The philosophy of ancient Rome is a general description of the main directions. Ancient Roman philosophy. See what “Roman philosophy” is in other dictionaries

ROMAN PHILOSOPHY

ROMAN PHILOSOPHY

antique Hellenistic period (3rd–2nd centuries BC – 5th–6th centuries). We can talk about the separation from this Hellenistic. philosophy proper of Rome, associated with those philosophers who had a special interest in Rome itself.

Western Rome developed on the basis of large-scale slavery and land ownership, the conquest of vast territories, which led to the subjugation of many. nationalities, which led to the creation of a huge bureaucracy and the development of sophisticated policies. management methods. To implement these policies. tasks needed a finely developed, synthesis of unprecedented universalism and unprecedented subjectivism. The Romans were characterized by a combination of maximum practicality and theoreticalism. aspirations, which resulted in the creation of a large number of studies in various fields of science. R. f. reflected this combination of practicality and logic. sophistication, universalism and whimsical subjectivism.

Basic periods of R. f. are allocated according to the stages of development of Rome. While Roman slavery and land ownership grew purely quantitatively, Rome. Philosopher sought to go beyond the narrow horizons of the classical. polis and the semi-religious, semi-secular mythology associated with it, sought to move away from the old religious-mythological forms. But when the Roman slave-owning empire became global, it demanded religious and mythological consecration. This is where the corresponding periodization of R. f. arises.

The first period (3rd–1st centuries BC) can be called the Pro-Enlightenment or the period of secularization, i.e. liberation of scientific thoughts from submission to religion and mythology. The growing one demanded rights for himself and wanted to protect himself in every possible way from those social and political. catastrophes, which were accompanied by growth like Rome. republics, as well as Rome. empires. Already among the first representatives of Rome. There was a literary figure, for example, the writer Quintus Ennius, who composed an opus that has not reached us. under the name "Eugemer", the surviving fragments of which indicate the great popularity of the Greek in Rome. the enlightener Euhemerus. During this period in Rome. soil developed, which soon became almost official. doctrine of Rome. states, with their demands to free the individual from all dependence, with their materialism, providentialism and fatalism - the circle of Scipio the Younger (2nd half of the 2nd century BC), to which belonged the satirist Gaius Lucilius and Cicero. The teacher of these Scipionic Stoics was the greatest Greek. Stoic Panetius. Panetius and his numerous students [besides those mentioned - Quintus Tubero, Mucius Scaevola, Rutilius Rufus, Aelius Stilon (Varro's teacher)] brought Stoicism closer to the vital needs of the growing Roman Republic and instead of morality, the complete apathy of the former Stoics was recognized as living in man. Epicureanism was represented, in addition to Siron and Philodemus, by Lucretius. In his philosophy R. f. embraced everything in all its universality and deeply understood the subtleties of the subject on the paths of his complete liberation from this and the afterlife. Finally, the third school of early Hellenism, which found itself in the Middle Academy, as well as the New Academy, also had in Rome such adherents as Varro, representatives of the Sextian school. Varro later had a fruitful influence on the architect Vitruvius, writer and scientist Pliny the Elder. Many moved from Epicureanism to Stoicism, such as the poets Virgil and Horace.

Second period (1st century BC – 2nd century). In connection with the end of the republic in Rome and the emergence of the empire of R. f. could no longer remain only in educational positions. This was the period of initial sacralization, i.e. reverse secularization of the process of subjugation of scientific. thoughts of religion and mythology.

The formation of a huge world slave-holding power contributed to the establishment of absolutist governance, the organization of huge masses of people and, above all, an incredibly expanded slave population. In the ancient world, such absolutism received religious sanctification and formalization. The emperor was established, and from then on all philosophy became more and more not only Caesarian, but also theological. . Already Virgil, an Epicurean in his youth, later moved on to chanting Rome. empire, definitely took this socio-political path. sacralization, Ovid also ended with this, initially, expelled from Rome. In the 1st century BC. a well-known representative of the Greek Middle Stoic - Posidonius, who reformed Stoicism into religious-mythological, Platonic. direction, as a result of which a stoic flow appeared. Platonism, or the Middle Stoa, which in its later form became extremely widespread in Rome. Pythagorean-Platonic. It can be assumed that such Romans also have Stoics 1st century. BC, like Sextius, Sotion, Nigidius Figulus. The largest representatives of R. f. Seneca, Epictetus and Aurelius appeared in this regard. Seneca's teacher was Attalus, and Epictetus' teacher was Musonius Rufus. Sacralization here was not so strong as to drown out other philosophies. currents. Such unsacralized philosophy as Cynic philosophy, which was introduced in the 1st century, still remained alive. AD we must include Demetrius, Oenomaus, Demonax, Peregrinus, Theagenes, Dio Chrysostomos. Stoicism of this time was easily combined with scientific and astronomical. research - Manilius, Germanicus, and allegorical. mythological interpretations - Cornut, and with poetic. creativity - the students of Cornut Persius and Lucan, with historiography - Tacitus, and went so far as preaching honest simplicity of morals, as, for example, in Columella. Purely practical. the direction of Stoicism of this time was represented by Cato Uticus, Petus Thrasea and Helvidius Priscus. One can also note the influence of late skepticism (Aenesidemus, Sextus Empiricus and his student the Italian Saturninus), late Epicureanism (Diogenes of Oenoanda), as well as the Peripatetic school.

The third period (2nd–3rd centuries) is a period of developed sacralization of philosophy. He remained her instrument. However, now Platonism has begun to decide. the fight against stoicism, with which he had recently united. To drive out the stoic. elements from Platonism, Rome. philosophers of this time used Aristotle (replacing him with the concepts of the ancient Stoics), and also, along with the Crimea, not only mystics were introduced into philosophy. numerical operations, but also intensive religion. . This led to eclecticism, but with a strongly expressed sacralized tendency, which prepared the way for the next period of Russian philosophy. Now they no longer learned from the Stoics, but from Pythagorean Platonists like Plutarch. Plutarch's students were Gaius (who should not be mistaken for the famous lawyer Gaius) and Favorinus, while Gaius's students were Albinus (who was a student of the Roman physician and logician Galen) and Apuleius of Madaura. Apuleius developed the sacralization of this period not only philosophically, but also in the arts. methods. An anonymous commentator on Plato's Theaetetus also belonged to the school of Guy. Platonists include Calvisius Taurus (the teacher of Aulus Gellius, as well as his student and friend Herod Atticus and their contemporary Nigrinus). Nicostratus, Atticus and his student Harpokration, the famous critic of Christianity Celsus, Severus, a commentator on Plato’s Timaeus, and the grammarian Censorinus also belonged to this circle. Neo-Pythagoreans were Moderatus, Sextus ("Florilegius"), Secundus (a personal acquaintance of Emperor Hadrian). From Christ. Literatures from this period include op. Manutius Felix, Tertullian, Caecilius, Cyprian, Novatian, Commodian. Some Gnostics (see Gnosticism), for example. Valentine, were also associated with Rome.

Fourth period of R. f. (3rd–4th centuries) represents the culmination of the sacralized philosophy of Neoplatonism. In Neoplatonism, on absolute idealism. basis, the synthesis of universalism and subjectivism triumphed. The founder of Neoplatonism, Plotinus, with his students Amelius and Porphyry, lived and worked in Rome, so this initial Neoplatonism bears the name of Rome. Neoplatonism. Subsequent antique schools of Neoplatonism already developed in Asia Minor, Athens and Alexandria. But the seal is Roman. universalism lies with them as well. Traditions of Rome. Neoplatonism was continued by Christ. Augustine and Rome. imp. Julian, apostate from Christianity. In the 4th century. Arnobius and Lactantius bring the sacralization of philosophy to the complete abolition of philosophy itself, which Lactantius especially openly declared.

Fifth period of Russian f. (4th–5th centuries, although some figures attributed to this period also lived in the 6th century) is characterized by some weakening of Neoplatonicism. sacralization of philosophy, which is also characteristic of Athenian and Alexandrian Neoplatonism. These philosophers translated more Greeks into Latin. language, commented more on Plato and Aristotle and were more involved in collecting historical and philosophical. and historical and religious. materials than by producing our own. concepts. These include the Neoplatonists of Lat. West: Cornelius Labeo, Chalcidius, Mari Victorinus, Vettius, Agorius Pretextatus, Macrobius, Favonius, Eulogius, from Christ. thinkers, theologians and poets - Prudentius, Peacock, Firmicus Maternus, Jerome of Stridon, Ambrose of Milan.

The sixth period (5th–6th centuries) already represents the transition to Wed. centuries. The Neoplatonists Boethius and Martian Capella belong to this period. Sacralized R. f. It turned out to be so strong that it even survived the fall of Rome. empire, and the fall of all Greco-Roman. paganism. It formed the basis of theocratic ideology cf. centuries, in one form or another, it appeared more than once throughout time. During the Renaissance and subsequent centuries, Rome. Neoplatonism in the fight against the Middle Ages. monotheism took educational forms. Rome. thinkers Lucretius, Cicero, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius, Apuleius became rulers of thoughts no less, and sometimes even more, than Plato and Aristotle.

