Individual differences in perception in psychology. Individual differences in perception and its development in children. Other types of perception

Perception largely depends on the characteristics of the perceiving subject. The perceived image is individual, it belongs to the inner world of a given person, since the selectivity of perception in the formation of a specific image is determined by his personal interests, needs, motives and attitudes, which determines the uniqueness and emotional coloring of the image. The dependence of perception on the content of a person's mental life, the characteristics of his personality is called apperception.

The Swiss psychologist G. Rorschach found that even meaningless ink stains (Fig. 7) are always perceived as something meaningful. At the same time, a person, depending on individual characteristics, puts his meaning in the content of what he sees.

Rice. 7.

Individual differences in perception can be conditionally classified into the following types: synthetic and analytical, explanatory and descriptive, objective and subjective. The selection of these types is based on the establishment of the correlation of the sensory organization with thought and emotional processes.

For people with a synthetic type, a generalized reflection and definition of the main meaning of what is happening is characteristic. They do not attach importance to the details and do not see them. People with an analytical type distinguish, in the first place, details, particulars. They often find it difficult to understand the general meaning of phenomena. The general idea of ​​the object, events is often replaced by a thorough analysis of individual actions, details, while being unable to highlight the main thing.

Descriptive people are limited to the factual side of what they see and hear. On the contrary, people belonging to the explanatory type try to explain the essence of the perceived phenomenon.

People with an objective type of perception are characterized by a strict correspondence of the perceived to what is happening in reality. Those with a subjective type of perception bring their own attitude to the perceived object, phenomenon. They talk more about what they thought or felt at the moment of the events they are talking about.

The personality traits of observation are of great importance for individual differences in perception. Observation is a personality trait, based on the desire and ability to most fully notice the features of objects and phenomena. A characteristic sign of observation is the speed of perception of the subtle. One of the factors contributing to the development of observation is curiosity. The observation process is an active form of cognition of reality.

Under certain circumstances (sharp physical, emotional, mental overload, the action of certain chemicals, diseases, etc.), there are disturbances in perception. Insurance companies have statistics that prove that there is a whole chasm from visual image to reality. How many times has a tree been mistaken for a continuation of the road, and the shadow of a rock for a turn? If we look at Figure 8, we can see the flickering dots, although they are not drawn. This phenomenon is an illusion of perception, that is, a distorted perception of a really existing object. An example of psychological illusions is the overestimation of vertical lines compared to horizontal (provided that the lengths of the segments are objectively equal), the illusion of railway tracks (a line located in a narrower part of the space enclosed between two converging straight lines seems to be longer), etc. Most often illusions are manifested in determining the size, parallelism and distance, contrast of objects. The item appears larger next to small items and smaller next to larger ones.

Rice. eight.

The most famous perceptual disorder is hallucinations - imaginary perception. A person dominated by hallucinations perceives objects that are absent in reality as really existing.

Perception-direct, sensory reflection of objects and phenomena in an integral form as a result of awareness, their identification signs.

Perception images are built on the basis of various sensations. However, they are not limited to the simple sum of these sensations. Perception is associated with the identification, understanding, comprehension of objects, phenomena, with their assignment to a certain category according to the corresponding signs, grounds.

Habitual objects are perceived at once (simultaneously),unfamiliar- step by step (successively).

Perception is carried out through actions.

The effectiveness of perception depends on what features of the object will be highlighted by the subject as the initial supporting elements.

An integral part of each act of perception are motor processes (movement of the eye along the contour of an object, movement of the hand along the surface of an object, movement of the larynx, which reproduces an audible sound).

Neurophysiological bases of perception

The mechanism (physiological) of perception is the complex activity of analyzers.

Since in the process of perception, relationship between parts and properties of an object, then one of fiziol. mechanisms of perception is education conditioned reflexes to relationships. If the analyzer is constantly influenced by a system of stimuli, then the response begins to depend not on an individual stimulus, but on the connection between stimuli and their ratios.

One of the main physiological mechanisms of perception is the formation of a dynamic stereotype, as well as the establishment of conditioned reflex connections between analyzers.

Human perception is always associated with the activity of the second signaling system.

Perception classification:

1) depending on the modality of the receptors: visual, auditory and tactile perception.

2) complex types of perception: the perception of space and time.

3) depending on the participation of will, purposefulness: involuntary (unintentional, not associated with volitional tension and a predetermined goal) and deliberate (purposeful), arbitrary.

4) depending on the specifics of the object of reflection (perception of the size and shape of the object, volume and distance; perception of a person by a person, perception of speech, etc.).

5) depending on the complexity of the activity, perception is one-act and stage-by-stage, sequential.

Perception is usually included in some kind of activity, but it can also act as an independent activity. Observation- this is a special, organized perception to resolve any issue.

General patterns of perception:

1) meaningfulness and generalization;

2) objectivity;

3) integrity; 4) structure;

5) electoral focus; 6) apperception; 7) constancy.

1. Meaningfulness and generalization of perception.

Perception is associated with the attribution of a given object to a certain category, concept. Only by defining the category of the perceived object, we recognize its signs.

