painted Maria's mother Anna on a bed surrounded by graceful servants, preparations are underway for bathing the baby, and little Maria is resting in a cradle over which her parents bowed. The whole scene is imbued with special intimacy and, at the same time, majestic, uplifted.

Inside the temple, the story of the life of the Mother of God continues. Several scenes pass before us: "Annunciation" - Mary excitedly listens to the message brought to her by the Archangel Gabriel; "Pokrov" - solemnly towering against the background of the temple. The Mother of God in the image of the Queen of Heaven overshadows humanity with her veil - a symbol of protection from harm. In the scene of The Last Judgment, the Virgin Mary prays for the fearsome Judge for humanity. Dionysius did not want to overshadow the feast of the Nativity of the Virgin, so he deliberately abandoned the canonical scene of the Dormition of the Mother of God and introduced a new plot: images of solemn hymns to the glory of the Ever-Virgin, which are called “ Akathist to the Mother of God "/ 18/ .

The coloring of the paintings is distinguished by the extraordinary power of emotional impact. Dionysius does not like bright colors, and his palette is light, which is why the images acquire a special softness, some kind of radiant purity. In the morning and in the evening, when the sun looks into the windows of the temple and lights the dull ocher of the frescoes with amber, the painting gives the impression of joyful words in paints.

Dionisy differs from Rublev in that he does not seek to open the inner world of a person, he is rather interested in external beauty and splendor. This does not in the least detract from the significance of his painting, the artist simply creates another world - festive and beautiful, glorifying goodness and beauty.

In addition to the paintings of churches, Dionysius' artel also created icons. The Ferapont monastery has preserved the iconostasis made by Dionysius and his sons. The icons are exquisitely beautiful and refined, the “Mother of God Odngitria "/ 19/ , solemnly tender and severely dignified, She proudly carries her Son into the world.

Dionysius's workshop also created hagiographic icons that were dedicated to Moscow saints. Two such images of Dionysius' writing have come down to us: icons dedicated to the 14th century metropolitans Peter and Alexy. These saints were very revered at that time, since Moscow owed much of its rise to them. The meaning of these icons is determined not by the standing, full-length figure of the main character, but by the brands surrounding her, in which episodes from the life of the saint were depicted. The hallmarks are distinguished by the skill of the composition, for all their multi-figuredness, they are nowhere crowded, but nowhere empty. Each figure is in harmony with the other, they are tall and slender, their gestures are noble and measured. The characters are depicted against the background of a landscape with ridges of light hills, thin trees, flowers and herbs - all this gives rise to the impression of light space and clear harmony.

The work of Dionysius - a jubilant and light song in colors - played a huge role in the history of ancient Russian painting. His ceremonial and festive art became a model for many icon painters, the painting of Dionysius was imitated in different cities of Russia.

Iconography of the 16th century

The sovereign power and the church greatly influenced icon painting. Church councils established canons that were to be strictly observed; Moreover, the church introduced strict supervision not only over icon painting, but also over the icon painters themselves, over their private life and behavior. The hundred-headed cathedral of 1551 demanded from the masters strict adherence to the ancient models approved by the church, the schematic lines of the image of a certain icon-painting plot, each icon painter had a collection of such lines-samples, which he should imitate. All this led to the restriction of creative freedom, and the works became monotonous, overloaded with details.

And yet, in the middle of the 16th century, new trends appeared in Russian fine art, caused by the desire to combine canon and reality, which provoked violent protests from conservatives. So, for example, the clerk of the embassy order, Ivan Mikhailovich Viskovaty, was outraged by the incomprehensible plots of the new icons of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin. His indignation was caused by the fact that the artist painted the image of Christ according to his own "wisdom", moreover, next to the Savior he depicted a "dancing woman". However, the new trends were so strong that the church had to reckon with them. The hundred-headed cathedral was forced to allow to depict “kings and princes and saints and people” on icons, as well as “everyday writing” (that is, historical subjects).

In such a new manner, Theodosius, the son of Dionysius, painted the Cathedral of the Annunciation in the Moscow Kremlin. The frescoes of the temple are imbued with the idea of ​​the continuity of the power of the Moscow princes from the princes of Kiev and Byzantine emperors. Basileusses and Russian rulers in magnificent magnificent clothes are looking at us from the walls of the cathedral. The whole painting is very solemn and resembles in style the frescoes of the Ferapontov Monastery.

The strengthening of state and religious propaganda led to the fact that the traditional order of the murals of an Orthodox church was violated. In many frescoes of that time, real historical figures appear, for example, in the cathedral of the Sviyazhsky monastery, built in memory of the conquest of Kazan, Ivan the Terrible is depicted. But, most importantly, the idea of ​​retribution, with which the church threatens a person for his sins, begins to come to the fore. Therefore, the scene of the Last Judgment becomes the central motive of the paintings.

