Julius caesar ruled. Guy Julius Caesar - biography of the emperor. Guy Julius Caesar

Which played a significant role in the history of Rome since ancient times.

The Julian clan traced its ancestry from Yul, the son of the Trojan elder Aeneas, who, according to mythology, was the son of the goddess Venus. At the height of his fame, in 45 BC. e. Caesar laid the foundation for the temple of Venus the Ancestor in Rome, thus hinting at his relationship with the goddess. Cognomen Caesar didn't make sense in Latin; Soviet historian of Rome A.I. Nemirovsky suggested that he comes from Cisre- Etruscan name of the city of Cere. It is difficult to establish the antiquity of the Caesar family itself (the first known one dates back to the end of the 5th century BC). The father of the future dictator, also Gaius Julius Caesar Sr. (proconsul of Asia), stopped in his career as a praetor. On the maternal side, Caesar came from the Cotta family of the Aurelian family with an admixture of plebeian blood. Caesar's uncles were consuls: Sextus Julius Caesar (91 BC), Lucius Julius Caesar (90 BC)

Father Gaius Julius Caesar lost at the age of sixteen; with his mother, he maintained close friendly relations until her death in 54 BC. e.

A noble and cultured family created favorable conditions for its development; careful physical education later served him no small service; a thorough education - scientific, literary, grammatical, on Greco-Roman foundations - formed logical thinking, prepared it for practical activity, for literary work.

Marriage and service in Asia

Before Caesar, the Julian family, despite their aristocratic origins, was not rich by the standards of the Roman nobility of that time. That is why, until Caesar himself, almost none of his relatives achieved much influence. Only his paternal aunt, Julia, married Gaius Maria, a talented commander and reformer of the Roman army. Marius was the leader of the Democratic Popular faction in the Roman Senate and strongly opposed the Conservatives from the Optimate faction.

Internal political conflicts in Rome at that time reached such an acuteness that they led to a civil war. After the capture of Rome by Mary in 87 BC. e. for a while the power of the popularists was established. Young Caesar was awarded the title of Jupiter's Flamin. But, in 86 BC. e. died Marius, and in 84 BC. e. during a riot in the army, the consul Cinna, who had usurped power, was killed. In 82 BC. e. Rome was taken by the troops of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, and Sulla himself became dictator. Caesar was connected by double ties of kinship with the party of his opponent - Mary: at seventeen years of age, he married Cornelia, the youngest daughter of Lucius Cornelius Cinna, an associate of Mary and the worst enemy of Sulla. This was a kind of demonstration of his adherence to the party of the popular, by that time humiliated and defeated by the omnipotent Sulla.

To perfectly master the skill of oratory, Caesar specifically in 75 BC. e. went to Rhodes to the famous teacher Apollonius Molon. On the way, he was captured by the Cilician pirates, for his release he had to pay a significant ransom in the amount of twenty talents, and while his friends collected money, he spent more than a month in captivity, practicing eloquence before the kidnappers. After his release, he immediately gathered a fleet in Miletus, captured a pirate fortress and ordered the crucifixion of captured pirates on a cross for the edification of others. But, since they at one time treated him well, Caesar ordered to interrupt their legs before the crucifixion in order to alleviate their suffering (if you interrupt the legs of the crucified, then he would rather quickly die from asphyxiation). Then he often showed leniency to defeated opponents. This was the manifestation of the "mercy of Caesar" so praised by the ancient authors.

Caesar participates in the war with Tsar Mithridates at the head of an independent detachment, but does not stay there for long. In 74 BC. e. he returns to Rome. In 73 BC. e. he was co-opted into the priestly college of pontiffs to replace the deceased Lucius Aurelius Cotta, his uncle.

Subsequently, he wins elections to the military tribunes. Always and everywhere, Caesar does not get tired of reminding of his democratic convictions, his connection with Guy Marius and his dislike of aristocrats. He actively participates in the struggle for the restoration of the rights of the tribunes of the people, curtailed by Sulla, for the rehabilitation of the companions of Gaius Marius, who were persecuted during the dictatorship of Sulla, and is seeking the return of Lucius Cornelius Cinna, the son of the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna and the brother of Caesar's wife. The beginning of his rapprochement with Gnaeus Pompey and Mark Licinius Crassus dates back to this time, on the basis of close ties with which he builds his further career.

Caesar, in a difficult situation, does not say a word to justify the conspirators, but insists not to subject them to the death penalty. His offer does not pass, and Caesar himself was nearly killed by an angry crowd.

Spain Distant (Hispania Ulterior)

(Bibulus was consul only formally; the triumvirs actually removed him from power).

Caesar's consulate is necessary for both him and Pompey. Having disbanded the army, Pompey, with all his greatness, turns out to be powerless; None of his proposals pass due to the stubborn resistance of the Senate, but meanwhile he promised his veteran soldiers land, and this issue was urgent. Supporters of Pompey alone were not enough, a more powerful influence was needed - this was the basis of Pompey's alliance with Caesar and Crassus. The consul himself, Caesar, was in dire need of Pompey's influence and Crassus's money. It was not easy to convince the former consul Marcus Licinius Crassus, the old enemy of Pompey, to agree to an alliance, but in the end it was possible - this richest man in Rome could not get troops under his command for the war with Parthia.

This is how what historians would later call the first triumvirate - a private agreement of three persons, not sanctioned by anyone or anything except their mutual consent. The private character of the triumvirate was also emphasized by the bonding of its marriages: Pompey - on the only daughter of Caesar, Julia Caesaris (despite the difference in age and upbringing, this political marriage turned out to be sealed by love), and Caesar - on the daughter of Calpurnius Piso.

At first, Caesar believed that this could be done in Spain, but a closer acquaintance with this country and its insufficiently convenient geographical position in relation to Italy forced Caesar to abandon this idea, especially since the traditions of Pompey were strong in Spain and in the Spanish army.

The reason for the outbreak of hostilities in 58 BC. e. in Transalpine Gaul, there was a massive resettlement of the Celtic tribe of the Helvetians to these lands. After the victory over the Helvetians in the same year, a war followed against the Germanic tribes invading Gaul, led by Ariovistus, which ended in the complete victory of Caesar. The growing Roman influence in Gaul caused unrest among the Belgae. Campaign 57 BC e. begins with the pacification of the Belgi and continues with the conquest of the northwestern lands, where the tribes of the Nervii and Aduatuks lived. In the summer of 57 BC. e. on the banks of the river. Sabris, a grandiose battle of the Roman legions with the army of the Nervii took place, when only luck and the best training of the legionnaires allowed the Romans to win. At the same time, the legion under the command of the legate Publius Crassus conquered the tribes of northwestern Gaul.

Based on the report of Caesar, the Senate was forced to make a decision on the celebration and a 15-day thanksgiving service.

As a result of three years of successful war, Caesar multiplied his fortune. He generously endowed his supporters with money, attracting new people to him, and increased his influence.

In the same summer, Caesar organizes his first, and in the next, 54 BC. e. - the second expedition to Britain. The legions met here such fierce resistance from the aborigines that Caesar had to return to Gaul with nothing. In 53 BC. e. unrest continued in the Gaulish tribes, who could not come to terms with the oppression by the Romans. All of them were pacified in a short time.