Lit.: Marx K., Notebooks on the history of Epicurean, Stoic and Skeptical philosophy, in the book: Marx K. and Engels F., From early works, M., 1956; History of Philosophy, vol. 1, [M.], 1940, sect. 4; History of Philosophy, vol. 1, M., 1957, ch. 2, section 5; Ancient Rome thinkers. Evidence, texts, fragments, comp. A. A. Avetisyan, [K.], 1958; Harder R., Die Einbürgerung der Philosophie in Rom, in the book: Die Antike, Bd 5, V.–Lpz., 1929; Kaerst J., Scipio Ämilianus, die Stoa und der Prinzipat, "Neue Jahrbücher für Wissenschaft und Jugend bildung", 1929, Jg. 5, H. 6, S. 653–75; Heinemann I., Die griechische Weltanschauungslehre bei Juden und Römern, V., 1932; Seel O., Römische Denker und Römischer Staat, Lpz., 1937; Heuer K. H., Comitas, facilitas, liberalitas. Studien zur gesellschaftlichen Kultur der ciceronischen Zeit, Lengerich, 1941; Bracher K. D., Verfall und Fortschritt im Denken der frühen römischen Kaiserzeit. Studien zur Zeitgefühl und Geschichtsbewußtsein des Jahrhunderts nach Augustus, Tübingen, 1949; Clarke M. L., The novel mind; studies in the history of thought from Cicero to Marcus Aurelius, Camb., 1956; , La science hellénistique et romaine, in the book: La science antique et médiévale, P., 1957, S. 301–413; Gigon O., Die Erneuerung der Philosophie in der Zeit Ciceros, in the book: Entretiens sur l "antiquité classique, t. 3, Gen., 1955, S. 23–61; Heinze R., Vom Geist des Römertums, 3 Aufl ., Darmstadt, 1960; Kro11 W., Die Kultur der ciceronischen Zeit, Bd 1–2, Lpz., 1963.

A. Losev. Moscow.

Philosophical Encyclopedia. In 5 volumes - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinov. 1960-1970 .

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From the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. In the Mediterranean region, the influence of Rome significantly increases, which from a city republic becomes a strong power. In the II century. BC e. he already owns a large part of the ancient world. The cities of continental Greece also fall under its economic and political influence. Thus, the penetration of Greek culture, of which philosophy was an integral part, began to penetrate into Rome. Roman culture and education developed under completely different conditions than those that existed several centuries earlier in Greece. Roman campaigns, directed in all directions of the then known world (on the one hand, in the area of ​​mature civilizations of the ancient world, and on the other, in the territory of “barbarian” tribes), form a broad framework for the formation of Roman thinking. Natural and Technical science, political and legal are reaching an unprecedented scale. This is due to the fact that Roman philosophy is formed under the decisive influence of Greek, in particular Hellenistic, philosophical thinking. A definite impetus for the expansion of Greek philosophy in Rome was the visit of Athenian ambassadors, among whom were the most prominent representatives of the Greek philosophical schools existing at that time (mid-2nd century BC).

From about this time, three philosophical trends developed in Rome, which had already been formed in Hellenistic Greece - Stoicism, Epicureanism and skepticism.

Stoicism. Stoicism became most widespread both in republican and later in imperial Rome. It is sometimes considered the only philosophical movement that acquired a new sound during the Roman period. Its beginnings can already be seen in the influence of Diogenes from Seleucia and Antipater from Tarsus (who arrived in Rome with the mentioned Athenian embassy). A significant role in the development of Stoicism in Rome was also played by representatives of the Middle Stoa - Panaetius of Rhodes and Posidonius, who worked in Rome for a relatively long period. Their merit lies in the fact that they contributed to the widespread spread of Stoicism in the middle and upper classes of Roman society. Among Panetius' students were such outstanding personalities of Ancient Rome as Scipio the Younger and Cicero. Panaetius largely adhered to the old Stoicism in the main provisions of his teaching. Thus, he encounters the concept of logos, which is similar to the concept, for example, of Chrysippus, who adhered to similar ontological views. In the field of ethics, he brought the ideal of the Stoic sage somewhat closer to practical life.

On further development Roman Stoicism was greatly influenced by Posidonius. In the field of ontology, he develops the basic philosophical problems of Aristotle's teachings, as well as issues bordering on natural science problems and cosmology. He combines the original philosophical and ethical views of Greek Stoicism with elements of the teachings of Plato, and in some cases with Pythagorean mysticism. (This shows a certain eclecticism that was typical of Roman philosophy of that period.)

The most prominent representatives of Roman Stoicism (new Stoicism) were Seneca, Epictetus and Marcus Aurelius.

Seneca (c. 4 BC - 65 AD) came from the “horsemen” class28, ​​received a comprehensive natural science, legal and philosophical education, and successfully practiced law for a relatively long period. Later he becomes the tutor of the future emperor Nero, after whose accession to the throne he receives the highest social position and honors. In the second year of Nero's power, he dedicates to him the treatise “On Mercy,” in which he calls on Nero as a ruler to maintain moderation and adhere to the republican spirit.

As Seneca grows in prestige and wealth, he comes into conflict with his surroundings. After the fire in 64 AD. e. hatred of Seneca in Rome grows. He leaves the city and lives on his nearby estate. Accused of plotting, he was forced to commit suicide.

Seneca's legacy is very extensive. His most outstanding works include “Letters to Lucilius”, “Discourse on Providence”, “On the Fortitude of the Philosopher”, “On Anger”, “On a Happy Life”, “On Leisure Time”, “On Virtue”, etc. For With the exception of "Questions of Nature", all his works are devoted to ethical problems. If the old stoa considered physics to be the soul, then the philosophy of the new stoa considers it a completely subordinate area.

In his views on nature (as well as in other parts of his work), Seneca, however, in principle adheres to the teachings of the old stand. This is manifested, for example, in the materialistically oriented dualism of matter and form. Mind is considered to be the active principle which gives form to matter. At the same time, the primacy of matter is clearly recognized. He also understands the soul (pneuma) in the spirit of old Stoicism, as a very subtle matter, a mixture of the elements of fire and air.

In epistemology, Seneca, like other representatives of Stoicism, is a supporter of ancient sensationalism. He emphasizes that reason has its origin in feelings. When addressing the issue of the activity of the soul, he, however, accepts some elements of Platonic philosophy, which is manifested primarily in the recognition of the immortality of the soul and the characterization of corporeality as the “shackles” of the soul.

Seneca proceeds from the fact that everything in the world and in the universe is subject to the power of strict necessity. This follows from his concept of God as an immanent, ruling force that rules over reason (logos). Seneca characterizes it as “the highest good and the highest wisdom,” which is realized in the harmony of the world and its purposeful structure.

In contrast to the old Stoicism, Seneca (as well as all Roman Stoicism) almost does not deal with logical problems. The center and focus of his system is ethics. The main principle that stands out is the principle of harmony with nature (to live happily means to live in accordance with nature) and the principle of human subordination to fate. His treatises “On the brevity of life” and “On a happy life” are devoted to the question of how to live life. They are projected as personal experience Seneca, and the social relations of Rome at that time. The loss of civil liberties and the decline of republican virtues during the era of imperial power lead him to significant doubts about the future. “Life is divided into three periods: past, present and future. Of these, the one we live in is short; the one in which we will live is doubtful, and only the one in which We have lived is certain. Only he is stable, fate does not influence him, but no one can return him either.”29 Seneca rejects the desire to accumulate property, to secular honors and positions: “The higher one ascends, the closer he is to falling. Very poor and very short is the life of that person who, with great effort, acquires what he must hold with even greater effort.”30 However, he used his social position and became one of the richest and most influential men in Rome. When his enemies pointed out the fact that his own life differed very sharply from the ideals that he proclaimed, he answered them in his treatise “On the Happy Life”: “...all philosophers talk not about how they themselves live, but about how how one should live.

I talk about virtue, but not about myself, and I fight against sins, and this means against my own: when I overcome them, I will live as I should” 31.

Seneca sees the meaning of life in achieving absolute peace of mind. One of the main prerequisites for this is overcoming the fear of death. He devotes a lot of space to this issue in his works. In ethics he continues the line old stand, emphasizing the concept of man as an individual striving for improvement in virtues.

A life in which a person devotes all or the overwhelming majority of his efforts to his own improvement, a life in which he avoids participation in public affairs and political activities, is, according to Seneca, the most worthy. “It is better to seek shelter in a quiet haven than to be voluntarily thrown here and there all your life. Think how many waves you have already been exposed to, how many storms have swept through your private life, how many of them you have unconsciously brought upon yourself in public life! I don’t mean for you to drown your days in sleep and pleasure. I don't call this a full life. Strive to find tasks that are more important than those you have been busy with so far, and believe that it is more important to know the score of your own life than the common good that you have been concerned about until now! If you live like this, communication with wise men, beautiful art, love and the accomplishment of good awaits you; awareness of how well it is to live and one day to die well” 32. His ethical views are imbued with individualism, which is a reaction to the turbulent political life in Rome.