The process of recognizing a perceived object has the following structure:

Isolation of such stimuli from the flow of information that can be combined into independent complexes;

Actualization in memory of the reference object with which the perceived object is related (recognition);

The assignment of the perceived object to a certain category of objects, the search for additional signs that confirm or refute the correctness of the decision;

The final conclusion on the identification of the object of perception.

Installation- this is the dependence of perception on the experience and tasks of the activity. In the object, those sides that correspond to the given task come to the fore.

The simplest form of comprehension is recognition... Here perception is closely related to memory. To recognize an object means to perceive the object and correlate it with a previously formed image. Recognition can be generalized when the item belongs to any general category (table, tree), differentiated when an object is identified with a previously perceived single object.

Recognition is characterized by certainty, precision and quickness. When recognizing, a person does not highlight all the signs of an object, but uses its characteristic identifying signs(so, we recognize the steamer from a distance by the presence of a pipe and do not think that it is a boat).

2. Crazy. A person is aware of the images of objects not as images, but as real objects, taking the images outside, objectifying them. Objectivity of perception- the relevance of cerebral information about objects to real objects. Objectivity of perception means adequacy, correspondence of images of perception to real objects of reality.

3. Integrity of perception. Perception reflects stable connections between components. Integrity of perception is a reflection of an object as a stable systemic integrity.

Even in cases where we perceive only some of the signs of a familiar object, we mentally supplement the missing signs and parts.

4.The structure of perception. We recognize various objects due to the stable structure of their features. In perception, the isolation of relationships, parts, sides of an object is carried out (we perceive and interpret a house as a house, regardless of the particular characteristics of this particular house). Consciousness of perception is inextricably linked with the reflection of the relationship between the elements of the perceived object. In those cases when the selection of parts of the object is difficult, the perception of the object as a whole becomes difficult.

5 selective focus of perception... From the countless number of objects and phenomena, we single out some of them. It depends on the direction of the person's activity, on his needs and interests... (when examining the scene of the incident, the investigator selects, first of all, the traces of the offender, material evidence).

Selectivity of perception - the predominant selection of an object from the background. If the object and the background are equivalent for a given activity, then they can pass into each other: the background becomes an object, and the object becomes a background (a vase on a black background or 2 profiles on a white).

The selection of an object from the background is carried out along its contour. The sharper and more contrasting the outline of an object, the easier it is to select.

6.Apperception(from Lat. perception) - the dependence of perception on experience, knowledge, interests and attitudes of the individual, in accordance with which a person selectively perceives various aspects of objects. Apperception happens personal and situational.

Looking at a burning fire from afar, we do not feel its warmth, but this quality is included in the perception of the fire. In our experience, bonfire and warmth have entered into a strong bond.

7 constancy of perception(from Lat. constant) is the independence of the reflection of the objective qualities of objects (size, shape, characteristic color) from the changed conditions of their perception - illumination, distance, angle of view.

When a rectangular object (folder, sheet of paper) is perceived from different points of view, a square, a rhombus, and even a straight line can be displayed on the retina. However, in all cases, we keep this object in its inherent form.

Aconstance- visual illusions (distortion). They are called by a phys., Physiologist. and mental reasons.

So, if we look down from a great height, then the objects familiar to us can be perceived somewhat distorted (people, cars seem to us unnaturally reduced).

Features of the perception of space and time

Perception of space consists of perception size, shape, volume, distance, location of objects and their movement.

Perception of form- a complex process of visual perception of the configuration of an object, in which fast, spasmodic eye movements are of great importance: they seem to feel the object.

On perception planar form, a clear distinction of the outlines of an object and its contour plays an important role. On perception volumetric deep vision plays an essential role.

When perceiving the shape of an object, it is essential interaction with the background. The background provides information about the situation of perception, provides constancy of perception. In situations of equivalence between the object and the background, the effect arises dual figure. At the same time, a periodic fluctuation of attention occurs - its fluctuation occurs.

Relief and volume of objects, depth of space are perceived due to the fact that the image of an object appears on non-coincident (disparate) points of the retina of two eyes; in this case, there is no complete coincidence of the image in the retinas of both eyes, and as a result, there is stereoscopic effect.

Remoteness of objects is also perceived due to binocular vision (vision with two eyes). The perception of the distance of an object depends not only on the size of its image on the retina of the eye, but also on the strength of the tension of the eye muscles, the curvature of the lens, and the relative position of the visual axes.

The change in the curvature of the lens depending on the distance of objects is called accommodation. Accommodation gives information about the remoteness of objects only within a range of up to 6 m. If objects are removed at a greater distance, then information about their remoteness enters the brain from the relative position of the visual axes. But the definition of the depth of space is limited by the depth vision threshold (= 5).

The distance from which objects are recognized is called spatial discrimination threshold.

Spatial movement of objects, their movement is perceived due to the movement of their image on the retina. For the perception of movement, head movement, paired eye movement is also essential

The ability to correctly assess the spatial relationships of objects is called with an eye. Distinguish between static and dynamic eyes:

-static eye - determination of the size of stationary objects, taking into account their distance;

-dynamic eye - the ability to determine the relationship between moving objects.

There are significant individual characteristics of the eye. The ability to see the smallest objects is called visual acuity or the resolution of the eye.