State and church ideas were also embodied in icon painting. The large icon "Militant Church" or "Blessedly the Host", painted in the middle of the 16th century, was created for this very purpose. It appeared in connection with the victory over Kazan, Solemnly and. it vividly presents the triumph of Russian weapons; the ranks of horsemen with spears and banners are heading towards the Mother of God, who is seated on the throne, angels with victorious crowns in their hands are swiftly flying towards them. The army is led by the patron saint of warriors - the Archangel Michael, galloping on a winged horse, followed by a beautiful young man - young Ivan the Terrible,

At the bottom of the icon is a river that symbolizes religion as the source of life. It is divided into two sleeves, one of which is filled with moisture, which means the life-giving of the Orthodox faith, and the other is empty - a symbol of sterility, apostasy and unbelief.

Stroganov school of icon painting.

At the end of the 16th century, the church's requirement to observe the canons of painting became even more stricter, in fact, the freedom of the artist's work was almost completely suppressed, so the icon painters had to realize themselves in something else. The craftsmen have embarked on the path of technical improvement. As a result, a new direction appeared in art, which received the name Stroganov's schools. Its name is associated with the name of the Stroganovs, "eminent people" who owned enormous wealth. Since ancient times, the Stroganovs collected icons, sewing and carving on stone and wood. Their home chapels were like museums; they attracted the best masters from all over Russia to decorate their estates. The most talented artists of the Stroganov school were Moscow masters who simultaneously worked for the tsar.

The Stroganov school is distinguished by an extraordinary skill of external performance. The images of Stroganov's writing are quite small, but include as many separate scenes as the huge iconostasis does not contain. The icons are characterized by mannerism, sophisticated subtlety of execution, an abundance of gold in ornamentation and details. They are designed not for prayer, but for careful scrutiny and resemble a miniature or a precious enamel piece. The Stroganov School valued technical skill and meticulous finishing. It is not for nothing that the works have become subscribed. We know the names of the best masters; Procopius Chirin, Nikifor Istoma, Nazarny and Fyodor Savvins.

Among them, the most talented was Procopius Chirin, his works were executed with special skill. On the icon "Nikita the Warrior" (1593), a thin, fragile figure of the saint is located on the edge. Bending his knees slightly and bowing his head, he addresses with a prayer to the Mother of God, who hovers in the upper corner of the board. The figure of Nikita emerges from the dark background; he wears an azure cloak, gold chain mail and gold boots. Nikita's face is so dark that you can barely see it, but, despite this, the figure of the saint is very expressive. Fragile and weak, it is lost in the emptiness of a dark background and does not at all look like the saints from the icons of the 11th-15th centuries.

The merit of the masters of the Stroganov school was the fact that for the first time in the history of Old Russian painting they discovered the beauty and poetry of the landscape. On their icons, fabulous landscapes with golden foliage of trees, with hills overgrown with herbs and flowers, with winding silvery rivers and many animals and birds.

The second way of overcoming the dogmatic shackles of the church in art led through the inclusion of elements of worldly life in icon painting. The artists of the Volga region were going in this direction. On their icons, absolutely real objects, taken from life, appear, the saints in their images more and more resemble ordinary people. Increasingly, the action unfolds against the background of a real Russian landscape, And on the icons of the Russian North, the Mother of God becomes very similar to a simple Russian peasant woman; often saints are depicted against the background of the log walls and towers of the northern monasteries.

The emergence of sculpture; applied arts.

In addition to painting, applied art and sculpture are widespread. Applied art from the end of the 15th and the entire 16th century experienced a brilliant flourishing. Jewelers, carvers, foundry workers flock to Grand-Ducal Moscow from everywhere. In the royal and metropolitan workshops, they create magnificent items for decorating palaces and temples. The luxury and splendor of their creations reflect the tastes of the court, the church and the Grand Duke himself.

Artistic crafts flourished in Russia in the pre-Mongol era, during the Tatar-Mongol yoke, they almost disappeared. The workshops were burned down, and the masters were taken away, many techniques were forgotten. Only two or three centuries later, applied art flourished again in the Russian state. The most magnificent works were created at the Armory Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin. Goldsmiths and silversmiths have reached high perfection in the technique of blackening silver, chasing, and enamel. Jewelry art in the 16th century was at the highest level. An example is the magnificent golden dish made for the wedding of Grozny to the Circassian princess Maria Temryukovna (1561). The hand of a talented and inspired master is visible in the finest ornament of the dish.

At the same time, sculpture began to spread in Russia. Most often, the images were made of wood, so they were very poorly preserved. Sculptures of Nikola Mozhaisky and Paraskeva Pyatnitsa have survived to this day.