Another prominent representative of Roman Stoicism, Epictetus (50-138), was originally a slave. After he was released, he devoted himself entirely to philosophy. In his views there is a lot from the old Stoa, which influenced him, and from the work of Seneca. He himself did not leave any work. His thoughts were recorded by his student Arrian of Nicomedia in the treatises “Discourses of Epictetus” and “Manual of Epictetus”. Epictetus defended the point of view according to which philosophy, in fact, is not only knowledge, but also application in practical life. He was not an original thinker, his merit mainly lies in the popularization of Stoic philosophy.

In his ontological ideas and in his views in the field of the theory of knowledge, he proceeded from Greek Stoicism. The works of Chrysippus had an exceptional influence on him. The core of Epictetus' philosophy is ethics, based on the Stoic understanding of virtue and living in accordance with general character peace.

The study of nature (physics) is important and useful not because on its basis it is possible to change nature ( the world), but so that a person can organize his life in accordance with nature. A person should not desire what he cannot master: “If you want your children, your wife and your friends to live forever, then you are either crazy, or you want things that are not in your power to be in yours.” power and so that what is someone else’s is yours” 33. And since it is not within the power of man to change the objective world, society, one should not strive for this.

Epictetus criticizes and condemns the social order of that time. He emphasizes thoughts about the equality of people and condemns slavery. This is how his views differ from the Stoic teachings. The central motive of his philosophy - humility with this reality - leads, however, to passivity. “Do not wish for everything to happen as you want, but wish for everything to happen as it happens, and you will have good things in life” 34.

Epictetus considers reason to be the real essence of man. Thanks to him, a person participates in the general order of the world. Therefore, you should not care about well-being, comfort, and generally about bodily pleasures, but only about your soul.

Just as reason rules over a person, so the world reason - logos (god) - rules in the world. He is the source and determining factor in the development of the world. Things, as controlled by God, should obey him. The freedom and independence he gave great importance, Epictetus limits only spiritual freedom, freedom of humility with reality.

Epictetus' ethics is essentially rationalistic. And although it is expressively marked by subjectivism, it still protects (in contrast to the irrationalistic movements emerging at that time) the power of the human mind.

In essence, the entire philosophy of Epictetus is an expression of the passive protest of the lower social classes against the existing social order. This protest, however, finds no real outlet. Therefore, it results in a call to come to terms with the existing state of affairs.

Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121-180) also belongs to the Roman Stoics, during whose reign crisis phenomena became even more intense. The upper social classes refuse to change anything in order to preserve the existing social order. In Stoic ethics they see a certain means of moral revival of society. The Emperor, in his meditation “To Himself,” proclaims that “the only thing that is in the power of a person is his thoughts.” “Look into your insides! There, inside, is a source of goodness that can flow without drying up if you constantly dig into it.” He understands the world as eternally flowing and changeable. The main goal of human aspiration should be the achievement of virtue, that is, submission to the “reasonable laws of nature in accordance with human nature.” Marcus Aurelius recommends: “A calm thought in everything that comes from outside, and justice in everything that is realized at your own discretion, that is, let your desire and action consist in actions that are generally beneficial, for this is the essence in accordance with your nature.”

Marcus Aurelius is the last representative of ancient Stoicism, and essentially this is where Stoicism ends. His work shows certain traces of mysticism, which is closely associated with the decline of Roman society. Stoic teaching, in particular emphasizing the need to “submit oneself” (to the world mind - logos - god), largely influenced the formation of early Christianity.

Epicureanism. The only materialistic (for its time, distinctly materialistic) philosophy in ancient Rome was Epicureanism, which spread significantly in last years Roman Republic and early imperial rule. Its most prominent representative was Titus Lucretius Carus (c. 95-55 BC), who wrote the philosophical poem “On Nature,” which is also valuable a work of art literature of that time.

Lucretius completely identifies his views with the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus; he considered the latter to be the best Greek philosopher. In his work, he skillfully explains, proves and promotes the views of the early representatives of atomistic teaching, consistently defends the basic principles of atomism both from earlier and from contemporary opponents, while simultaneously giving the most complete and logically ordered interpretation of atomistic philosophy. At the same time, in many cases he develops and deepens the thoughts of Democritus and Epicurus. Lucretius considers atoms and emptiness to be the only things that exist.

Matter, first of all, is the primary bodies of things, and secondly, everything that is a collection of the named elements. However, no force can destroy atoms; they always win with their impenetrability. The first is deeply different, those two things, as said above, matter and space, have a dual character, in which everything happens; they are necessary in themselves and pure. Where the emptiness, the so-called space, extends, there are no mothers; and where matter extends, there is no emptiness or space in any way. The first bodies are complete without emptiness. Secondly, in the things that have arisen, emptiness exists, but near it there is solid matter.

In this form, Lucretius expounds the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus about atoms and emptiness, emphasizing at the same time the increasability of matter as such.

If the first bodies are solid and without cavities, as I have already said about this, they are undoubtedly eternal. The indestructibility and uncreateability of matter, i.e., its infinity in time, is associated with the infinity of matter in space.

The universe itself cannot limit itself; truth is the law of nature; he wants the boundaries of matter to be formed by emptiness, and matter - the boundaries of emptiness; the merit of this alternation is the endless universe 39.

Atoms, according to Lucretius, are inherent in motion. In solving the issue of movement, he stands on the principles of Epicurus. He tries in a certain way to justify deviations from rectilinear motion atoms.

You should know this about motion: if atoms fall vertically in space due to their own weight, here at an indefinite place and in an indefinite way they deviate from the path - only so much that the direction is slightly different. If this deviation did not exist, everything would fall into the depths of the void, down like raindrops, elements could not collide and combine, and nature would never create anything 40.

From this it follows that Epicurus’s parenchlitic movement is for Lucretius the source of the emergence of particles. Together with the size and shape of atoms, it is the cause of the diversity and diversity of things in the world.

He considers the soul to be material, a special combination of air and heat. It flows through the entire body and is formed by the finest and smallest atoms.

What matter the spirit is made of and what it consists of, my words will soon list for you. First of all, I say that the spirit is extremely subtle; the bodies that form it are extremely small. This helps you understand and you will understand that: nothing happens in the world as quickly as what the thought itself imagines and forms. From this it is clear that the spirit has a greater speed than everything that is accessible to the eye; but what is also movable, it probably consists of bodies that are completely round and very small 41.

In a similar way, he defends atomistic views in the field of the theory of knowledge, which he also developed in many directions.

In Lucretius's understanding of the atomic theory one can already find hints of evolutionism. He held the view that everything organic arose from the inorganic and that complex organic species developed from the simplest.

Lucretius tries to explain naturally and the emergence of society. He says that initially people lived in a “semi-wild state”, without fire or shelter. Only the development of material culture leads to the fact that the human herd gradually turns into a society. Naturally, he could not come to a materialistic understanding of the reasons for the emergence and development of human society. His desire for a “natural” explanation was limited by both social and epistemological parameters. However, despite this, his views on society were, in particular, significant progress in comparison with the idealistic approach of the time. Just like Epicurus, he believed that society, social organization (law, laws) arise as a product of mutual agreement of people (the theory of contract): Neighbors then began to unite in friendship, no longer wanting to cause lawlessness and quarrel, and children and women the floor was taken under guard, showing with gestures and awkward sounds that everyone should have sympathy for the weak. Although agreement could not be universally recognized, the best and most part of the agreement religiously carried out 42.

Lucretius's materialism also has its atheistic consequences. Lucretius not only excludes gods from a world in which everything has natural causes, but also opposes any belief in gods. He criticizes the idea of ​​life after death and all other religious myths. Shows that belief in gods arises completely in a natural way, as a product of fear and ignorance of natural causes. In particular, he points to the epistemological origins of the emergence of religious ideas (discovering the social roots of religion was, naturally, impossible in his time).

In the field of ethics, Lucretius consistently defends the Epicurean principles of a calm and happy life. The means to achieve happiness is knowledge. For a person to live happily, he must free himself from fear, in particular from the fear of the gods. He defended these views both from Stoic and skeptical criticism, and from their vulgarization in the understanding of some supporters of Epicureanism from the highest circles of society.

The influence and spread of Lucretius’s consistently materialistic and logically integral philosophical system was undoubtedly facilitated by the artistic form of presentation. The poem “On Nature” belongs not only to the peaks of Roman philosophical thinking, but also to the highly artistic works of its period.

Epicureanism persisted in Roman society for a relatively long time. Even in the era of Aurelian, the Epicurean school was among the most influential philosophical movements. However, when in 313 AD. e. Christianity becomes the official state religion, a stubborn and ruthless struggle begins against Epicureanism, and in particular against the ideas of Lucretius Cara, which ultimately led to the gradual decline of this philosophy.

Roman Epicureanism, in particular the work of Lucretius Cara, marked the pinnacle of materialist tendencies in Roman philosophy. He became a mediating link between the materialism of the ancient Greek Stoics and the materialistic trends of modern philosophy.

Skepticism. Another significant philosophical trend in ancient Rome was skepticism. Its main representative, Aenesidemus from Knossos (c. 1st century BC), is close in his views to the philosophy of Pyrrho. The influence that Greek skepticism had on the formation of Aenesidemus’ thoughts is evidenced by the fact that he devoted his main work to the interpretation of the teachings of Pyrrho (“Eight Books of Pyrrho’s Discourses”).