Touch is one of the main sources of our spatial representations. Feeling hand movements reproduce the contour, volume, relief and texture of the object.

A distinction is made between passive and active touch:

-passive touch forms a tactile image of the contour of an object when it is moved on a resting hand;

-active touch characterized by active feeling of the object;

-bimanual touch - touch with two hands - optimizes the perception strategy.

Perception of time- reflection of the duration, speed and sequence of events. Temporary relationships are reflected through:

-chronometry - counting time, measured by the uniform movement of objects (clock hands);

-chronology - reflections of time in accordance with events common to all (seasons, historical events);

-chronognosy - subjective time (subjective experience of the duration of events, depending on their significance and emotional coloring).

When assessing the time intervals and duration of events, the peculiarities of the subjective perception of time should be taken into account.

The duration of small intervals of time is usually somewhat exaggerated, while large intervals of time are somewhat reduced. A fast pace also leads to an overestimation of the time interval, and a slow one leads to an underestimation. The period of time associated with interesting, significant events seems to be shorter (and, on the other hand, when remembered, on the contrary, longer). With positive emotions, time is underestimated, and with negative emotions, it is overestimated.

Life experience, knowledge, interests, level of mental development determine individual characteristics of perception- its selective focus, completeness and accuracy.

Synthetic type perception is characterized by greater integrity and emotionality. Owners analytical type show a great tendency to isolate and explain certain aspects of the object. Medium is most common analytic-synthetic type of perception.

People with insufficient development of differentiating activity are characterized by incompleteness and imprecision perception. The personality's susceptibility to inert stereotypes has a significant impact on perception.

The incompleteness of experience and knowledge determines the fragmentation of perception, its lack of meaning and integrity. Perceiving objects and phenomena, a person evaluates them.

2. As an object of perception, a person has a special social significance. When perceiving a person who is new to himself, the subject singles out in him those features of his appearance that provide information about his mental and social qualities. Posture, gait, gestures, facial expressions, voice, speech, behavioral habits, manners stand out in particular.

In one of the first places are the professional characteristics of a person, his social status, basic moral and communicative qualities: evil, kind, cheerful, withdrawn, sociable, etc. Individual features of his face are also distinguished selectively.

The generalized image of a person arising from external signs affects the interaction with him.

The perception of a person by a person is subject to certain socially formed stereotypes, standards, and measures.

The assessments and feelings of people in their perception of each other are multifaceted. But mainly they are subdivided into conjunctive - uniting and disjunctive - disconnecting. Disjunctive feelings are caused by what is condemned in a given environment.

3. Perception of speech. From a physical point of view, speech is a combination of sounds, varying in height and intensity. Maximum speech intelligibility occurs at a speech intensity of 40 dB. At a speech intensity of 10 dB, speech sounds are not perceived as associated words.

Speech is especially drowned out by low-frequency noise.

The intelligibility of speech increases with visual control of the speakers, the vocabulary of speech familiar to listeners, a significant intensity of speech, and the repetition of complex phrases in their original form.

The optimal speech rate is 70 words per minute, the upper limit is 120 words per minute. Long words are understood and recognized better than short ones. The length of the phrase should not exceed 7 ± 2 words.

The most significant words should be placed in the first third of the phrase. The monotony of sound frequencies, long pauses, as well as the absence of pauses, complicate the perception of speech.

Taking into account the patterns of perception in investigative practice.

When interrogating a witness, the investigator must separate objective facts from subjective layers, it is necessary:

Find out the conditions in which the perception of the incident took place (illumination, duration, distance, meteorological conditions). It should be borne in mind that people are often not able to accurately assess number of items v, distance between them, their dimensions.

Correctly establish the time of the event under investigation, its duration and sequence.

Take into account the peculiarities of human perception by human. Depending on what importance people attach to different personality traits, they relate to each other differently, experience different feelings and, when giving testimony, bring to the fore one or another individual aspect of another person.

In the production of presentation for identification, it is necessary that identification is carried out according to specific features (at least 3x). When presenting for identification, it is necessary to take into account the objective and subjective conditions.

Objective refers to the physical conditions of the initial perception of the object (lighting, angle, distance).

Psycho belongs to the subjective factors of identification. the state of a person at the moment of observing an object and at the moment of its identification (fear, disgust, nervousness, etc.), as well as a psycho. human properties (development of one or another type of memory, perception, ability to correlate, grouping signs).

When presented for identification, the investigator must exercise extreme caution in verbal influences on the identifying person, remembering that the first signal system (direct impression of a person) depends on the second signal system (word).

For a qualified interrogation, the investigator needs some information about speech perception person.

Observation of the investigator is a form of perception thing. dock, scene, interrogation and confrontation or investigative experiment in order to resolve the issue.

Observation is not an innate quality, it is developed through practice, exercise. It is helpful for the investigator to specifically practice the following:

1) comparing and contrasting similar items;

2) in the rapid perception of the greatest number of features of the subject;

3) in the detection of insignificant, subtle changes in objects;

4) in highlighting what is essential from the point of view of the goal of observation.

Perception is a holistic reflection of objects, situations, phenomena arising from the direct effect of physical stimuli on the receptor surfaces of the sense organs. Perception makes possible a holistic reflection of the world, the creation of an integral picture of reality, in contrast to sensations that reflect individual qualities of reality.