They also sculpted from stone. The famous architect and sculptor VD Ermolin, at the behest of Ivan III, performed in 1462-1469 two monumental compositions of white stone - "George on a horse" (in the form of a snake-fighter) and "Dmitry Solunsky". They were used to decorate the Kremlin's Spassky Gate. Only the sculpture of the national hero George the Victorious has survived, which has become a symbol of Moscow. However, round sculpture was still not widespread at that time; flat relief was used much more widely, which corresponded to the ancient Russian artistic tradition with its love for embroidery. In the technique of flat relief, Russian carvers have reached unprecedented perfection. One of the magnificent works of this kind is "Tsar's Place" or « Monomakh throne "(1551), installed in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. "Tsarskoe mesto" is a small stone tent in which Grozny prayed during solemn divine services. This work reflects the desire to combine the strict church canon with real life. Carved kokoshniks of the tent, ornamental ligature of inscriptions on the cornice, explaining the images, make the "Tsar's Place" very decorative, give it a patterning that is so close to folk carving. The images are made in the technique of low relief and confirm the continuity of the power of the Russian tsars from the Byzantine emperors. The reliefs show scenes from the history of Russia, for example, "Speech on the campaign of Prince Vladimir Monomakh." The figures are quite realistic and brilliantly convey the features of individual characters.

Talented Russian carvers created beautiful royal gates and carved compositions of iconostases that adorned many churches of that time.

In the 16th century, the art of embroidery was further developed. True, here, too, the technique is changing, sewing with colored silk threads almost disappears and is replaced by metal - gold and silver wires. Embroidery is decorated with pearls and precious stones. The technique of sewing "to attach" is spreading, when the precious wire does not sew through the fabric, but is attached to it with a simple thread. Russian embroiderers created undoubted masterpieces with an ordinary needle. Especially good were the works of facial sewing, such as the shroud "The Appearance of Our Lady to Sergius and the Gospel Scenes" (1525) or the shroud from the Trinity-Sergius Monastery.

Along with facial sewing, decorative sewing with pearls, gold and silver threads also became widespread. This is how the royal garments and church vestments were embroidered.

In the applied art of the 16th century, the influence of folk art is much stronger than in previous periods. The Novgorod silversmiths (there were more than two hundred of them in Novgorod), the art workshops of Solvychegorsk and Veliky Ustyug were widely famous. Lush and luxurious works were created in them, which greatly attracted the nobility and the church. Silversmiths and chasers, masters of casting bells and cannons came to the royal court. One of the best foundry workers was Andrei Chokhov, who made the famous Tsar Cannon depicting the equestrian figure of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich framed by the finest ornament. Foundry, which began to develop in the 15th century, acquired a special scope in the 16th and 17th centuries. Moscow and other Russian cities were famous for their bells. Bell casting became a great art, in which the skill of sculptors, carvers and foundry workers was manifested in full force.

3. START OF BOOK PRINTING

To strengthen and develop the Moscow state, competent people were needed. There were more and more of them. At the Stoglav Cathedral in 1551, it was decided to "teach children from priests, from deacons, from deacons" to read and write and "book writing." There were also secular "masters of literacy".

By the 16th century, handwritten books were much more common. As before, they were very beautiful: they were decorated with miniatures, initials and headpieces written in cinnabar, dissolved gold and silver. The art of calligraphy flourished, scribes mastered several styles of writing, like a set of fonts in a printing house, and chose them depending on the nature of the text and the taste of the customer.

Corresponding books remained difficult. Scribes often preserved and multiplied the mistakes of their predecessors. Often the scribe asked the reader to forgive him for the flaws that he made "whether asleep or with a friend of the verb." Books began to be written much faster, because paper practically supplanted parchment, which was used only for writing royal letters. The semiustav was completely replaced by cursive writing.

Once verified and printed in many copies, the book has long become a desirable and indispensable for Russian culture. The beginning of printing dates back to the fiftieth year of the 16th century - this was the time when Ivan the Terrible began a fight with the nobility for "tyranny", and church councils specifically dealt with the fight against heretics who freely interpreted religious texts. Church books had to be unified, corrected, and most importantly, it was necessary to give them circulation. This problem could be solved by printing, so Ivan IV turned to Metropolitan Macarius, who "began to seek the skills of printed books."

Printed books have been known in Russia for a long time. Moreover, by order of the state, Russian books were printed abroad. It is known that in Krakow the German Schweipolt Fiol in 1491 printed "Osmoglasnik" and "Book of Hours" in Cyrillic letters, and the publisher Bartholomew Gotan from Lubets is credited with publishing about sixty titles of various books in Russian.