By agreement of Caesar and Pompey in Lucca in 56 BC. e. and the following law of Pompey and Crassus in 55 BC. e. , Caesar's powers in Gaul and Illyricum were to end on the last day of February 49 BC. e. ; at the same time it was definitely indicated that before March 1, 50 BC. e. there will be no speech in the Senate about a successor to Caesar. In 52 BC. e. only the Gallic troubles did not allow the break between Caesar and Pompey to take place, caused by the transfer of all power into the hands of Pompey, as a single consul and at the same time a proconsul, which upset the balance of the duumvirate. As compensation, Caesar demanded for himself the possibility of the same position in the future, that is, the union of the consulate and the proconsulate, or, rather, the immediate replacement of the proconsulate by the consulate. For this, it was necessary to obtain permission to be elected consul for 48 BC. e. without entering during 49 BC. e. to the city, which would be tantamount to giving up military power.

Late in the spring, Caesar left Egypt, leaving Cleopatra as queen and her husband, Ptolemy the Younger (the elder was killed at the Battle of the Nile). Caesar spent 9 months in Egypt; Alexandria - the last Hellenistic capital - and Cleopatra's court gave it many impressions and many experiences. Despite pressing affairs in Asia Minor and in the West, Caesar from Egypt leaves for Syria, where, as the successor of the Seleucids, he rebuilds their palace in Daphne and generally behaves like a master and monarch.

In July, he left Syria, quickly dealt with the rebellious Pontic king Pharnaces and hurried to Rome, where his presence was urgently needed. After the death of Pompey, his party and the party of the Senate were far from broken. There were many Pompeians, as they were called, in Italy; they were more dangerous in the provinces, especially in Illyricum, Spain and Africa. Caesar's legates barely managed to subdue Illyricum, where Marcus Octavius ​​resisted for a long time, not without success. In Spain the mood of the troops was clearly Pompeian; in Africa gathered all the prominent members of the Senate Party, with a strong army. There were also Metellus Scipio, the commander-in-chief, and the sons of Pompey, Gnaeus and Sextus, and Cato, and Titus Labienus, and others. The Moorish king Yuba supported them. In Italy, the Pompeians were led by the former supporter and agent of Julius Caesar, Caelius Rufus. In alliance with Milo, he launched an economic revolution; using his magistracy (praetor's office), he announced the postponement of all debts for 6 years; when the consul dismissed him from magistracy, he raised the banner of uprising in the south and died in the fight against government troops.

In 47, Rome was without magistrates; it was ruled by M. Antony as magister equitum of the dictator Julius Caesar; the troubles arose thanks to the tribunes Lucius Trebellius and Cornelius Dolabella on the same economic basis, but without the Pompeian backing. Dangerous, however, were not the tribunes, but Caesar's army, which was to be sent to Africa to fight the Pompeians. Julius Caesar's long absence weakened the discipline; the army refused to obey. In September 47, Caesar reappeared in Rome. With difficulty he managed to calm down the soldiers who were already moving to Rome. Having quickly finished with the most necessary affairs, in the winter of the same year, Caesar is transported to Africa. The details of this expedition of his are poorly known; a special monograph on this war by one of his officers suffers from ambiguity and bias. And here, as in Greece, the advantage was not originally on his side. After a long sitting on the seashore in anticipation of reinforcements and a tedious hike inland, Caesar finally manages to force the Battle of Thapsus, in which the Pompeians were utterly defeated (April 6, 46). Most of the prominent Pompeians died in Africa; the rest fled to Spain, where the army sided with them. At the same time, fermentation began in Syria, where Caecilius Bassus had significant success, seizing almost the entire province into his own hands.

On July 28, 46, Caesar returned from Africa to Rome, but stayed there for only a few months. Already in December he was in Spain, where he was met by a large enemy force led by Pompeii, Labienus, Atius Varus and others. A decisive battle, after a tiring campaign, was fought near Munda (March 17, 45). The battle nearly ended in Caesar's defeat; his life, as recently in Alexandria, was in danger. With terrible efforts, victory was wrested from the enemies, and the army of the Pompeians was cut to a large extent. Of the party leaders, only Sextus Pompey survived. Upon his return to Rome, Caesar, along with the reorganization of the state, was preparing for a campaign to the East, but on March 15, 44, he died at the hands of the conspirators. The reasons for this can be clarified only after analyzing the reform of the state system, which was initiated and carried out by Caesar in the short periods of his peaceful activities.

The power of Julius Caesar

Statue of Caesar in the garden of the Palace of Versailles (1696, sculptor Custoux)

Over the course of a long time of his political activity, Julius Caesar quite definitely understood for himself that one of the main evils that cause a serious illness of the Roman state system is the instability, powerlessness and purely urban character of the executive power, the selfish, narrow-party and estate character of the Senate power. From the first moments of his career, he openly and definitely fought with both. And in the era of the Catiline conspiracy, and in the era of Pompey's extraordinary powers, and in the era of the triumvirate, Caesar consciously pursued the idea of ​​centralizing power and the need to destroy the prestige and significance of the Senate.

Monument to Julius Caesar in Rome

Solitude, as far as one can judge, did not seem necessary to him. The agrarian commission, the triumvirate, then the duumvirate with Pompey, to which Y. Caesar held so tenaciously, show that he was not against collegiality or the division of power. One cannot think that all the indicated forms were for him only a political necessity. With the death of Pompey, Caesar actually remained the sole leader of the state; the power of the senate was broken and power was concentrated in one hand, as it had once been in the hands of Sulla. To carry out all those plans that Caesar conceived, his power had to be as strong, possibly unrestrained, perhaps complete, but at the same time, at least at first, it should not have formally left the framework of the constitution. The most natural thing - since the constitution did not know the ready-made form of monarchical power and treated the royal power with horror and disgust - was to combine in one person the powers of an ordinary and extraordinary character around one center. The consulate, weakened by the entire evolution of Rome, could not be such a center: a magistracy was needed, not subject to intercession and veto of the tribunes, combining military and civil functions, not limited by collegiality. The only magistracy of this kind was the dictatorship. Its inconvenience in comparison with the form invented by Pompey - the combination of the sole consulate with the proconsulate - was that it was too vague and, giving everything in general, did not give anything in particular. Its extraordinary and urgency could be eliminated, as Sulla did, indicating its constancy (dictator perpetuus), while the ambiguity of powers - which Sulla did not reckon with, since he saw in the dictatorship only a temporary means for carrying out his reforms - was eliminated only by the above combination ... Dictatorship, as a basis, and next to this a series of special powers - this is, therefore, the framework in which J. Caesar wanted to put and put his power. Within these limits, his power developed as follows.

At 49 - the year the civil war began - during his stay in Spain, the people, at the suggestion of the praetor Lepidus, chose him as dictator. Returning to Rome, Y. Caesar passes several laws, collects comitia, at which he is elected a second time consul (for 48 years), and renounces the dictatorship. In the next 48 year (October-November) he received the dictatorship for the second time, in the 47th year. In the same year, after the victory over Pompey, during his absence, he receives a number of powers: in addition to the dictatorship - the consulate for 5 years (from 47 years) and tribunal power, that is, the right to sit together with the tribunes and conduct investigations with them, - moreover, the right to nominate to the people their candidate for magistracy, with the exception of plebeian ones, the right to distribute without lot provinces to the former praetors [provinces to the former consuls are still distributed by the senate.] and the right to declare war and conclude peace. Caesar's representative this year in Rome is his magister equitum - the assistant to the dictator M. Antony, in whose hands, despite the existence of consuls, all power is concentrated.