The result of perception is an integral, holistic image of the surrounding world, arising from the direct influence of a stimulus on the subject's sense organs. It is a mistake to believe that perception is a simple summation of individual sensations. In addition to sensations, previous experience is involved in the process of perception, the processes of comprehending what is perceived, i.e. mental processes of an even higher level, such as memory and thinking, are included in the process of perception. Therefore, perception is very often called the human perceptual system.

The main properties of perception include the following: objectivity, integrity, structure, constancy, meaningfulness, apperception, activity.

The objectivity of perception is the ability to reflect objects and phenomena of the real world not in the form of a set of sensations not related to each other, but in the form of separate objects. Objectivity is not an innate property of perception; the emergence and improvement of this property occurs in the process of ontogenesis, starting from the first year of a child's life. The possibility of object perception is due to the presence of a motor component in the process of perception. So, hearing a sound or smelling, we make certain orienting movements in relation to the source of irritation.

Integrity is another property of perception. Unlike sensation, which reflects individual properties of an object, perception gives a holistic image of the object. It is formed on the basis of generalization of information received in the form of various sensations about individual properties and qualities of an object. The components of sensation are so firmly interconnected that a single complex image of an object arises even when only individual properties or separate parts of the object act directly on a person.

The integrity of perception is also associated with its structure. This property lies in the fact that perception in most cases is not a projection of our instantaneous sensations and is not a simple sum of them. We perceive a generalized structure that is actually abstracted from these sensations, which is formed over time. For example, if a person listens to a melody, then the previously heard notes still continue to sound in his mind when information about the sound of a new note arrives.

The next property of perception is constancy. Constancy is the relative constancy of certain properties of objects when the conditions of their perception change. For example, a truck moving in the distance will still be perceived by us as a large object, despite the fact that its image on the retina will be much smaller than its image when we stand next to it.

Perception depends not only on the nature of the irritation, but also on the subject himself. It is not the eye and the ear that perceive, but a specific living person. Therefore, the perception is always affected by the characteristics of a person's personality. The dependence of perception on the general content of our mental life is called apperception. Upon perception, past experience is activated. Therefore, the same object can be perceived differently by different people. An essential place in apperception is occupied by attitudes and emotions, which can change the content of perception. So, the mother of a sleeping child may not hear the noise of the street, but instantly reacts to any sound coming from the side of the child.

The next property of perception is its meaningfulness. Although perception arises from the direct action of a stimulus on the sensory organs, perceptual images always have a certain semantic meaning. As we have already said, human perception is closely related to thinking. The connection between thinking and perception is primarily expressed in the fact that to consciously perceive an object is to mentally name it, i.e. refer to a specific group, class, associate it with a specific word. Even at the sight of an unfamiliar object, we try to establish in it a similarity with other objects. Therefore, perception is not simply determined by a set of stimuli affecting the senses, but is a constant search for the best interpretation of the available data.

Activity (or selectivity) means that at any given time we perceive only one object or a specific group of objects, while the rest of the objects of the real world are the background of our perception, i.e. are not reflected in our minds.

For example, you are listening to a lecture or reading a book and are completely oblivious to what is happening behind you.

Differences in life experience, in knowledge, views, interests, in the emotional attitude of people to objects and phenomena of reality give rise to significant individual differences in perception. They affect both the completeness, accuracy and speed of perception, and the nature of its generalization and emotional coloring. Depending on the skills and habits acquired in experience, and, consequently, on the previously formed systems of temporary connections, different types of perception are formed. In some people, perception is characterized by greater integrity and emotionality with a less pronounced analysis (synthetic type of perception). In others, perceptions are more analytical with less pronounced concreteness and integrity of perception (analytical type of perception). Finally, in people of the third type of perception, they are specific, holistic and at the same time analytical (analytic-synthetic type of perception). Representatives of the first type pay more attention to facts; representatives of the second type - on the meaning and explanation of facts; the third type combines observation and description of facts with their explanation. Extreme types of perception are less common than the average - analytic-synthetic type of perception.

Significant individual differences in perception are created by the degree of differentiation and generalization of the previously formed systems of temporary connections. Insufficient differentiation of temporal connections leads to incompleteness and inaccuracy of perceptions, which are usually supplemented by various subjective inputs, which is especially often observed with increased emotional excitability of a person. Subjective distortions of perception can also arise as a result of the formation of inert stereotypes, that is, strong, but inactive and difficult to change systems of temporary connections. Such hard-to-change, inert stereotypes are expressed in prejudice of views, often distorting perception, making it one-sided.

Each of us comprehends the world, relying on the information provided by the five classical senses: sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste. True, there are many contenders for the role of the sixth (seventh, eighth and further) sense; the main one is kinesthetic sensations (sensations of movement and position of one's own body, as well as muscular efforts). The image of the world that arises in a person on the basis of our sensations seems natural, understandable and the only possible. And almost the same - the only possible, well-established and monumental - psychology of perception may seem - the classic object of interest of scientific psychology for more than a hundred years, from its very birth. And it turned out that new discoveries were made in this "classical" area, somewhat shaking our ideas about the "only possible" image of the world. These discoveries are associated with the now fashionable neurolinguistic programming (NLP).