The beginning of book printing in Russia dates back to 1553. Nine books have been published in nine years. The first ones are anonymous and have no imprint. They are still very similar to the handwritten ones, decorated with headpieces, ligature and g. These were only trial copies. In the summer of 1563, the first Russian printing house was organized in Moscow at the expense of the tsarist treasury. It was headed by Ivan Fedorov and Pyotr Mstislavets. We know practically nothing about Peter, however, as well as about the life of Ivan Fedorov. We can only assume that he was a brilliant educator, a man of extraordinary talents. Deacon Ivan Fedorov spoke several languages: Greek, Latin, Polish, knew Church Slavonic grammar perfectly, was a thoughtful editor, a skilled typesetter and gunsmith, was interested in issues of pedagogy, philosophy, history, theology. As a writer, Ivan Fedorov was the pioneer of the autobiographical genre. When he was entrusted with printing, he performed this business with great skill. On March 1, 1564, the "Apostle" was created - a liturgical book, according to which the Apostolic Epistles are read in the church during the liturgy. The typing and printing of this book presented considerable difficulties. Admire the taste and firmness of the hand of the masters who decorated the book with engravings depicting the Evangelist Luke, headpieces and initials, while retaining the geometric rigor of the text on the page. Moscow editions of a later time are significantly inferior to the "Apostle" in the technique of performance.

In 1565 the Moscow printing house published "Hours" or "Hours". This book was published in two embossings on September 29 and October 29, and in 1568 Ivan Fedorov and his comrades left Moscow and resumed work in Zabludovo, the estate of Hetman GA Khodkevich.

The reasons why the first printers had to leave the capital are not entirely clear. Some researchers argue that the persecution of the church is to blame, others believe that Ivan Fedorov was afraid of the oprichnina, there is a third opinion - the masters moved to Lithuania on the orders of Tsar Ivan the Terrible, who was asked to send book printers by Hetman Chodkevich. This was necessary to strengthen the Orthodox influence in Lithuania during the Livonian War. On the hetman's estate, the first printers publish several church books, but soon, as a result of the formation of the Polish-Lithuanian state, Orthodoxy begins to be persecuted, Chodkiewicz decides to stop publishing, and Ivan Fedorov has to move to Lvov.

In Lvov Fedorov again publishes "Apostle", "Hours" and the first Russian "ABC" "for the sake of early infant learning." The greatest achievement of the master was the work on the complete Slavic Bible - a colossal work of 1256 pages. In this edition, it was precisely the Slavic biblical text that was reproduced with minor changes now.

Ivan Fedorov died on December 5, 1583: in the Underground, near Lvov. On his tombstone there is an inscription: "Drukar of books, before the unseen."

In Moscow, however, book printing continued. In addition to the printing house of Ivan Fedorov, there was another one where Andronik Timofeev Nevezha and Nikifor Tarasiev worked. Here, in 1568, the Psalter was published. In 1571, the printing house burned down during a raid on Moscow by Khan Davlet-Girey. Ivan the Terrible paid much attention to printing, so in 1576 a new printing house was founded in the center of the oprichnina - in Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda, where in 1577 the Psalter was again published, similar in style to the works of Ivan Fedorov. From 1577 to 1589, the books were not published, and then the printing house of Andronicus Nevezha began to work again. By the end of the century, printers had published about 20 books. The circulation also increased - the "Apostle" of 1597 came out and the number of copies was 1,500.

This is how book printing arose in Russia, which became one of the most effective means of Russian enlightenment.

3. LITERATURE

A great innovation in Moscow literature was its publicism, which was expressed in the exaltation of the Russian state idea. Traditional literary genres were imbued with journalistic content, but new ones also appeared - messages and letters addressed not to a specific person, but to a wide audience.

The church played a significant role in strengthening the state idea, therefore publicistic works were most often of a religious nature.

The church question remained one of the most important in Russia, especially with regard to monastic land tenure. The controversy between the non-possessors and the Josephites did not subside. In the first decades of the 16th century, it was reflected in the works of Prince Vassian Patrickev and Maxim the Greek, on the one hand, and Metropolitan Daniel, on the other.

Vassian Patrikeev, who was forcibly tonsured a monk on the orders of Ivan III, became a disciple of Nil Sorsky in the monastery and throughout his subsequent life was an ardent propagandist and follower of his ideas. He fiercely criticized Josephite, pointing out the inconsistency of their actions with the principles of Christianity: "But monks do not befit to be rich and hold lands, they have already renounced everything." Vassnan was an ardent opponent of the brutal repressions that heretics were subjected to in Russia. For his activities, he was exiled to the Volokolamsk Monastery - the center of the Josephite movement - and soon died there.

In 1518, Maxim the Greek (in the world Mikhail Travolis) came to Russia from Athos. An encyclopedically educated, talented writer and publicist, he was invited by Prince Vasily III to correct and translate liturgical books from the palace library. “And a lot from the man of the present time is separated by wisdom and reason, and the sharpness of the mind,” contemporaries wrote about him. Maxim the Greek was almost immediately involved in the sphere of tense political disputes and clashes. From under his pen came out over a hundred works, in which he acted as a preacher, publicist and denouncer of various church and social disorders.