In 46, Caesar was both dictator (from the end of April) for the third time, and consul; the second consul and magister equitum was Lepidus. This year, after the African war, his powers are significantly expanded. He was elected dictator for 10 years and at the same time the leader of morals (praefectus morum), with unlimited powers. Moreover, he receives the right to be the first to vote in the Senate and occupy a special chair in it, between the chairs of both consuls. At the same time, his right to recommend to the people candidates for magistrates was confirmed, which was tantamount to the right to appoint them.

In 45 he was dictator for the 4th time and at the same time consul; his assistant was the same Lepidus. After the Spanish war (January 44) he was elected dictator for life and consul for 10 years. From the latter, as, probably, from the 5-year consulate of the last year, he refused [In 45 he was elected consul at the suggestion of Lepidus.]. The inviolability of the tribunes joins the tribune power; the right to appoint magistrates and provincial magistrates is extended by the right to appoint consuls, to distribute provinces among proconsuls and to appoint plebeian magistrates. In the same year, Caesar was given the exclusive authority to dispose of the army and money of the state. Finally, in the same year 44, he was granted life censorship, and all his orders were approved in advance by the Senate and the people.

In this way, Caesar became a sovereign monarch, remaining within the limits of constitutional forms [There were precedents for many of the extraordinary powers in the past life of Rome: Sulla was already a dictator, repeated the consulate of Mari, ruled in the provinces through his agents Pompey, and more than once; Pompey was given by the people unlimited disposal of the state's funds.]. All aspects of the life of the state were concentrated in his hands. He disposed of the army and provinces through his agents - the promagistrates appointed by him, who were made magistrates only on his recommendation. The community's movable and immovable property was in his hands as a lifelong censor and by virtue of special powers. The Senate from the leadership of finances was finally eliminated. The activities of the tribunes were paralyzed by his participation in the meetings of their collegium and the tribunal power granted to him and the tribune sacrosanctitas. And yet he was not a colleague of the tribunes; having their authority, he did not have their name. Since he recommended them to the people, then in relation to them he was the supreme authority. He disposes of the Senate at will, both as its chairman (for which he, in the main, needed a consulate), and as the first person giving an answer to the chairman's question: since the opinion of the almighty dictator was known, hardly any of the senators would have dared to contradict him ...

Finally, the spiritual life of Rome was also in his hands, since at the beginning of his career he was elected a great pontiff, and now the power of the censor and the leadership of morals were added to this. Caesar did not have special powers that would give him judicial power, but the consulate, the censorship, and the pontificate had judicial functions. Moreover, we also hear about Caesar's constant pleadings at home, mainly on matters of a political nature. Caesar sought to give the newly created power a new name: it was the call of honor with which the army greeted the victor - imperator. Y. Caesar put this name at the head of his name and title, replacing his personal name Guy with it. By this, he gave expression not only to the breadth of his power, his imperium, but also to the fact that from now on he leaves the ranks of ordinary people, replacing his name with the designation of his power and at the same time removing from it an indication of belonging to one genus: the head of state cannot to be called like any other Roman C. Iulius Caesar - he Imp (erator) Caesar p (ater) p (atriae) dict (ator) perp (etuus), as his title says in inscriptions and on coins.

Foreign policy

The guiding idea of ​​Caesar's foreign policy was the creation of a strong and integral state with natural, whenever possible, borders. Caesar pursued this idea in the north, and in the south, and in the east. His wars in Gaul, Germany and Britain were caused by his realized need to push the border of Rome to the ocean on one side, and at least to the Rhine on the other. His plan for the campaign against the Getae and Dacians proves that the Danube border was also within the limits of his plans. Greco-Roman culture should have reigned within the border that united Greece with Italy by dry route; the countries between the Danube and Italy and Greece were to be the same buffer against the peoples of the north and east, as the Gauls against the Germans. Closely related to this and the policy of Caesar in the East. Death overtook him on the eve of the march to Parthia. His eastern policy, including the actual accession to the Roman state of Egypt, was aimed at rounding off the Roman Empire in the East. The Parthians here were the only serious opponents of Rome: their affair with Crassus showed that they had in mind a broad, expansive policy. The revival of the Persian kingdom ran counter to the tasks of Rome, the successor to the monarchy of Alexander, and threatened to undermine the economic well-being of the state, which rested entirely in the money East. A decisive victory over the Parthians would have made Caesar in the eyes of the East the direct successor of Alexander the Great, the legitimate monarch. Finally, in Africa, Julius Caesar continued a purely colonial policy. Africa had no political significance: its economic importance, as a country capable of producing a huge amount of natural products, depended largely on regular administration, an end to the raids of nomadic tribes and the re-creation of the best harbor in northern Africa, the natural center of the province and a central point for exchange with Italy - Carthage. The division of the country into two provinces satisfied the first two requests, the final restoration of Carthage - the third.

Julius Caesar's reforms

In all of Caesar's reform activities, two main ideas are clearly noted. One - the need to unite the Roman state into one whole, the need to smooth out the difference between the citizen-master and the provincial-slave, to smooth out the strife among nationalities; the other, closely related to the first, is the streamlining of the administration, close communication between the state and its subjects, the elimination of intermediaries, and a strong central authority. Both of these ideas are reflected in all the reforms of Caesar, despite the fact that he carried them out quickly and hastily, trying to use the short periods of his stay in Rome. In view of this, the sequence of individual measures is random; Caesar each time undertook what seemed to him the most necessary, and only a comparison of everything he did, regardless of chronology, allows you to grasp the essence of his reforms and notice a harmonious system in their implementation.

Caesar's unifying tendencies were reflected primarily in his policy towards parties among the ruling classes. His policy of mercy towards opponents, with the exception of irreconcilable ones, his desire to attract everyone to the life of the state, without distinction of party and mood, admitting his former opponents into the midst of his close associates undoubtedly testifies to the desire to merge all the differences of thought about his personality and his regime. ... This unifying policy explains the widespread trust in all, which was the reason for his death.

The unifying tendency towards Italy is also clearly evident. One of Caesar's laws has come down to us concerning the regulation of certain parts of municipal life in Italy. True, it is now impossible to assert that this law was the general municipal law of Y. Caesar (lex Iulia municipalis), but nevertheless it is undoubted that it immediately supplemented the statutes of individual Italian communities for all municipalities, served as a correction for all of them. On the other hand, the combination in the law of the norms governing the urban life of Rome and the norms of the municipal ones, and the significant likelihood that the norms of urban improvement of Rome were obligatory for the municipalities, clearly indicates a tendency to reduce Rome to municipalities, to raise the municipalities to Rome, which should henceforth was to be only the first of the Italian cities, the seat of the central government and a model for all centers of life like him. A general municipal law for all of Italy, given local differences, was inconceivable, but some general rules were desirable and useful and clearly indicated that in the end Italy and its cities represent one whole united with Rome.