NLP founders John Grinder and Richard Bandler - a computer scientist and linguist - are not scientists, but pragmatists. Asking why some psychotherapists are successful in helping people, while others are not, they did not delve into the jungle of theories or talk about a wonderful gift and intuition. They took a different path: observing and analyzing the work of the best psychotherapists of the 1970s, they tried to isolate the constituent elements of their success, that is, to understand "how they do what they do." Discerned. Systematized. We have created a technology for successful behavior and communication. Checked - it works. They did not become interested in how what they got was related to the well-established psychological knowledge and theories: what difference does it make if it works. Explained to others. They began to spread - an unheard of success came.

The notion of representational systems that determine individual differences in perception and other cognitive processes is one of the achievements of NLP. In order to understand what is behind the beautiful phrase "representational system", read the excerpts from the conversation with the nine-year-old girl Ksenia. Try to imagine her world as vividly as possible. What is he?

• - Ksenia, please tell us what you want.
• - I don't know ... Okay ... I'll tell you how my grandfather and I went to the forest. We entered the forest and walked along the path. BRANCHES DRY from the sun SLASHED us across the face. Then black clouds appeared, and it began to rain. I FEELED drops falling on me. Thunderstorm began. It was scary.
• - Were you afraid of bright lightning or thunder?
• - No, why be afraid of thunder?
• - Why is it scary?
• - It's just scary, that's all. And something else could have DROP on me: a branch or even a tree. Everything around is messed up. Such an UNPLEASANT MUD around. We walked through fallen trees overgrown with moss and woody mushrooms. Green frogs were jumping around us. Frogs feel good - they LIKE MOKRYATINA, and they are not at all scared ...
• - Ksenia, tell us how you went to visit.
• - I will describe their apartment: dark, SOUL, UNAIRED, and a big cat lives with them - they Smell ...
• - Do you like to dress up?
• - Hate. They tortured the poor child. Yesterday we bought a jacket. They put one on me: “Look, what a fashionable style! Look how it goes! " And this jacket has SLEEVES LIKE CUFFLES.
• - What are the cuffs?
• - from the apparatus with which the pressure is measured.
• - Have you bought a jacket?
• - This one is not, we bought another, very SOFT.

The world of Xenia is the world of thorny branches and wet drops, stuffy rooms, tight or soft jackets. Ksenia is a KINESTHETIC, that is, for her consciousness, the sensations of the body, movement, touch, as well as smells and tastes are of the greatest importance.

And now - the world of eleven-year-old Sasha.

• - Please tell us how you like to spend your free time.
• - I sometimes with friends, and sometimes with a dog, I like to go for a walk in the forest. I can wander for hours, LISTENING TO THE SOUNDS OF NATURE: the RUSHING OF LEAVES on the trees, then the CHIRLING OF BIRDS. There is a small BURLING RIVER in the forest. There are almost no people where I walk, so YOU ​​FEEL SUCH PLEASURE EVEN FROM THE SILENCE OF THE FOREST.

In general, I feel great joy from COMMUNICATION with friends. We exchange CASSETS, it happens that we go to CONCERTS. I really like the GROUPS "Time Machine", "Black Sabbath", "Aria". When I LISTEN to such music, I am overwhelmed by a feeling of extraordinary joy, inner lift.

• - What's your favorite subject?
• - I love history and a foreign language. From history you will learn how people lived before. Foreign - for the ability to COMMUNICATE with people in another language.

The boy has a well-developed kinesthetic system: a constant refrain in his story is the words “feel”, “feeling covers”. And yet, first of all, it is AUDIAL, that is, it relies on auditory information in comprehending the world. His world is the world of the sounds of nature and favorite rock bands, the joy of communication (conversation) with friends. His favorite subjects make it possible to communicate (in another language) or learn interesting stories (how people lived in the past).

In addition to kinesthetics and audials, it is customary to single out VISUALS - visual information is of primary importance for their consciousness. Thus, there are three types of people differing in the type of LEADING REPRESENTATIVE SYSTEM.

The predominance of this or that type of representational system can be expressed very clearly, and maybe rather weakly. The first is more characteristic of young children, who first develop only one of the representational systems (more often - kinesthetic) and only then the second and third. For example, nine-year-old Xenia, along with kinesthetic ones, has vivid visual and auditory images. Let's give a conversation with six-year-old Kolya. Note that even individual calls to the visual system are quickly translated into the kinesthetic code familiar to the boy.

• - Kolya, what do you like to do the most?
• - Sports, skiing. You can ride them down the hill, practice. You can play, accelerate, ride at speed and steer from a hill, like in a car.
• - What else do you like to do?
• - Charging. There are a lot of exercises. Especially rope crawling. I like that you can sit at a height, it's so interesting.
• - Why is it interesting to sit at a height?
• - Everything is seen.
• - What do you see?
• - Well, you'll be the oldest.
• - Do you want to be older than everyone?
• - Yes. To be high. To REACH the sky and REMOVE the sun from there ...
• - Imagine this situation: you found yourself in the forest alone and got lost. How will you get out, find your way home?
• - You can tell by the tree. SEE where there is more moss, where there is less. Where there is less moss, there is north, where there is more, there is south.
• - And where are we going?
• - Let's go along the road WHERE YOU ALREADY WALKED.