In his judgments, except for the deep hostility to heretics, Maxim the Greek was close to non-possessors, he shared the views of Vassian Patrikeev. In the polemical and moralizing works of Maxim the Greek, we feel the hand of an outstanding writer who passionately responded to everything that worried his contemporaries. Creating his works, he was eager to embody the lofty ideals of Christianity in real life. The ostentatious piety, superstition, the unjustness of the authorities, the decline in morals among the clergy, poverty and insecurity of the common people - all this was severely denounced by Maxim the Greek. Moral vices, especially "multi-acquisitiveness", aroused particular anger of the writer. For his exposing activities and critical attitude to the texts of the books he corrected, Maxim was persecuted. He was convicted three times. Imprisoned first in Volokolamsk, then in Tverskoy Otrochiy Monastery, from where he wrote tearful letters with a request to let him go to Athos. He was released only five years before his death.

The creativity of Maxim the Greek is very significant for Russian culture. His polemical works are distinguished by the perfection of knowledge of the Russian literary language, which, incidentally, he learned only in Russia. Possessing great talent and being a very educated person, Maxim the Greek raised the culture of the written word, used means of literary skill that were new for that time. Moreover, he gave practical instructions on how to write and how to distinguish a person capable of literary work.

The formation of the author's principle in Russia is associated with the name of Maxim the Greek. He not only compiled a collection of his works, but also ruled them with his own hand, that is, he was one of the first Russian writers whose texts can be considered authorized.

The speeches of Maxim the Greek and Vasily Patrikeev irritated the Josephites, who made every effort to prevent the spread of their views. Metropolitan Daniel entered into controversy with the non-possessors. A diligent student of Joseph Volotskiy, he wanted to make the Russian Church purely Josephine. For this purpose, Daniel eliminated dissidents, appointed his protégés to episcopal sees and hegumen's posts, provided considerable support to the policies of Vasily III, wrote "words" and messages denouncing heretics, and demanded that the authorities immediately punish them.

Daniel wrote vividly and expressively, oriented in his works to a wide range of readers and was very popular. In his letters, he denounced debauchery, drunkenness, foul language, however, he did not mind the moderate use of wine "in sorrow, in sickness and from work in moderation". Daniel had a negative attitude towards secular entertainment, wrote with anger about clergymen who allowed themselves to play the harp and dombra, compete in chess, and sing "demonic" songs. He scoffed at feasts and celebrations, condemned smart clothes. In his writings, one can feel the fear of earthly life.

Thanks to the activities of Metropolitan Daniel, the positions of the Josephite Church were consolidated, which largely determined the further development of Russian literature.

The formation of a unified Russian state caused a powerful growth of national self-awareness, a desire to comprehend the significance of such major changes in the life of Russia. To understand them, Russian thinkers turned to the history of their Fatherland. The rates of historical development were very low in comparison with the present times, so the appeal to the "old days" looked completely natural. Moreover, very often Russian thinkers blamed their opponents for innovations that were considered unseemly and even dangerous. This line of reasoning was common in medieval thinking. Even when some ideas looked obviously new, they were dressed in "old clothes".

That is why historical materials are so often found in literary monuments of the 16th century. In the first quarter of the 16th century, the political theory of the Russian state was formed. This was largely facilitated by such a work as "The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir". It was based on two legends: the first - that the Moscow sovereigns originate from the Roman emperor Augustus; the second - that the Byzantine emperor Constantine Monomakh handed over the royal regalia to Vladimir Monomakh. This led to the conclusion that the descendants of Vladimir have the right to the royal title. By the way, this legend found its reflection in the reliefs that adorned the "Tsar's Place" in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. The "Skazanie" also proved Moscow's rights to the entire heritage of Kiev, including the lands that were at that time under the rule of the Polish-Lithuanian state.

Around the same period, the idea of ​​Moscow as a "third Rome" took shape. In the letters of the abbot of the Pskov monastery Philotheus to Vasily III, she was given the following justification: the first capital in the Christian world was Rome, after him - Constantinople, now there is no other stronghold for Orthodoxy than the Russian land. “Moscow is the third Rome. The fourth Rome will never be. " These views are reflected in the Moscow annals, which acquire an official character. They began to include various state documents, rank records and ambassadorial books, which were kept in government agencies. As before, the chronicles began from the legendary biblical times, thus emphasizing the inextricable connection with the traditions of claims.

Several samples of the official Moscow chronicle of the first half of the 16th century have survived to this day. These are, first of all, the "Resurrection Chronicle", so named after the location in the Resurrection Monastery in New Jerusalem; it is brought to the forties.

During the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the government put in order the chronicle economy, thus wanting to show the historical continuity of Moscow. Already at the beginning of the reign of Ivan IV, "The Chronicler of the Beginning of the Kingdom of Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich" was compiled, which describes the activities of the young tsar.