Aenesidemus saw in skepticism the path to overcoming the dogmatism of all existing philosophical trends. He paid much attention to the analysis of contradictions in the teachings of other philosophers. The conclusion from his skeptical views is that it is impossible to make any judgments about reality based on immediate sensations. To substantiate this conclusion, he uses the formulations of the so-called tropes, which have already been discussed.

The next five tropes, which were added by Agrippa, the successor of Aenesidemus, further strengthened doubts about the correctness of the ideas of other philosophical movements.

The most prominent representative of the so-called younger skepticism was Sextus Empiricus. His teaching also comes from Greek skepticism. This is evidenced by the title of one of his works - “Fundamentals of Pyrrhonism”. In other works - “Against Dogmatists”, “Against Mathematicians” - he sets out the methodology of skeptical doubt, based on a critical assessment of the basic concepts of the then knowledge. Critical assessment is directed not only against philosophical concepts, but also against the concepts of mathematics, rhetoric, astronomy, grammar, etc. His skeptical approach did not escape the question of the existence of gods, which led him to atheism.

In his works, he seeks to prove that skepticism is an original philosophy that does not allow confusion with other philosophical movements. Sextus Empiricus shows that skepticism differs from all other philosophical movements, each of which recognizes some essences and excludes others, in that it simultaneously questions and admits all essences.

Roman skepticism was a specific expression of the progressive crisis of Roman society. Searches and studies of contradictions between the statements of previous philosophical systems lead skeptics to a broad study of the history of philosophy. And although it is in this direction that skepticism creates a lot of valuable things, in general it is already a philosophy that has lost the spiritual power that raised ancient thinking to its heights. In essence, skepticism contains more direct rejection than methodological criticism.

Eclecticism. Eclecticism became much more widespread and important in Rome than in Hellenistic Greece. Its supporters include a number of prominent figures in Roman political and cultural life, both in the last years of the Roman Republic and in the first period of the empire. The most famous among them was the outstanding politician and orator Marcus Tulius Cicero (106-45 BC), the creator of Latin philosophical terminology.

Representatives of Roman eclecticism possessed a colossal amount of knowledge. In a number of cases they were genuine encyclopedists of their era. Their combination of various philosophical schools was not accidental or groundless; a certain conceptual approach was strengthened precisely by a deep knowledge of individual views. The gradual rapprochement of theory with the field of ethics expressed the general situation in philosophy.

Eclecticism, developing on the basis of academic philosophy, reaches the boundaries of encyclopedicism, covering the knowledge of both nature and society. Cicero belonged to perhaps the most significant movement of Roman eclecticism, which developed on the basis of Stoic philosophy.

“Stoic” eclecticism as presented by Cicero focuses on social issues, and in particular on ethics. His motive was to combine those parts of various philosophical systems that bring useful knowledge.

Cicero's social views reflect his position as a representative of the upper strata of Roman society during the Republican period. He sees the best social structure in a combination of three main government forms: monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. He considers the goal of the state to be ensuring citizens' security and free use of property. His theoretical views were largely influenced by his actual political activities.

In ethics, he largely adopts the views of the Stoics and pays considerable attention to the problems of virtue presented by the Stoics. He considers man to be a rational being who has something divine in him. Virtue is the overcoming of all life's adversities by willpower. Philosophy provides invaluable services to a person in this matter. Each of the philosophical directions comes to achieving virtue in its own way. Therefore, Cicero recommends “combining” everything that is the contribution of individual philosophical schools, all their achievements into one whole. By this, in fact, he defends his eclecticism.

Neoplatonism. The progressive crisis of Roman society in the last years of the republic and in the first years of the empire is naturally reflected in philosophy. Distrust of the rational development of the world, manifested to a greater or lesser extent in various philosophical directions, together with the growing influence of Christianity, increasingly strengthened the growing signs of mysticism. The irrational trends of this era tried in different ways to adapt to the changing role of philosophy. Neo-Pythagorean philosophy, typified by Apollonius of Tyana, tried to strengthen itself through a return to the mysticism of numbers, bordering on charlatanism; the philosophy of Philo of Alexandria (30s BC - 50 AD) sought to combine Greek philosophy with the Jewish religion. In both concepts, mysticism appears in a concentrated form.

More interesting was Neoplatonism, which developed in the 3rd-5th centuries AD. e., in the last centuries of the Roman Empire. It is the last integral philosophical movement that arose during the period of antiquity. Neoplatonism is formed in the same social environment as Christianity. Like other irrationalist philosophical movements of late antiquity, Neoplatonism is to a certain extent a manifestation of the rejection of the rationalism of previous philosophical thinking. It is a specific reflection of social hopelessness and progressive decay social relations on which the Roman Empire was based. Its founder was Ammonius Saccas (175-242), and its most prominent representative was Plotinus (205-270) 43.

Plotinus believed that the basis of everything that exists is the supersensible, supernatural, supra-rational divine principle. All forms of existence depend on it. Plotinus declares this principle to be absolute being and says of it that it is unknowable. “This being is and remains God, does not exist outside of him, but is precisely his very identity” 44. This only true being is understandable only by penetrating into the very center of pure contemplation and pure thinking, which becomes possible only with the “rejection” of thought - ecstasy (extasis). Everything else that exists in the world is derived from this one true being. Nature, according to Plotinus, is created in such a way that the divine principle (light) penetrates through matter (darkness). Plotinus even creates a certain gradation of existences from the external (real, true) to the lowest, subordinate (inauthentic). At the top of this gradation stands the divine principle, next is the divine soul, and below all is nature.

Simplifying somewhat, we can say that Plotinus’ divine principle is an absolutization and some deformation of the world of Plato’s ideas. Plotinus devotes much attention to the soul. For him it is a definite transition from the divine to the material. The soul is something alien to the material, bodily and external to them. This understanding of the soul distinguishes the views of Plotinus from the views of not only the Epicureans, but also the Greek and Roman Stoics. According to Plotinus, the soul is not organically connected with the body. She is part of the common soul. The corporeal is a tether of the soul, worthy only of overcoming. “Plotinus, as it were, pushes aside the corporeal, sensory and is not interested in explaining its existence, but wants only to cleanse it from it, so that the universal soul and our soul do not suffer damage”45. The emphasis on the “spiritual” (good) leads him to the complete suppression of everything bodily and material (evil). This results in the preaching of asceticism. When Plotinus speaks about the material and sensory world, he characterizes it as an inauthentic being, as a non-existent, “having in itself a certain image of an existing” 46. By its nature, an inauthentic being has no form, properties and any signs. This solution to the main philosophical problems of Plotinus marks his ethics. The principle of good is connected with the only truly existing thing - with the divine mind, or soul. On the contrary, the opposite of good - evil is associated and identified with inauthentic being, that is, with the sensory world. From these positions, Plotinus also approaches the problems of the theory of knowledge. For him, the only true knowledge is the knowledge of true being, that is, the divine principle. The latter, of course, cannot be comprehended by sensory knowledge; it is also not knowable in a rational way. Plotinus considers (as already mentioned) the only way to approach the divine principle to be ecstasy, which is achieved only by spiritual effort - mental concentration and suppression of everything bodily.

The philosophy of Plotinus specifically expresses the hopelessness and insolubility of contradictions 47, which become all-encompassing. This is the most expressive harbinger of the end of ancient culture.

Plotinus's direct student and continuator of his teachings was Porphyry (c. 232-304). He showed great attention to the study of Plotinus's works, published and commented on them, and compiled a biography of Plotinus. Porfnry was also engaged in the study of problems of logic, as evidenced by his “Introduction to Aristotle’s Categories,” which marked the beginning of a dispute about the real existence of the general.

The mystical teachings of Plotinus are continued by two other Neoplatonic schools. One of them is the Syrian school, the founder and most prominent representative of which was Iamblichus (late 3rd - early 4th century AD). From the surviving part of his large creative heritage, it can be judged that in addition to the traditional range of problems of Neoplatonic philosophy, he was also occupied with other problems, such as mathematics, astronomy, music theory, etc.

In philosophy, he develops the thoughts of Plotinus concerning the divine principle, reason and soul. Among these Plotinian essences, he distinguishes other, transitional ones.

His attempt to substantiate ancient polytheism in the spirit of Plotinus’ philosophy is also worthy of attention. Along with the divine principle as the only truly existing one, he also recognizes a number of other deities (12 heavenly gods, the number of which he then increases to 36 and further to 360; then there are 72 earthly gods and 42 gods of nature). This is essentially a mystical-epeculative attempt to preserve the ancient image of the world in the face of the coming Christianity.

Another school of Neoplatonism - Athenian - is represented by Proclus (412-485). His work, in a certain sense, is the completion and systematization of Neoplatonic philosophy. He fully accepts the philosophy of Plotinus, but in addition he publishes and interprets Plato's dialogues, in the comments to which he expresses original observations and conclusions.