The assassination of Julius Caesar

Caesar was killed on March 15, 44 BC. e. at a meeting of the Senate. When friends once advised the dictator to beware of enemies and surround himself with guards, Caesar replied: "It is better to die once than constantly expect death." One of the conspirators was Brutus, one of his close friends, whom he considered his son. According to legend, seeing him among the conspirators, Caesar cried out in Greek: “And you, my child? ”And stopped resisting. The most likely version of Plutarch, according to which Caesar said nothing, seeing Brutus among the murderers. Caesar had a stylus in his hands - a writing stick, and he somehow resisted - in particular, after the first blow, he pierced the hand of one of the attackers with it. When Caesar saw that resistance was useless, he covered himself from head to toe with a toga in order to fall more decently (this was customary among the Romans, Pompey also covered himself with a toga so that they would not see his face at the time of death). Most of the wounds inflicted on him were not deep, although many were inflicted: 23 stab wounds were found on the body; the frightened conspirators themselves hurt each other, trying to reach out to Caesar. There are two different versions of his death: that he died from a fatal blow (the more common version; as Suetonius writes, that was the second blow to the chest) and that death was a result of blood loss. After Caesar was killed, the conspirators tried to make a speech before the senators, but the Senate fled in fear. Some scholars believe that Caesar himself renounced life. He did not listen to his wife's advice that day, dismissed a few guards and did not even pay attention to the note of an anonymous friend (this note was pulled out of Caesar's hands with difficulty during the "autopsy"). He could wish for death due to bouts of an unusual illness and did not really resist. It was rumored that he suffered from epilepsy (epilepsy).

Guy Julius Caesar as a writer

A broad education, grammatical and literary, gave Caesar the opportunity, like most educated people of that time, to be active not only in politics, but also in literature. The literary activity of Caesar in his mature years was, however, for him not a goal, but a means of a purely political nature. Two surviving to our time his literary works: "Notes on the Gallic War" (Commentarii de bello gallico) and "Notes on the Civil War" (Commentarii de bello civili) (the first in 7, the second in 3 books), - are nothing more than political instruments of influence on public opinion.

The Commentarii de bello gallico was written after the end of the struggle with Vercingetorix, but before the break with Pompey, probably in 51 BC. e. They characterize the entire course of the Gallic war up to the decisive actions of 52 BC. e. inclusive. Their purpose was, obviously, to show Rome how much Caesar did in 8 years of his proconsulate, how much he achieved and how wrong were those who said that he was looking for war. The comments definitely carry the idea that all the Gaulish campaigns were the result of aggressive actions by the Gauls and Germans themselves. The hero of the story is, first of all, he himself (he is spoken of in the third person), but even more his army, strong, brave, hardened, devoted to his leader to self-forgetfulness. Caesar's story was in this respect a demonstration at the Senate and a monument to the army, Caesar's veterans. The ancient critics were clearly aware that before them was only material for the historian, and not an integral historical work; Caesar himself clearly indicated this, giving his work the title of comments (notes, minutes).

The Commentarii de bello civili, which speaks of the events from January 1, 49 BC, are even more imbued with political tendencies. e. before the Alexandrian War, which they promise to tell. Failure to fulfill this promise on the one hand, a number of indications that the comments were written at the end of the civil wars give the right to conclude that Caesar did not manage to finish his work. Caesar tries in every possible way to show that he was forced into war not so much by Pompey as by the Senate. There is no enmity towards Pompey; in relation to him there is only a number of subtle criticisms, not devoid of causticity, but the more goes to the senate and individual representatives of the senate party. The most poisonous arrows are aimed at minor figures. "Scipio (Pompey's father-in-law), having suffered (in Syria) at Mount Amana several defeats, proclaimed himself emperor" (you need to know that the title of emperor was given for victories and an army). Lentulus, when Julius Caesar approached Rome, only manages to open a spare treasury, but runs away, not having time to seize money from there, etc.

The attacks on the Pompeians only serve to brighten up the legality and necessity of Caesar's action. Throughout the entire work there is a repeated indication, first, that Caesar's constant striving to end the matter peacefully and that all his attempts were proudly and unwisely rejected by Pompey; secondly, that in all battles he spared the enemy troops and strove, where possible, to end the matter with the least bloodshed or without it at all; alongside this, he spares individuals, the leaders of the Pompeian party, while Pompey's camp only thinks about executions, revenge and proscriptions (the latter is fully confirmed by the Pompeian Cicero in a number of his letters); finally, only Caesar relies on the true sympathy of the Italic municipalities and provinces. Caesar notes carefully and in detail how one city after another drove the Pompeians out of its walls and enthusiastically admitted Caesar's troops. Alongside the goodwill (voluntas) of Italy comes to the fore the heroism and dedication of the army, represented mainly by soldiers and lower officers; already from the Commentarii de bello civili it is clear that the new regime is going to rely on Italy, the provinces and especially the army.

The historical reliability of the comments has already been discussed. An excellent literary characterization of them is given by Cicero ("Brutus", 75, 262), though not without some flattery: “they are naked, straight and beautiful, all kinds of speech adornments have been removed from them, like clothes. Desiring to prepare for others who would undertake to write history, material for use, Caesar may have done a favor to the more stupid of them, who may wish to twist (his exposition) with hot tongs; he scared reasonable people away from the interpretation of the same topic; there is nothing more pleasant for history than pure and brilliant brevity. " Indeed, the main literary merit of the commentaries is the clarity and simplicity of presentation and style, not lacking in moments of upsurge and some pathos, the concreteness of images and a subtle characterization of not only individuals, but also entire peoples, especially Gauls.

Of the works of Gaius Julius Caesar that have not come down to us, the most voluminous were probably the collections of his speeches and letters. Two of his pamphlets entitled "Auticatones" were of a purely political nature. These pamphlets were responses to the literature generated by the death of Cato of Uticus - the literature in which Cicero was the first to speak. Caesar sought to prove that Cato's eulogies were exaggerated. These pamphlets were written in 45 BC. e. , in the camp at Mund. Purely literary works were poetic works of Caesar: "Praise to Hercules", the tragedy "Oedipus", the poem "Iter", which describes his journey from Rome to Spain in 46 BC. e. We also have information about one of his scientific works, in 2 books - "De analogia", a grammatical treatise, where the famous grammatical dispute between analogists and anomalists was analyzed and resolved in favor of the former, that is, in favor of the principle of law. Several additions were added to Caesar's comments after his death, long considered to be the works of Caesar himself. This is the 8th book of commentaries on the Gallic war, dealing with the events of 51 and 50, undoubtedly written by Girtius; further "Commentarii de bellum Alexandrinum", where, in addition to the events in Alexandria, the events in Asia, Illyria and Spain are considered, "Bellum Africanum" - the events of the African war, and "Bellum Hispanicum" - the second Spanish war. It's hard to say who the authors of the last three additions are. There is no doubt that the Spanish and African wars are described by their participant, perhaps a person who was close to the 5th legion. Concerning bellum Alexandrinum, it is possible that Girtius is the author here. The additions to the commentaries have survived with them in a number of manuscripts of the same root (do the publishers designate this version?); only comments about the Gallic war were preserved in another edition, as it seems - the best (?).