In the fifties, the grandiose "Nikon Chronicle Collection" was created, which united the local chronicles. The name was given to him by the name of Patriarch Nikon, who owned one of the lists of this monument. It was a huge front vault, consisting of several volumes with a huge number of miniatures. The monument included many different sources, so that the narrative only outwardly retained the form of a chronicle weather record of events. In fact, Nikon's collection was a collection of a large number of different honors and legends, confined by the compilers to certain years. However, the chroniclers did not follow exactly the text of the sources, they edited them, replaced words and expressions that were already incomprehensible at that time, often combined descriptions of events from different sources, although not always successfully. The Nikon Chronicle linked Russian history with the history of Byzantium. Such a technique was supposed to help strengthen the idea of ​​Moscow - the "third Rome", which was important for the Moscow autocracy, Moscow - the successor of the empire, the Muscovite kingdom, God-saved and God-asserted, led by the autocrats. For this purpose, the "Legend of the Vladimir princes" and the message of Elder Philotheus were included in the collection. In addition, the history of the once politically free Russian lands is shown here as a threshold to the history of a single Russian state.

Simultaneously with the annals, there is a unification of church-teachers' literature. The initiator of this business was Metropolitan Macarius, who succeeded Daniel on the throne, who was directly related to the first steps of printing. Macarius conceived and carried out an unprecedented work - collecting and editing all the most important life books in the Slavic language.

Initially, the Metropolitan wanted to unite the lives of all the saints of the Russian land. At the Councils of 1547 and 1549, the difficult work of canonizing the new righteous people who glorified Russia was carried out; saints venerated in any locality are elevated to the rank of national saints. This was necessary to confirm the idea of ​​Moscow as a concentration of Orthodox shrines.

Gradually Macarius turns on v his collected works of Russian and translated church and non-church books. This work was called "Cheti-Minen" and was, in the full sense of the word, the first Russian encyclopedia. Now we are accustomed to encyclopedias, which are based on the alphabetical principle, while Makaryev's "Menaia" were based on the calendar order - the narration was conducted on the days of the church commemoration of this or that saint. The Menaia included Lives, grammatical, logical and geographical writings. The Cheti-Minei were twelve thick volumes of the largest format, more than a thousand pages in each. The external monumentality of the book was supposed to symbolize the grandeur of the idea of ​​the Muscovy.

Peru Macarius also belonged to the "Book of the Degree of the royal genealogy." Its task was to show the greatness of the tsarist monarchy. The history of Russia was presented here in the form of the lives of Russian princes. In the Book of Degrees, the Moscow sovereigns were equated with the apostles and were declared saints. Proceeding from the idea of ​​Joseph Volotskiy about the divine origin of tsarist power, Macarius and his editors invaded the past and "corrected" Russian history. So, Vladimir the Baptist and Vladimir Monomakh are called tsars and their chosenness is transferred to Ivan III and Vasily III, the latter are called "sovereigns and autocrats of all Russia", and Ivan IV is called "a divinely crowned king, an autocratic sovereign."

The work of Ivan the Terrible's confessor, archpriest of the Moscow Cathedral of the Annunciation, Father Sylvester, also contributed to the strengthening of "monocracy".

Sylvester wrote or edited the famous "Domostroy" - an encyclopedia of household and moral norms of the 16th century. By analogy with the state hierarchy, Sylvester created a model of “house building,” family life. As the king is the father of his subjects, so the owner of the house is the father of all household members. He cares for them, instructs them and punishes them. The will of the elder is the law, the “lesser” must unquestioningly obey and serve him. "Domostroy" gave advice on raising children and the relationship of spouses: "loving your son, increase his wounds ... do not give him freedom in his youth, but crush his ribs while he grows, and then, having matured, he will not be guilty before you and not you will become a vexation and a pain of the soul, and the ruin of your house. " Husbands should teach their wives with love, without expressing anger. Wives, however, should ask their husbands “about all decency, how to save the soul. Please God and husband. "

Domostroy contains many useful tips on farm behavior and budgeting.

The book is imbued with the spirit of religious piety. Honor the king of the earth, and even more - the "King of Heaven": "this is temporary, but Heavenly is eternal." "Domostroy" very fully reflected for itself those ideas, norms and regulations that Moscow developed, which thought of itself as the keeper of the highest everyday and political values.

"Domostroy" is a unique work that gives us the opportunity to imagine how people lived in wealthy Russian families. Many of the provisions of this book are still up to date. Who knows, if our families followed the advice of Sylvester's father, maybe they would be stronger and more friendly.

In the middle of the 16th century, the process of secularization of literature became more and more noticeable. A multitude of authors appear who write on purely secular topics. One such secular writer-publicist was Fyodor Karpov - a great erudite, diplomat, brilliantly fluent in languages, ancient Greek philosophy and Western European literature. Karpov approached the solution of political problems from the standpoint of rationalism, therefore he demanded that any teaching be consistent with "natural knowledge." His main idea was that society and the state should be built on the basis of a firm law designed to protect the weak from the willfulness of the strong, from the arbitrariness of the evil rulers who are mired in vices.

One of the most interesting personalities of the 16th century is Ivan Semenovich Peresvetov. A native of Russian lands, he lived abroad for a long time, was a professional soldier. A man of great life experience Peresvetov proposed to Ivan VI a program of reforms affecting various spheres of the life of Russian society, developed the concept of a noble state headed by an autocrat, relying on devoted servants - "warriors".