It should be noted that Proclus gives the clearest explanation and presentation of the principle of the dialectical triad 48, in which he distinguishes three main moments of development: 1. The content of the created in the creator. 2. Separation of what has already been created from what is creating. 3. Return of the created to the creator. The conceptual dialectic of ancient Neoplatonism is marked by mysticism, which reaches its peak in this concept. Both Neoplatonic schools deepen and systematically develop the basic ideas of Plotinus's mysticism. This philosophy, with its irrationalism, aversion to everything corporeal, emphasis on asceticism and the doctrine of ecstasy, had a significant influence not only on early Christian philosophy, but also on medieval theological thinking. We have traced the emergence and development of ancient philosophy. In it, for the first time, almost all the main philosophical problems crystallized, the basic ideas about the subject of philosophy were formed and, although not explicitly, the problem was posed, which F. Engels formulated as the main question of philosophy. In ancient philosophical systems, philosophical materialism and idealism were already expressed, which largely influenced subsequent philosophical concepts. V.I. Lenin stated that the history of philosophy has always been an arena of struggle between two main directions - materialism and idealism. The spontaneity and, in a certain sense, straightforwardness of the philosophical thinking of the ancient Greeks and Romans make it possible to realize and more easily understand the essence of the most important problems that accompany the development of philosophy from its inception to the present day. In the philosophical thinking of antiquity, ideological clashes and struggles were projected in a much clearer form than happens later. The initial unity of philosophy and expanding special scientific knowledge, their systematic identification explains very clearly the relationship between philosophy and special (private) sciences. Philosophy permeates the entire spiritual life of ancient society; it was an integral factor of ancient culture. The wealth of ancient philosophical thinking, the formulation of problems and their solutions were the source from which the philosophical thought of subsequent millennia drew.

Philosophy ancient Rome

Ancient Rome did not create new philosophical systems. After the subjugation of Greece to Rome, the teachings that appeared in Ancient Greece during the era of the collapse of the Athenian state - Epicureanism, stoicism, skepticism - passed to ancient Roman soil. The prestige of the philosopher reaches its highest point. " Powerful of the world they kept with them a family philosopher, who was at the same time their closest friend, mentor, guardian of their soul... In great sorrows they invited the philosopher to console him.” (Renan E. Marcus Aurelius... pp. 29–30). The philosopher fulfilled the role that confessors later played in Christianity. “Thus, a real historical miracle was realized, which can be called the dominion of the philosophers” (Ibid. p. 32). The practical orientation of the Roman soul led to the fact that in Ancient Rome they were interested not in dialectics and metaphysics, but mainly in ethics. The Romans took two main themes from Greek philosophy: how to avoid the fear of death (the Epicureans strived for this) and how to meet it with dignity (the Stoics). In Ancient Greece, the Stoics and Epicureans complemented each other in opposition; in Ancient Rome, Stoics and Epicureans complemented each other (Seneca most readily quoted Epicurus).

The popularity of Epicurus was promoted by the poem “On the Nature of Things” by Lucretius Cara, a native of Rome (c. 99 - c. 55 BC). Lucretius was not a theoretician, but a poet, more an Epicurean than a poet, because he himself explained that he undertook to present the views of Epicurus in poetic form in order to facilitate their perception, following the principle that the main thing is pleasure, just as, say, a sick person is given a bitter medicine along with honey so that it is not unpleasant to drink.

The problem of “God and evil” is one of the most difficult in ethics. Christianity responds to this by asserting that God gave people free will; Indian philosophy - the concept of karma. The Epicureans give their answer, believing that the gods do not interfere in the lives of people, because otherwise, according to Epicurus, one would have to admit that the gods who allow evil are either not omnipotent or not omni-good.

And an interesting thing: Epicurus himself, according to Lucretius, turns out to be higher than the gods, because the gods do not interfere, and Epicurus, with his teaching, saved humanity from fears. Once again we are convinced: the lower the gods are placed, the higher man turns out to be. “I don’t know anything about the gods,” says Buddha, and... he becomes deified. The gods do not interfere, says Epicurus, and... is worshiped as a god. A recent example is the deification of the rulers of an atheistic state.

Lucretius's poem ends with a description of mass death from an epidemic. Thus, the optimistic teaching of Epicurus unexpectedly turns into the pessimistic conclusion of the Roman poet regarding the possibility of its implementation in life. Later, with the formation of the empire, there was no room left for optimistic teachings at all, and we see only Stoics and skeptics.

Epicureanism is more suitable for free people who can climb into the “tower of Ivory" And the slave? How can he live unnoticed and enjoy life without fear? Every person in the era of empire was under the heel of a tyrant. Under these conditions, the teaching of Epicurus loses its vitality, no longer fits the social circumstances of the Roman Empire, when a person is forced to confront authority.

None of Epicurus' many followers changed anything in his teaching. Either it is so holistic that it can neither be added nor subtracted, or creative people did not become Epicureans. On the contrary, the metaphysics of the Stoics made a strong tilt towards Platonic idealism, while ethics (and for the Stoics, especially the Romans, it was the main thing) changed little.

The views of the Roman Stoics differed from the Greeks in tone - the strength of their feeling and the expressiveness of their position - and this was explained by changing social conditions. Gradually, the dignity of people and at the same time their confidence were eroded.

The psychological reserve of strength was exhausted, and the motives of doom began to prevail. B. Russell wrote that in bad times philosophers come up with consolations. “We cannot be happy, but we can be good; let us imagine that as long as we are good, it does not matter that we are unhappy. This doctrine is heroic and useful in a bad world.” (Russell B. History of Western Philosophy. M., 1959. P. 286).

Among the Roman Stoics, the leading features are not pride, dignity, self-confidence and inner steadfastness, but rather weakness, a feeling of insignificance, confusion, and brokenness. They do not have the optimism of the Greeks. The concepts of evil and death come to the fore. The Roman Stoics demonstrate the resilience of despair and patience, through which the motive of spiritual freedom breaks through.

A famous Roman promoter of Stoicism was Cicero. They explained the basic Stoic concepts. “But the first task of justice is not to harm anyone, unless you are called to do so by illegality.” (Cicero. About old age. About friendship. About responsibilities. M., 1974. P. 63). Living in harmony with nature means “always being in agreement with virtue, and choosing everything else that is in accordance with nature only if it does not contradict virtue” (i.e. wealth, health, etc.). However, Cicero became more famous as an orator.

Cicero stood at the deathbed of the republic. As a senator, he speaks like a statesman to the subjects who elected him. The next famous Stoic came when the Republic was destroyed. Seneca does not dream of its restoration, he has come to terms with this and his sermon, not edifying, like Cicero’s, but friendly, addresses not the inhabitants of the state, but an individual, a friend. The Spaniard Seneca (c. 5 BC - 65 AD) was born in Rome. From 48 AD e. he is the educator of the future emperor Nero, from whom he died. This is an author for all times and peoples, and if there are a few books that everyone should read in their life, that list includes Moral Letters to Lucilius.

From an aesthetic and moral point of view, Seneca's works are impeccable. Even Plato intersperses highly artistic pieces of text with quite ordinary ones. In Seneca, everything is carefully finished and combined into one whole, although we are dealing with a cycle of letters, apparently actually written to the addressee in different time. The unity of the work is given by the integrity of the author’s worldview. Seneca's moral preaching does not sin with edification or cheap slogans, but subtly leads and convinces. We see in the author a combination of pride, valor, nobility and mercy, which we do not find either among Christian missionaries or philosophers of the New Age.

In Seneca’s work, the motive of suffering prevails, and confidence in the possibility of getting rid of it fades away, leaving hope only for oneself. “We are not able to change... the order of things, but we are able to gain greatness of spirit worthy of a man of goodness, and stoically endure all the vicissitudes of chance, without arguing with nature.” (Seneca L.A. Moral letters to Lucilius. M., 1977. P. 270). Outside of himself, a person is powerless, but he can be master of himself. Look for support in your own soul, which is God in man, advises Seneca.

Seneca contrasts external pressure with individual moral self-improvement and the struggle, first of all, with one’s own vices. “I have not condemned anything except myself. And why should you come to me in the hope of benefit? Anyone who expects to find help here is mistaken. It’s not the doctor, but the patient who lives here” (Ibid. p. 124). Unlike the Cynics of the heyday of philosophy, Seneca considers himself sick.

To gain independence from the despotic forces in whose power a person is, Seneca proposes to become indifferent to fate, not to follow, like cattle, the leaders of the herd and views that find many followers, but to live as reason and duty require, that is, according to nature. “Living happily and living in accordance with nature are one and the same thing” (Anthology of World Philosophy. T. I. P. 514).

According to Seneca, death is needed not because suffering exceeds pleasure, as for Hegesius, but as a way of liberation from a life that does not correspond to human dignity. The motive for suicide in Seneca becomes so strong because in the era of the empire it was the only way to become free, and freedom first began to be valued when it disappeared from real life.