Guy Julius Caesar - the famous ancient Roman political, statesman, outstanding commander, writer; his name became the title of Roman emperors and became the basis for designating a similar title in different languages ​​(Kaiser, Caesar, Tsar). He was born in 100 or 102 BC. e., July 13 (in other biographical sources, the date is named July 12), was the successor of the noble patrician family Julia. His father was a praetor, later a proconsul of Asia, his mother belonged to Aurelius, a noble plebeian family.

Thanks to this origin and the connections of his family, young Caesar had excellent prerequisites for a further brilliant political career. His own aunt was the wife of Maria, practically the sole Roman ruler. Julius received a very good education, was harmoniously developed, which was facilitated by physical education; all this also prepared his future successes.

In 84 BC. e. Caesar becomes a priest of Jupiter, but established in 82 BC. e. Sulla's dictatorship significantly worsened his position, he lost his post. In addition, he was required to divorce his wife, to which the former priest refused. Because of this, his father's inheritance was taken away from him, and his wife's property was confiscated. There was no direct threat to life and health from Sulla, the dictator pardoned him, although he was wary. Nevertheless, Julius Caesar, in order to avoid possible reprisals, departed for Asia Minor, where he was in military service.

In 78 BC. BC, when Sulla died, Julius Caesar returned to Rome and was actively involved in public life. He spoke frequently in court and, in order to be a more skillful orator, studied under the famous Rhetor Molon of Rhodes. His career began with his appointment as pontiff priest and military tribune. In this post, he actively advocated that the supporters of Mary were restored to their rights. In 65 BC. e. Caesar becomes a very popular person - this was facilitated by his election as an aedile. As part of this position, he arranged grain distributions; he was also in charge of organizing festivities, solemn events, city improvement, gladiator fights. In 52 BC. e. Caesar is a praetor, then for two years he was the governor of the province of Spain Dalnaya. Holding this position demonstrated that Caesar had outstanding administrative skills and knew military affairs well.

In 60 BC. e. Julius Caesar entered into a voluntary political alliance with M. Crassus and G. Pompey, who were prominent figures in the political horizon. The consequence of the creation of this so-called. the first triumvirate was the election of Caesar as consul. It happened in 59 BC. e. Together with Caesar, Bibulus was appointed to the same position, but he performed duties rather formally. The Consul Caesar managed to implement a number of laws aimed at strengthening the state system. He distributed land to veterans, reduced the tax paid by a third, etc., thanks to which he attracted a huge number of people to his side.

When the term of the consulate ended, Gaius Julius Caesar became proconsul of Gaul. His powers included the ability to recruit troops to carry out military operations. Caesar did not fail to take advantage of the right and, having demonstrated outstanding strategic and diplomatic talents, the ability to see the situation and use it, he successfully conquered trans-Alpine Gaul (campaigns 58-51 BC). Caesar managed not only to repel the attacks of the Germans - he himself (and this was a precedent in Roman history) marched with legions across the Rhine. Caesar became famous as an outstanding commander who had a tremendous influence on the charges, the power of words could inspire soldiers. A personal example also played an important role: Caesar, hardy and courageous, in any weather with his head uncovered, invariably led the army.

When in 53 BC. e. one of the members of the secret union, Crassus, died, a new stage in the biography of Caesar as a politician began: a struggle broke out between him and Pompey for the sole possession of power. Caesar was well aware that both in Rome and in the troops outside its borders, he had great authority, and therefore decided on hostilities. In 49 BC. BC, on January 12, together with the soldiers of the 13th Legion, he undertook the historic crossing of the Rubicon River. The battles lasted more than one year, Pompey was forced to flee to the provinces in Asia, after which he was killed in Egypt. According to legend, Caesar mourned the death of his former ally and rival when his head was brought to him.

Returning to Rome, Julius Caesar felt victorious. Large-scale spectacles are arranged for them, the soldiers receive awards from his hands, and the people receive generous treats. He was appointed dictator for a 10-year term, and after a while he was awarded the titles of "father of the fatherland", "emperor". Caesar, being in a new status, publishes laws on city government, on Roman citizenship, a law directed against luxury and reducing the distribution of bread in Rome. He is also carrying out a reform of the calendar, named from now on in his honor. Despite the fact that the republican form of government remained in Rome, Caesar's power became practically unlimited, tk. the main republican posts, for example, consul and dictator, go to him.

As Caesar's power grew and strengthened, outrage ripened in society, especially among ardent supporters of the republic. A group of opponents, among whom were Marcus Junius Brutus (rumored about him as the illegitimate son of the emperor) and the closest associate of Cassius, decided to take his life. This intention was carried out on March 15, 44 BC. e. right at the meeting of the Senate. Having pounced on Julius Caesar with daggers, the conspirators inflicted many wounds on him, and from one or more of them, or from loss of blood, he died.

The name of Caesar remained in history, mainly due to his extraordinary, in many respects controversial state, political activity, talent of the commander. However, he declared himself as a talented writer, although activity in this field was not an end in itself for him, but rather one of the auxiliary methods of political struggle. Two of his works have survived to this day - Notes on the Gallic War, as well as Notes on the Civil War, which are considered classics of Latin prose. It is known that he wrote a treatise on grammar, several pamphlets and poems, collections of letters and speeches. The activities of Julius Caesar turned out to be so large-scale that the development of all Western Europe under her influence underwent dramatic changes in the field of politics and culture.

Gaius Julius Caesar (lat.Gaius Iulius Caesar). Born on July 12 or 13, 100 BC e. - died March 15, 44 BC e. Ancient Roman statesman and politician, military leader, writer. Consul 59, 48, 46, 45 and 44 BC e., dictator 49, 48-47 and 46-44 BC. e., great pontiff from 63 BC. e.

Gaius Julius Caesar was born into the ancient patrician Julian family.

In the 5th-4th centuries BC. e. Julia played a significant role in the life of Rome. Among the representatives of the family came, in particular, one dictator, one master of cavalry (deputy dictator) and one member of the college of decemvirs, who developed the laws of the Ten Tables - the original version of the famous laws of the Twelve Tables.

Like most families with an ancient history, the Julias shared a common myth about their origins. They traced their lineage to the goddess Venus through Aeneas. The mythical version of the origin of the Julians was well known already by 200 BC. e., and Cato the Elder wrote down a version about the etymology of the generic name Juliev. In his opinion, the first bearer of this name, Yul, received a nickname from the Greek word "ἴουλος" (fluff, the first hair on the cheeks and chin).

Almost all Julias in the 5th-4th centuries BC e. worn by the cognomen Yul, who was probably originally the only one in their family. The branch of the Julian Caesars probably descended from the Julian Yulov, although the links between them are unknown.

The first known Caesar was the praetor of 208 BC. e., mentioned by Titus Livy.

The etymology of the Caesar cognomen is not reliably known. and was forgotten already in the Roman era. Aelius Spartian, one of the authors of the biographies of the Augustus, wrote down four versions that existed by the 4th century AD. e .: “The most learned and educated people believe that the first one who was so named received this name from the name of the elephant (which in the language of the Moors is called Caesai), which he killed in battle; [or] because he was born of a dead mother and was cut out of her womb; or because he came out of the womb of the parent already with long hair; or because he had such brilliant blue-gray eyes that people do not have ".