What determines in a person's life his leading representational system? First, it determines what information from the surrounding world is absorbed most easily and quickly, and what aspects of it will be paid attention first of all. Let's say a child sees an interesting new toy in a store. The visual will try to consider it properly. The audial will start asking what it is, what the toy is for and how to play with it. The kinesthetic will try to hold and touch the toy. Most likely, these three will prefer different things: visual - a bright and beautiful toy, kinesthetic - soft or pleasant to the touch. As for the audial, if there is no sounding or talking toy in the store, he may prefer to choose a character from a fairy tale or a cartoon - someone with whom some interesting story is connected.

The second difference associated with the leading representational system is the preferred form of storing information in memory and the ease with which different types of information can be retrieved from memory. For example, thinking about a loved one, one will remember, first of all, his face, the other - his voice, and the third - the softness of his hands or the smell.

The third important aspect of representational systems is the ease of operating with different types of information in the process of mental activity. Consider, for example, the process of choosing the right road in unfamiliar terrain. The visual will try to stock up on a plan and navigate by it. If there is no plan, he will try to imagine the area as best as possible and choose a road based on its visual image. The audial will question the passers-by. The kinesthetic is likely to seek the correct path, moving in different directions, until he gets to his goal. However, it is not always possible to choose the optimal way of presenting information. For example, in the process of school teaching, it is easier for the visual to learn new material from the blackboard or from the book, and for the auditor, from the teacher's explanation. But the teacher will only choose one thing (which is likely to depend on his own guiding system). The modern education system does not provide almost any opportunities for kinesthetics. However, among children of primary school age, it is the kinesthetics that are the most. Therefore, many difficulties in the initial stages of learning are determined by the fact that the form of education does not agree well with the child's leading representational system. Such difficulties should be overcome by developing all three representational systems and developing the skills of transcoding information from one system to another. This is what happens spontaneously in the first years of schooling.

Finally, representational systems largely determine the images into which emotions and feelings, experiences and internal states are translated, as well as the “language” in which we are trying to tell others about them. So, about the same state, three people with different leading systems will say completely differently. Visual: "When I look into my future, it seems unclear to me." Audial: "I can't say anything about my future." Kinesthetic: "I can't feel what's going to happen."

The following example, given by Grinder and Bandler, demonstrates how difficult it is to understand each other even for the closest people, if they have different representational systems.

The kinesthetic husband comes home from work tired and wants comfort. He sits down in a chair, kicks off his shoes, covers himself with newspapers and magazines. The visual wife comes in. She cleaned the house all day to keep everything looking good. She sees things scattered throughout the room and explodes. The husband complains: “She does not give me a place in the house where I could sit comfortably. This is my home. I want comfort! " In order for spouses to understand each other, it is necessary to find a kinesthetic correspondence with visual complaints. For example: “You really don't understand what your wife is going through. Imagine that you come to your bedroom in the evening to go to bed, and your wife is sitting in bed and eating cookies. You lie down and feel the crumbs dig into your skin. Do you know now what she feels when she walks into the living room and sees things scattered about? "

To speak with an interlocutor in the "language" of his leading representational system means to maintain a close connection with him and achieve mutual understanding. Conversation skills are important to practical psychologists and anyone who works with people.

Thus, taking into account the individual characteristics of perception makes it possible to increase the effectiveness of training and the organization of cognitive activity, as well as to improve mutual understanding between people.

NLP specialists determine the leading representational system by eye movements, which, however, requires special training. It is less accurate, but still possible to determine the leading representational system by the peculiarities of speech and behavior.

Individual differences in perception are great, but nevertheless, certain types of these differences can be distinguished, which are characteristic not for one particular person, but for a whole group of people. These include, first of all, the differences between holistic and detailed, or synthetic and analytical, perception.

Rice.8.2. Individual differences in perception

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Holistic, or synthetic, the type of perception is characterized by the fact that the general impression of the object, the general content of perception, the general features of what is perceived are most vividly presented in persons prone to it. People with this type of perception pay the least attention to details and details. They do not distinguish them on purpose, and if they grasp, then not in the first place. Therefore, many details go unnoticed by them. They grasp the meaning of the whole more than the detailed content and especially its individual parts. In order to see the details, they have to set themselves a special task, the fulfillment of which is sometimes difficult for them.

Persons with a different type of perception - detailing, or analytical, - on the contrary, they tend to emphasize details and details. This is what their perception is directed at. An object or phenomenon as a whole, the general meaning of what was perceived, fades into the background for them, sometimes it is not even noticed at all. In order to understand the essence of the phenomenon or adequately perceive any object, they need to set themselves a special task, which they do not always succeed in performing. Their stories are always filled with details and descriptions of private details, behind which the meaning of the whole is often lost.

The above characteristics of the two types of perception are characteristic of the extreme poles. Most often they complement each other, since the most productive is the perception based on the positive characteristics of both types. However, even extreme options cannot be considered negative, since very often they determine the originality of perception that allows a person to be an extraordinary person.