The chanting of death by the Roman Stoics is not a desire for death, but an acknowledgment of human defeat. “To the one who has fallen into the hands of the ruler, who strikes his friends with arrows, to the one whom the master forces to tear out the entrails of his own children, I will say: why are you crying, madman, what are you waiting for? For an enemy to destroy your family, for some foreign ruler to attack you? Wherever you turn your gaze, everywhere you will find a way out of your misfortunes! Look at this steep cliff - it leads to freedom, look at this sea, this stream, this well - freedom lurks at their bottom; look at this tree - short, withered, pitiful - freedom hangs from it. Your neck, your larynx, your heart - they will help you escape slavery. But these paths are too difficult, they require great strength, mental and physical; you will ask what path to freedom is open; it is in any blood vein of your body” (History of Roman Literature. Vol. 2. P. 81).

Death for Seneca is the criterion of a lived life. “All our previous words and deeds are nothing... death will show what I have achieved, and I will believe it.” (Seneca L.A. Moral letters... P. 50). “Death is not evil. – You ask, what is she? “The only thing in which the entire human race has equal rights” (Ibid. p. 320). But in life, all people have equal rights in one thing - both free and slaves. All people are slaves to fortune. And everyone is in slavery to himself. “Show me who is not a slave. One is a slave to lust, another to avarice, a third to ambition, and all to fear... There is no slavery more shameful than voluntary” (Ibid. p. 79). Understanding slavery in its broadest sense and fighting against it, thereby reflecting the growing anti-slavery sentiment, Seneca believed that every person is potentially free in the soul.

Seneca's morality is distinguished by mercy, philanthropy, compassion, pity, reverent attitude towards other people, benevolence, and kindness. In an all-powerful empire, the life of a philosopher is unsafe, and this was fully experienced by Seneca, who was accused by his former student Nero of conspiracy against himself. Although no evidence was found, Seneca, without waiting for arrest, opened his veins, remaining faithful to his views. It is not so important whether Seneca participated in the conspiracy; the fact that he took part in state affairs at such a time suggests that he was preparing his own death.

Seneca is the pinnacle of moral philosophical thought. He managed to synthesize what was valuable in ancient ethics, not excluding the Stoics’ opponent Epicurus. Seneca mocked sophisms and antinomies. He could agree that objective truth is impossible, but for him this question is not important, but the question of how to live? You cannot save yourself from it by paradoxes; it must be solved here and now.

Seneca united in himself the destinies of three great ancient Greek philosophers. He was the educator of the future emperor, like Aristotle; wrote as artistically as Plato; and died, like Socrates, in the conviction that, according to the establishment of nature, “he who brings evil is more unfortunate than he who suffers.”

Epictetus (c. 50-140) was the first famous philosopher who was a slave, but for the Stoics, who recognize all people as equal, this is not surprising. The owner who mocked him broke his leg and then released the cripple. Together with other philosophers, he was subsequently expelled from Rome and opened his own school in Nicopolis (Epirus). His students were aristocrats, poor people, and slaves. In his school of moral improvement, Epictetus taught only ethics, which he called the soul of philosophy.

The first thing the student needed was to realize his own weakness and powerlessness, which Epictetus called the principles of philosophy. The Stoics, following the Cynics, believed that philosophy is a medicine for the soul, but in order for a person to want to take the medicine, he must understand that he is sick. “If you want to be good, first become convinced that you are bad” (Quoted from: Makovelsky A. Morality of Epictetus. Kazan, 1912. P. 6).

The first stage of philosophical training is the rejection of false knowledge. Having begun to study philosophy, a person experiences a state of shock when, under the influence of true knowledge, he seems to go crazy, abandoning his usual ideas. After this, new knowledge becomes the feeling and will of a person.

Three things are necessary, according to Epictetus, to become virtuous: theoretical knowledge, internal self-improvement and practical exercises (“moral gymnastics”). It requires daily self-examination, constant attention to yourself, your thoughts, feelings and actions; vigilant monitoring of oneself as one's worst enemy. To free yourself from passions, you need to gradually reduce the food they eat. If you are used to getting angry every day, try to get angry every other day, etc.

Epictetus’s two basic principles are “forbear and forbear.” Steadfastly withstand all external difficulties that befall you, and take everything calmly, no matter what happens. Refrain from any manifestations of your own passions, remembering that yours are only your mind and soul as something united and rational, and not your body.

On earth, everyone is captive and equally children of God. Epictetus cried out to God so passionately that he is called the forerunner of Christianity. We also find in Epictetus the golden rule of ethics. “Don’t create a situation that you cannot tolerate for others. If you don’t want to be a slave, don’t tolerate slavery around you.”

Unusually for a philosopher, but completely opposite to that of Epictetus, the social position of Marcus Aurelius (121–180) is emperor. Nevertheless, his pessism and courage of despair are just as expressive. Not only the position of the individual, especially the slave, but also the empire became precarious. The period of its decline was approaching. Marcus Aurelius had enormous power, but it did not please him. Strange as it may seem, it is precisely during the period of maximum power of the empire that a person within it feels most unprotected and insignificant, crushed and helpless. The stronger the state, the weaker the person. And not just a slave or a courtier, but the all-powerful ruler himself.

Like all Stoics, Marcus Aurelius searches for meaning. “Why should I live in a world where there is no deity, where there is no providence” (Marcus Aurelius. Reflections. II, 11). The attempt to get rid of addictions, undertaken by the Epicureans, makes life meaningless. It is the duty of man to carry out wise providence. “I am doing my duty. Nothing else distracts my attention."

The fulfillment of duty is facilitated by virtues, or rather one virtue as a unity, in various situations manifested in the form of prudence - knowledge of what is good, what is evil, what should be done and what should not; sanity - knowledge of what to choose, what to avoid; justice - knowledge of rewarding everyone according to their deserts; courage, knowledge of the scary and the non-scary; righteousness - justice towards the gods.

Marcus Aurelius also speaks about the desirability of such character traits as simplicity, integrity, integrity, seriousness, modesty, piety, benevolence, love, and firmness in doing the right thing. “So show yourself in that which entirely depends on you: sincerity, severity of character, endurance, severity towards yourself, bearing, unpretentiousness, benevolence, nobility, self-restraint, taciturnity, majesty” (Ibid. IV, 5). “Perfection of character is to spend every day as if it were your last” (Ibid. VII, 69).

Marcus Aurelius came very close to the gospel “love your enemies,” although he was an opponent of Christianity. He gives three justifications for why you should not be angry with those who have offended you: firstly, this tests your own goodwill; secondly, people cannot be corrected, and therefore there is no point in reproaching them; Thirdly, " The best way to take revenge on the unkind is to not become like them” (Ibid. VI, 6).

The universal mind is spread everywhere like air, and we must thank it for everything, even for misfortunes. Fate prescribes something to a person, just as a doctor prescribes medicine. This is not philosophy, like the Cynics, but fate is the doctor. Medicine can be bitter. Likewise, evil in the world is a bitter medicine that nature heals. This is close to the Christian idea that illness is given as punishment for sins, and a person cannot and should not understand why he is being punished. Nature would not give illness if it did not benefit the whole.

Obstacles themselves, like evil, help us. “And the very hindrance to the matter advances the matter and the difficulty of the path leads along the path” (Ibid. V, 20). Pain and pleasure have nothing to do with ethics, since they do not make a person better or worse and are therefore neither good nor evil. Marcus Aurelius owns the well-known expression “life is a struggle,” although he was not inclined to admire it.

The main thing in life is to be worthy of God, genius, virtue, and to preserve your own color, like an emerald. “Curl into yourself” (Ibid. VII, 28). Live in the present day, but without getting attached to it, and don’t be offended by anyone.

An important place in the philosophy of Marcus Aurelius is occupied by the requirement to always be the same in response to the actions of external circumstances, which means constant proportionality, internal consistency of mental makeup and all life. “To be like a rock against which a wave tirelessly crashes; he stands, and the heated wave subsides around him” (Ibid. V, 49).

Similar thoughts were also found in Seneca. “Believe me, it’s a great thing to always play one role. But no one except the sage does this; all others have many faces" (Seneca A.L. Moral letters... P. 310). Lack of integrity and wholeness is the reason why people, confused in changing masks, find themselves split. And integrity is needed because the person himself is part of the world whole, without which he cannot exist separately from the rest of the body, like an arm or a leg. The idea of ​​the unity of everything in the universe is constantly repeated by Marcus Aurelius.

That was the only case in world history when a philosopher ruled the state and the visible social pinnacle of the triumph of philosophy was achieved. It would seem that it was Marcus Aurelius who would try to organize the state on the principles that were developed by philosophy starting with Socrates and Plato. But not only did he not begin radical reforms (although as an emperor he had every opportunity - not like Plato), but he did not even address people with philosophical sermons that had become fashionable at that time, but kept only a diary - for himself. This is an extreme degree of disappointment in the hope of improving the situation. Plato's wish for a philosopher ruling the state came true, but Marcus Aurelius understood how difficult it was to correct people and social relations. There was irony in the self-deprecation of Socrates, and genuine sorrow in the self-deprecation of Seneca and Marcus Aurelius.

Teaching people how to live, the former slave Epictetus, the philosopher on the throne Marcus Aurelius, statesman and the writer Seneca are comparable in artistic talent to Plato, and in the poignancy of their writings they are closer to us than Plato - these are the most significant names of Roman Stoicism. All three were united by the conviction that there is a rational need to submit to a universal higher principle, and that only the mind, and not the body, should be considered one’s own. The difference is that, according to Seneca, in the external world everything is subject to fate; according to Epictetus - the will of the gods; according to Marcus Aurelius - world reason.