Until now, the reliable etymology of the name is unclear, but more often the origin of the cognomen from the Etruscan language is assumed (aisar - god; the Roman names Cesium, Caesonium and Cesenius have a similar origin).

By the beginning of the 1st century BC. e. in Rome, two branches of the Julian Caesars were known. They were with each other in a fairly close, but not exactly established relationship. Two branches were registered in different tribes, and by the 80s BC. e. they also had a completely opposite political orientation, focusing on two warring politicians.

The closest relatives of the future dictator were guided by Guy Maria (Julia, Guy's aunt became his wife), and Caesars from another branch supported Sulla. Moreover, the latter branch played a greater role in public life than the one to which Guy belonged. Gaius's mother and grandmother's relatives could not boast of kinship with the gods, but they all belonged to the elite of Roman society - the nobility. Caesar's mother, Aurelius Cotta, belonged to the wealthy and influential plebeian Aurelian family. The relatives of Gaius' grandmother - Marcia - traced their lineage to the fourth Roman king Ancus Marcius.

Caesar's date of birth remains a matter of debate for researchers. Sources vary in their testimony on this matter. Indirect indications of most ancient authors allow the birth of the dictator to be dated to 100 BC. e., although Eutropius mentions that during the battle of Munda (March 17, 45 BC) he was 56 years old. In two important systematic sources about the life of the dictator - his biography of authorship and - the beginning of the text with stories about the circumstances of birth has not been preserved.

The reason for the discrepancies in historiography was, however, the discrepancy between the time of Caesar's studies of master's degrees with known practice: Caesar occupied all master's degrees earlier than the normal sequence (cursus honorum) by about two years.

Because of this, Theodor Mommsen suggested considering the date of birth of Caesar 102 BC. e. From the beginning of the 20th century, other options for resolving the discrepancy began to be proposed. Guy's birthday - July 12 or 13, also sparks discussion. The fourth day before the Ides of the quintile (July 12) is mentioned by Macrobius in the Saturnalia. Dio Cassius, however, says that after the death of the dictator, the date of his birth was moved from the 13th to the 12th July by a special decree of the second triumvirate. Thus, there is no consensus on the date of birth of Caesar. The year of his birth is most often recognized as 100 BC. e. (in France it is more often referred to as 101 BC, as suggested by Jerome Carcopino). The dictator's birthday is equally often considered 12 or 13 July.

The house where Caesar grew up was in Subura - a district of Rome who had a reputation for being dysfunctional. As a child, he studied Greek, literature, rhetoric at home. They practiced physical exercises, swimming, horse riding. Among the teachers of the young Guy, the great rhetorician Gnifon is known, who was also one of the teachers of Cicero.

Around 85 BC. e. Caesar lost his father: according to Pliny the Elder, he died, stooping to put on his shoes. After the death of his father, Caesar, who passed the initiation ceremony, actually headed the entire Julian family, since all the closest male relatives older than him died. Soon Guy became engaged to Cossutia, a girl from a wealthy family from the class of horsemen (according to another version, they managed to get married).

In the mid 80s BC. e. Cinna nominated Caesar to the honorary position of Jupiter's Flamin... This priest was bound by many sacred restrictions, which seriously limited the possibilities of taking master's degrees. To take office, he first had to marry a girl from a patrician family in the old confarreatio rite, and Cinna offered Guy his daughter Cornelia... Young Julius agreed, although he had to break off his engagement to Cossutia.

However, Caesar's entry into office is being questioned. According to Lily Ross Taylor, the great pontiff Quintus Muzio Scovola (opponent of Maria and Cinna) refused to hold Guy's inauguration ceremony. Ernst Bedian, however, believes that Caesar was nevertheless inaugurated. As a rule, the appointment of Caesar is viewed in historiography as an insurmountable obstacle to his further political career. However, there is also the opposite point of view: the occupation of such an honorary position was a good opportunity to strengthen the authority of the ancient family for this branch of Caesars, by no means all of whose representatives achieved the highest magistracy of the consul.

Soon after his marriage to Cornelia, Cinna was killed by mutinous soldiers, and a civil war broke out the following year, in which Caesar probably did not participate. With the establishment of the dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the beginning of proscriptions, Caesar's life was in danger: the dictator did not spare political opponents and personal enemies, and Gaius turned out to be the nephew of Gaius Marius and Cinna's son-in-law. Sulla demanded that Caesar divorce his wife, which was not a unique case of proving loyalty, but he refused to do so.

In the end, Sulla added Caesar's name to the proscription list and he was forced to leave Rome. Sources say that Caesar was in hiding for a long time, giving bribes to the Sullans who were looking for him, but these stories are unlikely. Guy's influential relatives in Rome, meanwhile, managed to obtain pardon for Caesar. An additional circumstance that softened the dictator was the origin of Caesar from the patrician class, whose representatives were never executed by the conservative Sulla.

Soon Caesar left Italy and joined the retinue of Mark Minucius Therma, governor of the province of Asia. The name of Caesar was well known in this province: about ten years ago, his father was its governor. Guy became one of the Terme contubernals - the children of senators and young horsemen, trained in military affairs and provincial government under the supervision of the current magistrate.

At first Term entrusted the young patrician with negotiations with the king of Bithynia Nicomedes IV. Caesar was able to convince the king to transfer part of his fleet to Therma so that the governor could capture the city of Mytilene on Lesbos, which did not recognize the results of the First Mithridates war and resisted the Romans.

The stay of Gaius with the Bithynian king subsequently became the source of many rumors about their sexual relationship. After the successful completion of this assignment, Terme sent troops against Mytilene, and the Romans soon took the city. After the battle, Caesar was awarded the civil crown (lat.corona civica) - an honorary military award, which relied on saving the life of a Roman citizen. After the capture of Mytilene, the campaign in Lesvos ended. Soon Term resigned, and Caesar went to Cilicia to her governor Publius Servilius Vatia, who was organizing a military campaign against the pirates. However, when in 78 BC. e. news of the death of Sulla came from Italy, Caesar immediately returned to Rome.

In 78 BC. e. Consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus tried to stir up a revolt among the Italians in order to abolish the laws of Sulla. According to Suetonius, Lepidus invited Caesar to join the rebellion, but Guy refused. In 77 BC. e. Caesar brought to trial the Sullanian Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella on charges of extortion during the governorship in Macedonia. Dolabella was acquitted after leading court speakers supported him. The accusatory speech delivered by Caesar turned out to be so successful that it was circulated for a long time in handwritten copies. The next year, Guy began to prosecute another sullan, Guy Antony Hybrid, but he asked for protection from the tribunes of the people, and the trial did not take place.

Soon after the failure of the Anthony trial, Caesar went to improve his oratory skills to Rhodes to the famous rhetorician Apollonius Molon, the mentor of Cicero.