There are other types of perception, for example descriptive and explanatory. Persons belonging to the descriptive type are limited to the factual side of what they see and hear, do not try to explain to themselves the essence of the perceived phenomenon. The driving forces of the actions of people, events or any phenomena remain outside the field of their attention. On the contrary, persons belonging to the explanatory type are not satisfied with what is directly given in perception. They always strive to explain what they saw or heard. This type of behavior is often combined with a holistic, or synthetic, type of perception.

Also distinguish objective and subjective types of perception. The objective type of perception is characterized by strict compliance with what is happening in reality. Persons with a subjective type of perception go beyond what is actually given to them, and bring a lot from themselves. Their perception is subordinated to a subjective attitude towards what is perceived, an increased biased assessment, a preconceived preconceived attitude. Such people, talking about something, tend to convey not what they perceived, but their subjective impressions about it. They talk more about how they felt or what they thought at the time of the events they are talking about.

Differences in observation play a great role among individual differences in perception.

Observation - this ability to notice in objects and phenomena that which is little noticeable in them is not striking by itself, but what is essential or characteristic from any point of view. A characteristic sign of observation is the speed with which something subtle is perceived. Observing

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by no means all people and not to the same extent. Differences in observation are largely dependent on individual personality traits. For example, curiosity is a factor contributing to the development of observation.

Since we have touched on the problem of observation, it should be noted that there are differences in perception in terms of the degree of intentionality. It is customary to distinguish unintentional (or involuntary) and intentional (voluntary) perception. In case of unintentional perception, we are not guided by a predetermined goal or task - to perceive the given object. Perception is directed by external circumstances. Intentional perception, on the contrary, from the very beginning is regulated by the task - to perceive this or that object or phenomenon, to become familiar with it. Intentional perception can be included in any activity and carried out in the course of its execution. But sometimes perception can also act as a relatively independent activity. Perception as an independent activity appears especially clearly in observation, which is a deliberate, planned and more or less prolonged (even with interruptions) perception in order to trace the course of a phenomenon or those changes that occur in the object of perception. Therefore, observation is an active form of human sensory cognition of reality, and observation can be considered as a characteristic of the activity of perception.

The role of observation activity is extremely important. It is expressed both in the mental activity that accompanies the observation, and in the motor activity of the observer. Operating with objects, acting with them, a person better understands many of their qualities and properties. For the success of observation, it is important that it is planned and systematic. Good observation, aimed at a broad, versatile study of a subject, is always carried out according to a clear plan, a definite system, with consideration of some parts of the subject after others in a definite sequence. Only with this approach, the observer will not miss anything and will not return a second time to what was perceived.

However, observation, like perception in general, is not an innate characteristic. A newborn child is not able to perceive the world around him in the form of an integral objective picture. The child's ability to perceive objectively manifests itself much later. The child's initial selection of objects from the surrounding world and their objective perception can be judged by the child's gazing at these objects, when he does not just look at them, but examines, as if he is feeling with his gaze.

According to BM Teplov, signs of object perception in a child begin to appear in early infancy (two to four months), when actions with objects begin to form. By the age of five to six months, the child has an increase in cases of fixation of the gaze on the object with which he is operating. However, the development of perception does not stop there, but, on the contrary, only begins. So, according to A. V. Zaporozhets, the development of perception is carried out at a later age. During the transition from preschool to preschool age, under the influence of play and constructive activity, children develop complex types of visual analysis and synthesis, including the ability

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mentally dismember the perceived object into parts in the visual field, examining each of these parts separately and then combining them into one whole.

In the process of teaching a child at school, perception is actively developing, which during this period goes through several stages. The first stage is associated with the formation of an adequate image of an object in the process of manipulating this object. At the next stage, children become familiar with the spatial properties of objects with the help of hand and eye movements. At the next, higher stages of mental development, children acquire the ability to quickly and without any external movements recognize certain properties of perceived objects, to distinguish them from each other on the basis of these properties. Moreover, in the process of perception, any actions or movements no longer take part.

One may ask, what is the most important condition for the development of perception? Such a condition is labor, which for children can manifest itself not only in the form of socially useful labor, for example, in performing their household duties, but also in the form of drawing, modeling, music, reading, etc., that is, in the form of various cognitive objective activities. Participation in the game is equally important for the child. In the process of playing, the child expands not only his motor experience, but also the idea of ​​the objects around him.

The next, no less interesting question that we must ask ourselves is the question of how and in what features of children's perception are manifested in comparison with an adult? First of all, the child commits a large number of mistakes when assessing the spatial properties of objects. Even a linear eye in children is much less developed than in an adult. For example, in perceiving the length of a line, a child's error can be about five times that of an adult. The perception of time is even more difficult for children. It is very difficult for a child to master such concepts as "tomorrow", "yesterday", "earlier", "later".

Certain difficulties arise in children when they perceive images of objects. So, examining a drawing, telling what is drawn on it, preschool children often make mistakes in recognizing the objects depicted and call them incorrectly, relying on random or insignificant signs.

An important role in all these cases is played by the lack of knowledge of the child. his little practical experience. This also determines a number of other features of children's perception: insufficient ability to highlight the main thing in what is perceived; omission of many details; limited perceived information. Over time, these problems are eliminated, and by the senior school age, the perception of a child is practically no different from that of an adult.