The similarities between the Roman Stoics and the Epicureans, as well as between the Greeks, lay in the orientation towards life by nature, isolation and autarchy, serenity and apathy, in the idea of ​​​​the materiality of the gods and the soul, the mortality of man and his return to the world whole. But the Epicureans understood nature as the material universe, and the Stoics as the mind; justice as a social contract - by the Epicureans, and as a duty to the world as a whole - by the Stoics; the recognition of free will by the Epicureans and higher order and predestination by the Stoics; the idea of ​​the linear development of the world among the Epicureans and the cyclical development of the Stoics; orientation towards personal friendship among the Epicureans and participation in public affairs among the Stoics. For the Stoics, the source of happiness is reason, and the main concept is virtue; for the Epicureans, feelings and pleasures respectively. The Stoics began to move away from the main line of antiquity, and the motives of mercy and humility brought them closer to Christian ethics, just as the desire to suppress all desires brought them closer to Buddhism. The later Stoics, however, lacked self-confidence, were corroded by skepticism, and here they yielded to religion.

Skeptics opposed the Stoics and Epicureans in Rome, as in Greece, and their importance increased as the creative potential of philosophy weakened. Skepticism is an inevitable companion of rational wisdom, just as atheism is a companion of religious faith, and it is only waiting for the moment of its weakening, just as atheism is waiting for the moment of weakening of faith. Denying the idea of ​​the common good, Sextus Empiricus (late 2nd - early 3rd century AD) questions all the achievements of philosophy, starting with Socrates. With his reasoning about the impossibility of rationally explaining the change, Sextus completes what was begun by Zeno’s aporia. The difference between Sextus and the Eleatics is that they put forward aporia to prove the discrepancy between rational truths and sensory data. Sextus uses aporia to discredit both the testimony of feelings and rational arguments. Zeno argued that there is no movement, and Sextus, based on the same aporia, concludes that nothing exists. The Socratic skepticism that comprehends life was replaced by the meaningless skepticism of Sextus Empiricus, and with this philosophy signed its own death sentence.

However, if you deny everything, then it is impossible to talk about anything. This still forces you to speak positively. If I don’t know if I know anything, then maybe I do know something? Consistent skepticism opens the way to faith. The merit of skeptics is in their attempt to determine the limits of rational thinking in order to find out what can be expected from philosophy and what cannot be expected. Dissatisfied with the framework within which the mind functions, they turned to religion. By undermining the conclusions of reason, skeptics increasingly persuaded people to believe and thereby prepared the victory of Christianity, for which faith is higher than reason. They were helped by the Epicureans and Stoics. It turned out that the fear of death cannot be overcome by reasonable arguments. Christianity did not arise by chance; its spread was prepared by the logic of the development of ancient culture. People want not only happiness here, but also after death. Neither Epicurus, nor the Stoics, nor the skeptics promised this. Faced with a dilemma: reason or faith, people preferred faith, in this case Christian. Turning away from rational wisdom, younger and more self-confident Christianity defeated the decrepit ancient philosophy. The latter died like a wise old man, giving way to a new generation.

From the end of the 2nd century. Christianity is taking over the minds of the masses. We can say that Christianity, in the fight against philosophy, defeated the most powerful empire in the history of mankind, and the only philosopher emperor in history suffered a crushing spiritual defeat. Why did this happen? The weakening of the creative potential of ancient philosophy, the change in the spiritual climate and social conditions of life in the society of that time led to the triumph of Christianity. Philosophy was first overthrown and then used for the needs of religion, turning for one and a half thousand years into the handmaiden of theology.

In Roman civilization, philosophy loses its theoretical power, becoming predominantly practical wisdom, which deprives it of its main dignity - a reasonable search for truth. Trying to be useful above all, philosophy exhausts itself.

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Autonomous non-profit organization of higher education vocational education"Russian Academy of Entrepreneurship"

in philosophy

on the topic: “Philosophy of Ancient Rome”

Completed by a student

Pirogova O.V.

Scientific director

Shemyakina E. M.

Moscow 2012

Introduction

After the subjugation of Greece to Rome in the 2nd century. BC e. The Roman Empire began to adopt philosophical teachings that appeared in Ancient Greece during the era of the collapse of the Athenian state. Unlike Greek philosophy, Roman philosophy was predominantly ethical in nature. The main task of Roman philosophy is not the study of the essence of things, but the problem of achieving the highest good, happiness, and developing the rules of life.

This paper will examine some of the main philosophical movements established in Rome, such as Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism, as well as their prominent representatives - Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Titus Lucretius Carus and Aenesidemus.

1. Stoicism

stoicism skepticism rome philosophy

Stoicism is the teaching of one of the most influential philosophical schools of antiquity, founded around 300 BC. Zeno from China; its name comes from the “Painted Portico” - “Stand” in Athens, where Zeno taught. The history of Stoicism is traditionally divided into three periods: Early (Zeno III-II centuries BC), Middle (Panaetius, Posidonius, Hekaton II-I centuries BC) and Late (or Roman) Stoicism (Seneca , Marcus Aurelius I-II centuries AD).

The teachings of the Stoics are usually divided into three parts: logic, physics and ethics. They famously compare philosophy to an orchard: logic corresponds to the fence that protects it, physics is the growing tree, and ethics is the fruit.

Logics-- a fundamental part of Stoicism; its task is to substantiate the necessary and universal laws of reason as the laws of knowledge, being, and philosophizing as a strict “scientific” procedure.

Physics. The Stoics imagine the world as a living organism. According to Stoicism, everything that exists is corporeal, and differs only in the degree of “coarseness” or “subtlety” of matter. Strength is the subtlest matter. The power that controls the world as a whole is God. All matter is only changes of this divine power. Things and events are repeated after each periodic ignition and purification of the cosmos.

Ethics. All people are citizens of space as a world state; Stoic cosmopolitanism equalized all people in the face of world law: free and slaves, citizens and barbarians, men and women. According to the Stoics, every moral action is self-preservation and self-affirmation and increases the common good. All sins and immoral acts are self-destruction, the loss of one’s own human nature. Correct desires, actions and deeds are a guarantee of human happiness; for this you need to develop your personality in every possible way, not be submissive to fate, not bow to any force.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca (5 BC – 65 AD)

Seneca was from Cordoba, he attached great importance to the practical side of philosophy, ethics and explored the question of how to live a virtuous life without delving into theoretical study nature of virtue. He views philosophy as a means of acquiring virtue. “Let our words bring not pleasure, but benefit - the patient is looking for the wrong doctor who speaks eloquently.”

In his theoretical views, Seneca adhered to the materialism of the ancient Stoics, but in practice he believed in the transcendence of God. He believed that fate is not a blind element. She has intelligence, a piece of which is present in every person. Every misfortune is a reason for virtuous self-improvement. The philosopher suggests striving for high courage, steadfastly enduring everything that fate sends us, and surrendering to the will of the laws of nature.

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121 BC - 180 BC)

Roman Emperor from 161 to 180 AD. e., in his reflections “To himself” he says that “the only thing that is in the power of a person is his thoughts.” “Look into your insides! There, inside, is a source of goodness that can flow without drying up if you constantly dig into it.” He understands the world as eternally flowing and changeable. The main goal of human aspiration should be the achievement of virtue, that is, submission to the “reasonable laws of nature in accordance with human nature.” Marcus Aurelius recommends: “A calm thought in everything that comes from outside, and justice in everything that is realized at your own discretion, that is, let your desire and action consist in actions that are generally beneficial, for this is the essence in accordance with your nature.”

Marcus Aurelius is the last representative of ancient Stoicism.

2. Epicureanism

Epicureanism was the only materialistic philosophy in ancient Rome. The materialist trend in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy was named after its founder Epicurus. At the end of the 2nd century. BC e. Followers of Epicurus appear among the Romans, the most prominent of whom was Titus Lucretius Carus.

Titus Lucretius Carus (95 BC – 55 BC)

Lucretius completely identifies his views with the teachings of Epicurus. In his work “On the Nature of Things,” he masterfully explains, proves and promotes the views of the early representatives of atomistic teaching, consistently defends the basic principles of atomism from both earlier and contemporary opponents, while simultaneously giving the most complete and logically ordered interpretation of atomistic philosophy. At the same time, in many cases he develops and deepens the thoughts of Epicurus. Lucretius considers atoms and emptiness to be the only things that exist. Where the emptiness, the so-called space, extends, there is no matter; and where matter extends, there is no emptiness or space in any way.

He considers the soul to be material, a special combination of air and heat. It flows through the entire body and is formed by the finest and smallest atoms.

Lucretius tries to explain the emergence of society in a natural way. He says that initially people lived in a “semi-wild state”, without fire or shelter. Only the development of material culture leads to the fact that the human herd gradually turns into a society. Like Epicurus, he believed that society (law, laws) arises as a product of mutual agreement between people: “The neighbors then began to unite in friendship, no longer wanting to cause lawlessness and quarrel, and children and the female sex were taken under protection, showing gestures and awkward sounds, that everyone should have sympathy for the weak. Although agreement could not be universally recognized, the best and most part religiously fulfilled the agreement.”