During the journey, Caesar was captured by pirates who had long traded in the Eastern Mediterranean. He was held on the small island of Farmakoussa (Farmakonisi) in the Dodecanese archipelago. The pirates demanded a large ransom of 50 talents (300,000 Roman denarii). Plutarch's version that Caesar, on his own initiative, increased the ransom amount from 20 talents to 50, is probably implausible.

Ancient authors colorfully describe Guy's stay on the island: he allegedly joked with the kidnappers and recited poems of his own composition to them. After the ambassadors of the cities of Asia ransomed Caesar, he immediately equipped a squadron to capture the pirates themselves, which he managed to do. Capturing his captors, Guy asked to judge and punish their new governor of Asia, Mark Junck, but he refused.

After that, Guy himself organized the execution of the pirates - they were crucified on crosses.

Suetonius adds some details of the execution as an illustration of Caesar's gentle character: “He swore to the pirates who had him in captivity that they would die on the cross, but when he captured them, he ordered them to be stabbed first and only then crucified”.

During his second stay in the East, Caesar once again visited the Bithynian king Nicomedes. He also fought at the very beginning of the Third Mithridates War at the head of a separate auxiliary detachment, but soon left the war zone and returned to Rome in about 74 BC. e. The following year he was co-opted into the priestly college of pontiffs to replace the deceased uncle of Guy Aurelius Cotta.

Soon Caesar wins military tribune elections... The exact date of his tribunate is unknown: 73 is often suggested, but the date is more likely to be 72 or 71 BC. e. What Caesar did during this period is not known for certain. It is suggested that Caesar could have been involved in suppressing the uprising of Spartacus- if not in combat, then at least in the training of recruits. It is also suggested that it was during the suppression of the uprising that Caesar became close to Marcus Licinius Crassus, who in the future played a significant role in the career of Guy.

At the beginning of 69 BC. e. Caesar's wife Cornelia and his aunt Julia die almost simultaneously. At their funeral, Guy made two speeches that attracted the attention of his contemporaries.

First, public speaking in memory of deceased women was practiced only from the end of the 2nd century BC. e., but even in them older matrons were usually remembered, but not young women. Secondly, in a speech in honor of his aunt, he recalled her marriage to Guy Marius and showed the people his wax bust. Probably, Julia's funeral was the first public demonstration of the image of the general since the beginning of the dictatorship of Sulla, when Maria was practically consigned to oblivion.

In the same year Caesar becomes a quaestor, which guaranteed him a seat in the Senate... Caesar performed the duties of a quaestor in the province of Far Spain. The details of his mission are unknown, although the quaestor in the province usually handled financial matters. Apparently, Guy accompanied the governor of Gaius Antistius Veta on trips around the province, carrying out his instructions. It was probably during the questure that he met Lucius Cornelius Balbus, who later became Caesar's closest associate.

Soon after returning from the province, Guy married Pompey, the granddaughter of Sulla (she was not a close relative of the influential Pompey the Great in those years). At the same time, Caesar began to openly lean towards the support of Gnaeus Pompey, in particular, he was almost the only senator who supported the Gabinius law on the transfer of extraordinary powers to Gnaeus in the fight against pirates.

Caesar also supported the law of Manilia on granting new command to Pompey, although here he was no longer alone.

In 66 BC. e. Caesar became the caretaker of the Appian Way and repaired it at his own expense (according to another version, he was engaged in the repair of the road in 65 BC, being an aedile). In those years, the main creditor of the young politician, who was not stingy with spending, was probably Crassus.

In 66 BC. e. Caesar was elected curule aedile for the following year, whose duties included the organization of urban construction, transport, trade, daily life in Rome and solemn events (usually at his own expense). In April 65 BC. e. new aedile organized and hosted the Megalesian Games, and in September the Roman Games, which, with their luxury, surprised even the Romans who were sophisticated in entertainment. Caesar shared the costs of both events equally with his colleague Mark Calpurnius Bibulus, but only Guy received all the glory.

Initially, Caesar planned to show a record number of gladiators at the Roman Games (according to another version, gladiator fights were staged by him in memory of his father), but the Senate, fearing a riot of many armed slaves, issued a special decree forbidding one person to bring more than a certain number of gladiators to Rome. ... Julius obeyed the restrictions on the number of gladiators, but gave each of them silver armor, thanks to which his gladiatorial battles were still remembered by the Romans.

In addition, the aedile overcame the resistance of the conservative senators and restored all the trophies of Guy Marius, the demonstration of which had been prohibited by Sulla.

In 64 BC. e. Caesar presided over the permanent criminal court in cases of robbery accompanied by murder (quaestio de sicariis). In the courts under his chairmanship, many participants in Sulla's proscriptions were convicted, although this dictator issued a law that did not allow criminal prosecution against them. Despite Caesar's vigorous activities to condemn the dictator's accomplices, the active performer of the murders of the proclaimed Lucius Sergius Catiline was fully acquitted and was able to nominate himself for the consulship the following year. Much of the lawsuits, however, were initiated by Caesar's opponent, Marcus Porcius Cato the Younger.

Caesar is the great pontiff:

At the beginning of 63 BC. e. the great pontiff Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius died, and the highest office in the system of Roman religious magistrates became vacant. In the late 80s BC. e. Lucius Cornelius Sulla brought back the ancient custom of co-optation of the high priests by the college of pontiffs, but shortly before the new elections, Titus Labienus returned the procedure for electing a great pontiff by voting in 17 tribes out of 35.

Caesar announced his candidacy. Alternative candidates were Quintus Lutatius Catulus Capitolinus and Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus. Ancient historians report numerous bribery during elections, due to which Guy's debts increased greatly. Since the tribes who voted were drawn by lot just before the elections, Caesar was forced to bribe representatives of all 35 tribes. Guy's creditors were sympathetic to spending on a prestigious but unprofitable position: a successful election testified to his popularity on the eve of the election of praetors and consuls.

According to legend, leaving home before the announcement of the results, he told his mother "Either I will return as a pontiff, or I will not return at all"; according to another version: "Today, mother, you will see your son as either a high priest or an exile."... The vote took place, according to various versions, either on March 6, or at the end of the year, and Caesar won. According to Suetonius, his advantage over his opponents was enormous.

Julius's election as great pontiff for life drew general attention to him and almost certainly guaranteed a successful political career. Unlike the flamin of Jupiter, the great pontiff could participate in both civil and military activities without serious sacred restrictions.

Although people who were consuls (consulars) were usually elected as great pontiffs, in Roman history there were also cases when this honorary position was occupied by relatively young people. Thus, Caesar could not be accused of becoming a great pontiff only because of exorbitant ambitions. Immediately after his election, Caesar took advantage of the right to live in the state house of the great pontiff and moved from Subura to the very center of the city, on the Sacred Road.

Caesar and the Catiline's conspiracy:

In 65 BC. e., according to some conflicting evidence of ancient historians, Caesar participated in an unsuccessful conspiracy of Lucius Sergius Catiline to seize power. However, the question of the "first conspiracy of Catiline" remains problematic. The evidence of the sources varies, which gives grounds for some researchers to deny the existence of the "first conspiracy" altogether.

Rumors about Caesar's participation in the first conspiracy of Catiline, if it existed, were spread by the opponents of Crassus and Caesar already in the 50s BC. e. and certainly not true. Richard Billous believes that the spread of rumors about the "first conspiracy" was beneficial to Cicero, and then to Caesar's political opponents.