An important feature of Peresvetov's works is indifference to church problems. These are purely secular writings, in which even arguments of a religious nature are absent, which is a great rarity for that time.

Peresvetov in his writings appeared as a typical representative of the nobility; the ideologist of the dying boyars was Prince Andrei Kurbsky. He was a colleague of Ivan the Terrible, a major military leader. a prolific writer, author of the "History of the Grand Duke of Moscow" and three letters to Grozny, written by him in Lithuania, where he fled from the anger of the king after the lost battle in Livonia.

Kurbsky's teachers were the elders of the Volga region and Maxim the Greek, therefore the style of his writings is associated with the literary traditions of the latter. In his messages, Kurbsky denounces the tsar and atrocities against the boyars and sets out his ideal of state power. As such, he sees a monarchy with an estate-representative body participating in the solution of all important matters in the state: "The king should seek good and useful advice not only from advisers, but also from the people of the whole people."

In response, Grozny sent Kurbsky a very slender, wordy, sprinkled with extensive quotes, message. In it, much more vividly than in the addresses of the disgraced prince, the author's individuality of the tsar, his ardent writing temperament was reflected.

Ivan IV was brought up on the literature of the Josephites and proceeded from their ideas about the divine origin of power. The tsar strongly objected to the restriction of autocracy by the boyars and predicted their interference in his orders. The sovereign's power was not subject to criticism, as well as divine power.

It is easy to see that Russian literature of the 16th century was highly publicistic, which is associated with the great seriousness and acuteness of the political and social problems put forward by the era.

In the history of Russian artistic culture, the period of the 16th century is a time of intense spiritual life, a time of active assimilation of tradition and the development of new points of view, a time of active polemics on almost all issues of the development of Rus.

The unity of the Russian lands could not but affect the culture of liberated Russia in the 16th century. Construction was carried out on a grand scale, architecture, painting and literature developed.

Architecture

In the 15-16th centuries. construction was predominantly made of wood, but its principles were applied in stone architecture... Fortifications, fortresses were restored, and kremlin were built in the cities of Russia.

Architecture of Russia of the 16th century was rich in outstanding buildings of church architecture.

One of these structures is the Church of the Ascension in the village. Kolomenskoye (1532) and St. Basil's Cathedral in Moscow (1555-1560). Many of the erected churches and temples belong to the hip-roof style, which was widespread at that time (typical for wooden temples of Ancient Russia).

Under the leadership of Fyodor Kon, the most powerful fortress (in Smolensk) was erected and the White City in Moscow was surrounded by walls and towers.

Painting

To painting of the 16th century. in Russia it is mainly icon painting. The Stoglavy Cathedral accepted the works of A. Rublev as a canon in church painting.

The most striking monument of icon painting was the "Militant Church". The icon was created in honor of the capture of Kazan; it interprets the described event as a victory of Orthodoxy. In the painting of the Golden Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, one could feel the influence of the West. At the same time, the church was opposed to the penetration of genre and portrait painting into the church.

Printing house

In the 16th century. the first printing house appeared in Russia, printing began. Now numerous documents, orders, laws, books could be printed, even though their cost exceeded handwritten work.

The first books were printed in 1553-1556. By the "anonymous" Moscow printing house. First accurately dated edition refers to 1564, it was printed by Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets and is called "Apostle".

Literature

Changes in politics, consisting in the formation of autocracy, stimulated the ideological struggle, which contributed to the flourishing of journalism. Literature of Russia of the 16th century includes "Stories of the Kazan Kingdom", "The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir", 12-volume book "Great Cheti-Menaei", containing all revered in Russia works for home reading (works that were not included in the popular collection, faded into the background) ...

In the 16th century. in Russia, boyars' clothes, simple in cut and shape, acquired extraordinary showiness and luxury thanks to decorative ornaments. Such costumes lent pomp and majesty to the image.

Different peoples lived on the vast territory of Russia, so the clothes differed depending on local traditions. So, in the northern regions of the state, a woman's costume consisted of a shirt, a sundress and a kokoshnik, and in the southern regions, a shirt, a kitsch and a poneva skirt.

The general outfit (average) can be considered a shirt length up to the hem of a sundress, a swing sundress, a kokoshnik and wicker shoes. Men's suit: long shirt made of homespun linen (up to mid-thigh or knee-length), ports (narrow and tight-fitting legs). At the same time, there were no special differences in the style of clothing of the nobility and peasants.

Question 16.Russia of Troubles at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries
The beginning of the Time of Troubles (Troubles)

1598-1613 - a period in the history of Russia called the Time of Troubles.

At the turn of the 16-17th centuries. Russia was going through a political and socio-economic crisis. Livonian war and Tatar invasion, and oprichnina Ivan the Terrible contributed to the intensification of the crisis and the growth of discontent in society. This was the reason for the beginning of the Time of Troubles in Russia.