DEVELOPMENT OF PERCEPTION IN ONTOGENESIS - from the Greek. оntоs - existence + genesis - origin. The process of structural changes in the processes of perception in the course of individual development. Practical actions to transform environmental objects are the main factor determining the construction of adequate perceptual actions. With the development of activity, there is a reduction in externally practical components and a curtailment of perceptual actions. It is typical for a person that the most significant changes in perception occur in the first years of life. In this case, the decisive role is played by the assimilation of the sensory standards and methods of examining stimuli developed by society. The child develops an integral system of operational units of perception and sensory standards that mediate perception. Already before reaching the age of six months, in conditions of interaction with adults, active search actions arise: the child looks to see, grasps and feels objects with his hand. On this basis, intersensory connections are formed between various receptor systems (visual, auditory, tactile). So the child becomes able to perceive complex complex stimuli, recognize and differentiate them. At the age of 6-12 months, the motor system develops rapidly, and object actions and manipulations act as the leading activity, which requires constancy of perception. In this case, reproducing movements that simulate the features of perceived objects become the main way of perception. In the future, the development of perception occurs in the closest connection with the development of various types of children's activities (play, visual, constructive and elements of work and learning). After reaching the age of four, it acquires relative independence.

The main types of mental operations: comparison, analysis and synthesis, abstraction and concretization, induction and deduction

Comparison is one of the logical operations of thinking. Tasks for comparing objects, images, concepts are widely used in psychological studies of the development of thinking and its disorders. The author analyzes the grounds for comparison that a person uses, the ease of transition from one of them to another, etc. Comparison. The operation of establishing similarities and differences between objects and phenomena of the real world is called comparison. When we look at two objects, we always notice how they are similar or how they differ.

Analysis is a mental operation of dismembering a complex object into its constituent parts. Analysis - this is the selection in the object of one or another of its sides, elements, properties, connections, relationships, etc .; it is the dismemberment of the cognized object into various components.

Synthesis is a mental combination of parts of objects or phenomena into one whole, as well as a mental combination of their individual properties. When we look at the individual parts of the mechanism lying in front of us, we can understand what this mechanism looks like and how it works. For synthesis, as well as for analysis, mental manipulation of the properties of an object is characteristic. By listening to the description of a person, we can recreate his image as a whole. Synthesis can be carried out both on the basis of perception and on the basis of memories or ideas. Having read individual phrases of any statement or l The process of abstraction is a mental (temporary) abstraction of one property of a thing from its other properties, one object from other objects with which it is actually connected. In order to analyze an object and think abstractly of its properties, “we must leave aside all relations that have nothing to do with the given object of analysis,” says Marx. So, examining the patterns of the athlete's reaction at the start, the experimental psychologist identifies only one element of this process - the latency period, distracting (for now, for a while) from such side effects as the influence of the audience on the athlete, his personal attitude to this competition, etc. e. Abstraction allows you to penetrate "deep" of an object, to reveal its essence, forming an appropriate concept about this object.

Abstraction is a mental operation that allows you to think of a given phenomenon in its most general, and therefore the most essential, characteristic features. She is the source of knowledge of the truth.

In a logical statement, we can recreate that phrase or statement as a whole.

Concretization. Abstraction always presupposes the opposite mental operation - concretization, that is, the transition from abstraction and generalization back to concrete reality. In the educational process, concretization often acts as an example for an established general position.

Deduction - (from Lat. Deductio - deduction), a method of thinking, in which a new position is deduced by a purely logical way from the previous ones, a conclusion according to the rules of logic; chain of reasoning (reasoning)

Induction - (from Latin inductio - guidance) - inference, in which the connection between premises and conclusions is not based on a logical law, due to which the conclusion follows from the accepted premises not with logical necessity, but only with a certain probability.

In perception, the individual characteristics of people are manifested, which are explained by the entire history of the formation of each personality and the nature of its activity. First of all, two types of people are distinguished according to their individual type of perception˸ analytical and synthetic.

For people analytical type of perception is characterized by attention to particulars, details, individual signs of an object or phenomenon. Only then do they move on to identifying common points.

People synthetic type of perception, they show more attention to the whole, to the main thing in an object or phenomenon, sometimes to the detriment of the perception of private signs. If the first type is more attentive to facts, then the second - to their meaning.

However, much depends on knowledge about the object of perception and on the goal of the person. The type of perception is less revealed in involuntary perception and in those cases when a person is faced with the goal of comparing two objects. Psychological studies to identify the types of perception have convincingly shown that some subjects predominantly single out the "absolute" properties of objects, while others - predominantly the relationship between these properties. The first is characteristic of analytical type, the second is for synthetic type .

Perception is influenced by the feelings experienced by a person. People who are distinguished by increased emotionality and impressionability are much more likely to see objective factors in the light of their personal experiences, their likes and dislikes. Thus, in the description and assessment of objective facts, they unwittingly bring a touch of subjectivity. Such people are classified as a subjective type of perception, in contrast to the objective type, which is characterized by greater accuracy in both relationships and assessments.

Individual differences in perception - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Individual differences in perception" 2015, 2017-2018.

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