Lucretius's materialism also has its atheistic consequences. Lucretius not only excludes gods from a world in which everything has natural causes, but also opposes any belief in gods. He criticizes the idea of ​​life after death and all other religious myths. Shows that belief in gods arises in a completely natural way, as a product of fear and ignorance of natural causes.

Epicureanism persisted in Roman society for a relatively long time. However, when in 313 AD. e. Christianity became the official state religion, a stubborn and ruthless struggle began against Epicureanism, and in particular against the ideas of Lucretius Cara, which ultimately led to the gradual decline of this philosophy.

3. Skepticism

At the core of skepticism is a position based on doubt about the existence of any reliable criterion of truth. Skepticism is contradictory in nature; it prompted some to an in-depth search for truth, and others to militant ignorance and immorality. The founder of skepticism was Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360 - 270 BC).

Pyrrho and his philosophical views

According to the teachings of Pyrrho, a philosopher is a person who strives for happiness. It, in his opinion, lies only in equanimity, combined with the absence of suffering.

Anyone who wants to achieve happiness must answer three questions: 1) what things are made of; 2) how to treat them; 3) what benefit we are able to get from our attitude towards them.

Pyrrho believed that no answer could be given to the first question, nor could it be asserted that something definite exists. Moreover, any statement about any subject can with equal right be contrasted with a statement that contradicts it.

From the recognition of the impossibility of unambiguous statements about things, Pyrrho derived the answer to the second question: the philosophical attitude towards things consists in abstaining from any judgments. This answer also predetermines the answer to the third question: the benefit and benefit arising from abstaining from all kinds of judgments consists of equanimity or serenity. This state, called ataraxia, based on the renunciation of knowledge, is considered by skeptics as the highest level of bliss.

Pyrrho's efforts to shackle human curiosity with doubt and slow down progress along the path of progressive development of knowledge were in vain. The future, which seemed to skeptics as a terrible punishment for believing in the omnipotence of knowledge, nevertheless came, and none of his warnings could stop it.

4. Neoplatonism

Neoplatonism developed in the 3rd-5th centuries AD. e., in the last centuries of the Roman Empire. It is the last integral philosophical movement that arose during the period of antiquity. Neoplatonism is formed in the same social environment as Christianity. Its founder was Ammonius Saccas (175-242), and its most prominent representative was Plotinus (205-270).

Plotinus and his philosophical views

Plotinus believed that the basis of everything that exists is the supersensible, supernatural, supramental divine principle. All forms of existence depend on it. Plotinus declares this principle to be absolute being and says of it that it is unknowable. This only true being is comprehensible only by penetrating into the very center of pure thinking, which becomes possible only with the “rejection” of thought - ecstasy. Everything else that exists in the world is derived from this one true being.

Nature, according to Plotinus, is created in such a way that the divine principle (light) penetrates through matter (darkness). Plotinus even creates a certain gradation of existences from the external (real, true) to the lowest, subordinate (inauthentic). At the top of this gradation stands the divine principle, next is the divine soul, and below all is nature.

Plotinus devotes much attention to the soul. For him it is a definite transition from the divine to the material. The soul is something alien to the material, bodily and external to them.

Conclusion

In general, the philosophy of Ancient Rome had a huge influence on subsequent philosophical thought, culture, and the development of human civilization. The philosophy of Ancient Rome contained the rudiments of the main types of philosophical worldview, which were developed in all subsequent centuries. Many of the problems that ancient philosophers pondered have not lost their relevance to this day. The study of ancient philosophy not only gives us valuable information about the results of the thoughts of outstanding thinkers, but also contributes to the development of more sophisticated philosophical thinking.

Bibliography

1. F. Copleston “History of Philosophy. Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. T. I.”: Tsentrpoligraf; Moscow; 2003

2. F. Copleston “History of Philosophy. Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. T. II.”: Tsentrpoligraf; Moscow; 2003

Other information resources

3. Materials curriculum College of Entrepreneurship No. 15. Lecture on the philosophy of Ancient Rome

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Note 1

Since the $3$ century, a situation has developed in the Mediterranean in which Rome, becoming a strong power, sets the direction of ancient philosophy, replacing ancient Greek.

The cities of continental Greece fall under the influence of Rome.

In Roman philosophy, Platonism comes to the fore, which dissolves in Epicureanism, skepticism and stoicism

Thanks to the expansionary policy of the Roman state, a broad framework of Roman thinking was formed. Political and legal concepts and doctrines that have ancient Greek roots are developing especially successfully.

A common feature of ancient Roman philosophy is to highlight ethics, which is associated with a healthy and happy lifestyle.

Each school of this period develops its own idea of ​​perfection and its own image of the sage. This image of the sage remains the same. The philosopher begins to be associated with a “strange” figure. Genuine philosophizing in everyday life takes on a specific character.

History of Stoicism

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There are three stages:

• Ancient standing ($III-II$ centuries BC). Founder: Zeno of Citium.
• Middle Stoya ($2nd-1st centuries BC) Representatives: Panetius of Rhodes ($180-110$), Posidonius ($135-51$). It was they who brought Stoicism to Rome.
• Late standing or Roman stoicism. This is a purely ethical phenomenon. In $I-II$ centuries. AD it existed simultaneously with the Judeo-Christian tradition, which influenced the formation of Christian doctrine.

Stoicism

The most prominent figures of Stoicism were Seneca Lucius Annaeus, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius . Seneca left writings in Latin. Epictetus, who was a Greek slave, did not leave behind any written records. Marcus Aurelius is a Roman emperor who left works in Greek.

Stoicism can be called the “religion” of the Roman aristocracy. How to achieve happiness, and how does it relate to virtue? These questions faced representatives of Stoicism.

Happiness is a life in harmony with nature. Happiness is an individual phenomenon.

Human nature is perfect, so it contributes to the nature of the whole. It is possible to improve only the nature of a particular person, while simultaneously improving nature as a whole. The discernment of truth is always associated with the transformation of oneself. It is impossible to see the truth without transforming your being.

The Stoics shared Aristotle's ideas about man as a polis and logos being. Logos is the unchanging basis of everything. He also determines the perfection of the world and man. A person must live according to the logos. Man is a cosmopolitan. He must live in accordance with the logos of nature. Cosmopolitanism is a concept that originates in Stoicism. The polis is a copy of the universal state.

Judgments about the macrocosm and microcosm originate from the Stoics. The microcosm repeats the macrocosm.

Quintus Ennius argued that a Roman is one who values ​​freedom, nobility, and piety above all else.

In Roman culture, human fate is thought of as fatalism. A person actualizes it when he achieves his goal, when he becomes himself. This is piety and the highest manifestation of freedom. A person must serve his duty and fulfill his fate without succumbing to emotions. All love lies outside the concepts of honor and duty. The European Renaissance drew its ideas of humanism from Antiquity. The Roman concept of humanism is associated with a rethinking of the role of man and his cultivation.

The Romans first discover the world as history.

Fear of the most important thing is the fear of death. It cannot be considered without comprehending nature. Accordingly, pleasure is impossible without understanding nature. The Stoics accepted suicide because philosophy is dying. Striving for the eternal, we strive for death.

Epicureanism

Founder - Epicurus.

The school of Epicurus is the only example of atomism in Roman philosophy. One of the representatives of Epicureanism was Titus Lucretius Carus. He relates his teachings to the teachings of Democritus and Epicurus.

This philosophical trend existed for quite a long time in Roman culture. This was a very influential movement until 313, before the advent of Christianity. Then it was brutally supplanted by representatives of Christianity.

Skepticism

Another no less important movement in ancient Roman philosophy. Representative - Aenesidemus of Knossos . His teaching was greatly influenced by the ancient Greek skepticism of Pyrrho. The main motive for Aenesidemus' skepticism was opposition to the dogmatism of early philosophical concepts.

He paid attention to the contradictory theories of other philosophers. His skepticism concluded that it was impossible to make any judgments about reality that were based on sensations. This is a doubt about the correctness of the most influential theories of all ancient philosophy. During the period of younger skepticism, the figure of Sextus Empiricus is distinguished, who followed the same path of doubting both Greek philosophy and mathematics, rhetoric, and grammar.

Note 2

Basic Attempts at Skepticism- to prove that this direction is the original path of philosophy, not mixed with other philosophical trends.

Eclecticism acquired extensive significance in ancient Roman philosophy. Many significant personalities of political and Roman culture, such as Cicero, belong to this movement. Representatives of this direction possessed a huge amount of knowledge. These are real encyclopedists of their era. At the heart of eclecticism was a collection, a unification of different philosophical schools, which were united by a conceptual approach. Eclecticism was formed on the basis of academic philosophy, which covered knowledge from teachings about nature to teachings about society.

In the late crisis of the Roman state, criticism of the rational knowledge of the world appeared, which led to mysticism, with increased Christianization. The concept of Roman Neoplatonism begins to strengthen. This is the last integral movement in the final stage of the existence of the Roman Empire. This is a reflection on decaying social relations.