The first period of Troubles

The first stage of the Troubles is characterized by the struggle for the throne. After death Ivan the Terrible his son Fyodor came to power, but he was unable to rule. In fact, the country was ruled by the brother of the king's wife - Boris Godunov... Ultimately, his policies provoked the discontent of the popular masses.

Trouble began with the appearance in Poland of False Dmitry I (in reality - Grigory Otrepiev), supposedly miraculously surviving son of Ivan the Terrible. He won over to his side a significant part of the Russian population. In 1605, False Dmitry 1 was supported by the governors, and then by Moscow. And already in June he became the legitimate king. However, he acted too independently, which caused the discontent of the boyars, and he also supported serfdom, which caused a protest from the peasants. On May 17, 1606, False Dmitry I was killed, V.I. Shuisky on the condition of limiting power. Thus, the first stage of the Troubles was marked by the reign False Dmitry 1st (1605-1606).

Second period of Troubles

In 1606 an uprising broke out, whose leader was I.I. Bolotnikov. The ranks of the militants included people from different strata of society: peasants, serfs, small and medium feudal lords, servicemen, Cossacks and townspeople. In the battle of Moscow, they were defeated. As a result, Bolotnikov was executed.

Discontent with the authorities continued. And soon appears False Dmitry 2nd... In January 1608, his army went to Moscow. By June, False Dmitry 2 entered the village of Tushino near Moscow, where he settled. Two capitals were formed in Russia: boyars, merchants, officials worked on two fronts, sometimes they even received salaries from both tsars. Shuisky concluded an agreement with Sweden, and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth began aggressive military actions. False Dmitry 2 fled to Kaluga.

Shuisky was tonsured a monk and sent to the Chudov Monastery. An interregnum began in Russia - the Seven Boyars (a council of seven boyars). Boyar Duma made a deal with the Polish invaders, and on August 17, 1610, Moscow swore allegiance to the Polish king Vladislav. At the end of 1610, False Dmitry II was killed, but the struggle for the throne did not end there.

So, the second stage of the Troubles was marked by the uprising of I.I. Bolotnikov (1606-1607), the reign of Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), the appearance of False Dmitry II, as well as the Seven Boyars (1610).

Third period of Troubles

The third stage of the Troubles is characterized by the struggle against foreign invaders. After the death of False Dmitry II, the Russians united against the Poles. The war acquired a national character. In August 1612 militia of K. Minin and D. Pozharsky reached Moscow. And on October 26, the Polish garrison surrendered. Moscow was liberated. The Time of Troubles is over.

Results of the Troubles

The results of the Time of Troubles were depressing: the country was in a terrible situation, the treasury was ruined, trade and crafts were in decline. The consequences of the Troubles for Russia were expressed in its backwardness in comparison with European countries. It took decades to restore the economy.

Question 17.Russia after the Troubles, the first novels on the throne. Board of Mikhail Fedorovich and Alexei Mikhailovich.
Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov
Mikhail Romanov became the first ruler of the Romanov family and the founder of a new dynasty. He was elected in 1613 at the Zemsky Sobor. It was Mikhail Romanov who turned out to be the closest relative of the former Russian rulers. At that time, the Polish prince Vladislav and the Prince of Sweden Karl-Philip also claimed the throne of Russia. Mother Mikhail and the future ruler himself were after the liberation of Minin and Pozharsky of Moscow and stayed in the Ipatiev Monastery. After the accession of his son, his father, under the name Filaret, became patriarch. In fact, it was he who ruled the country until 1633.
The Poles tried to prevent the election of a new tsar. They tried to kill Mikhail who was in the monastery, sending a whole detachment for this. But, all Poles died on the way, thanks to the feat accomplished by Ivan Susanin.
With the beginning of the reign of Mikhail Romanov, the economic life of the country gradually began to improve. In 1617, it was possible to conclude a peace treaty with Sweden, according to which the territory of the Novgorod region was returned to Russia. In the next 618, after the signing of the treaty with Poland, Polish troops were also withdrawn from Russia. Russia is losing the Chernigov, Smolensk and Seversk lands. However, the prince Vladislav calls himself the Russian tsar, not recognizing the rights to the throne of Michael.
Around the same period, to protect against the Tatars provoked by Turkey, a number of notch features appeared in the South of Russia. The Cossacks took an active part in the fight against raids on the border lands. On the other hand, quite friendly relations were established with Persia. Due to the lands of Siberia, the territory of the country has noticeably increased.
During the reign of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the taxation of the townspeople was noticeably increased. This time was also marked by an attempt to create a regular army. Moreover, foreigners became officers in the newly formed regiments. Towards the end of Michael's reign, the first regiments of dragoons appeared, used to guard the border. The biography of Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the founder of the great dynasty, ended in 1645. The burden of power passed to his son Alexei.