In 63 BC. e., after his failure in the election of consuls, Catiline made a new, more famous attempt to seize power. The possible involvement of Caesar in the conspiracy was argued back in ancient times, but reliable evidence was never provided. In the days of the culmination of the crisis, Catulus and Piso demanded that Cicero arrest Caesar for complicity in the conspiracy, but to no avail. According to Adrian Goldsworthy, by 63 BC. e. Caesar could count on legal means of taking up new positions and was not interested in participating in the conspiracy.

December 3, 63 BC e. Cicero presented evidence of the danger of the conspiracy, and the next day a number of the conspirators were declared state criminals. On December 5, the Senate, meeting in the Temple of Concord, discussed a measure of restraint for the conspirators: in extraordinary circumstances, it was decided to act without a court order. Decimus Junius Silanus, elected consul the following year, advocated the death penalty, a punishment that was rarely applied to Roman citizens. His proposal was met with approval.

Caesar spoke next.

His speech in the Senate, recorded by Sallust, is probably based on a real speech by Julius. Sallust's version of the speech contains both a widespread appeal to Roman customs and traditions, and an unusual proposal to sentence the conspirators to life imprisonment - almost never used in Rome - with confiscation of property.

After Caesar, Cicero spoke out, opposing the proposal of Guy (an edited transcript of his fourth speech against Catiline has been preserved). However, after the speech of the current consul, many were still inclined to the proposal of Julius, but the floor was taken by Marcus Porcius Cato the Younger, who decisively opposed Caesar's initiative. Cato also hinted at Caesar's involvement in the conspiracy and rebuked the vacillating senators for their lack of resolve, after which the Senate voted to betray the conspirators of the death penalty. Since the meeting on December 5 was held with open doors, people attentively listening outside reacted violently to Cato's speech, including his allusion to Caesar's connections with the conspirators, and after the meeting, they saw Guy off with threats.

Barely taking office as praetor on January 1, 62 BC. e. Caesar used the right of the magistrate's legislative initiative and proposed to the People's Assembly to transfer the authority to restore the Temple of Capitoline Jupiter from Quintus Lutacia Catulus to Gnei Pompey. Catulus was involved in the restoration of this temple for about 15 years and almost completed the work, but if this proposal was accepted, the dedicatory inscription on the pediment of this most important sanctuary of Rome would have mentioned the name of Pompey, and not Catulus, an influential opponent of Caesar.

Guy also accused Katul of embezzling public funds and demanded an account of the expenses. After a protest by the senators, the praetor withdrew his bill.

When on January 3 the tribune Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos proposed to recall Pompey to Rome to defeat the troops of Catiline, Guy supported this proposal, although the conspirators' troops were already surrounded and doomed to defeat. Apparently, Nepos - brother-in-law of Gnaeus - hoped with his proposal to give Pompey the opportunity to arrive in Italy without disbanding his troops. After a massive brawl provoked by Nepos in the forum, the determined Senate passed an emergency law to remove Nepos and Caesar from office, but a few days later Guy was reinstated.

In the fall, at the trial of Lucius Vettius, a participant in the Catiline conspiracy, the accused told the judge that he had evidence of Caesar's involvement in the conspiracy - his letter to Catiline. In addition, during interrogation in the Senate, the witness Quintus Curius said that he had heard personally from Catiline about Caesar's participation in the preparation of the rebellion. However, at the request of Gaius, Cicero testified that he told the consul everything he knew about the conspiracy, and thereby deprived the Curia of the reward for information and refuted his testimony. Against the first prosecutor, Caesar acted very decisively, arresting both Vettius (he did not appear at the next meeting and did not present evidence of the praetor's guilt), and the judge Novius Niger (he received a denunciation of the senior magistrate).

In December 62 BC. e. In the new house of Caesar, a holiday was held in honor of the Good Goddess with the participation of only women, but it was interrupted after a man, Publius Clodius Pulcher, secretly entered the house. The senators, having learned about the incident, decided to consider the incident sacrilege, and also demanded that the holiday be held anew and the guilty be punished. The latter meant the inevitable public disclosure of Caesar's personal life, since there were rumors that Clodius arrived at Caesar's house in a woman's dress precisely for his wife.

Without waiting for the court the pontiff divorced Pompey Sulla... The trial took place the following year, and Clodius was acquitted because Caesar refused to testify against him. Adrian Goldsworthy believes that Pompeii did have an affair with Claudius, but Caesar still hesitated to testify against the rapidly gaining popularity of the politician.

In addition, the majority of the judges in the collegium voted with illegible signs, not wanting to incur the ire of Clodius' supporters and opponents. During the trial, when Caesar was asked why he divorced his wife, if he knows nothing about what happened, he allegedly replied that Caesar's wife should be above suspicion(Various sources give different versions of this phrase. According to Michael Grant, Caesar meant that the wife of the great pontiff - the high priest of Rome should be beyond suspicion. The British historian also points to another possible reason that accelerated the divorce - the absence of children for several years of marriage ...

At the beginning of 61 BC. e. Caesar was supposed to go to the province of Far Spain, the westernmost in the Roman Republic, in order to rule it as a propraetor, but numerous creditors made sure that he did not leave Rome without paying off huge debts. Nevertheless, Crassus vouched for Caesar in the amount of 830 talents, although this huge amount hardly covered all the debts of the governor. Thanks to Crassus, Guy went to the province even before the end of the trial of Clodius. On the way to Spain, Caesar allegedly said, passing through a remote village, that "Would rather be first here than second in Rome"(according to another version, this phrase was uttered already on the way from Spain to Rome).

By the time Caesar arrived in the underdeveloped northern and northeastern parts of the province, there was strong discontent with Roman power and large debts. Caesar immediately recruited a militia from local residents to subjugate the disaffected regions, which was presented as the extermination of the bandits.

According to Dion Cassius, thanks to the military campaign, Caesar hoped to equal Pompey with his victories, although a lasting peace could be established without military action.

With 30 cohorts (about 12 thousand soldiers) at his disposal, he approached the Germinian mountains (the modern ridge of Serra da Estrela) and demanded that the local tribes settle in the flat territory in order to deprive them of the opportunity to use their fortifications in the mountains in the event of an uprising.

Dio Cassius believes that Caesar hoped for a refusal from the very beginning, since he expected to use this answer as a motive for an attack. After the hill tribes refused to obey, the viceroy's troops attacked them and forced them to retreat to the Atlantic Ocean, from where the highlanders sailed to the Berlenga Islands. Caesar ordered several troops to cross to the islands on small rafts, but the Lusitanians killed the entire Roman landing.

In the aftermath of this failure, Guy summoned a fleet from Hades and with his help transported large forces to the islands. While the commander conquered the mountain Lusitanians on the Atlantic coast, the neighbors of the exiled tribes began preparations to repel a possible attack by the governor. All summer, the propraetor subdued the scattered Lusitanians, taking by storm a number of settlements and winning one fairly large battle. Soon Caesar left the province and went to Brigantia (modern A Coruña), quickly capturing the city and its surroundings. In the end, the troops declared him emperor, which in the terminology of the middle of the 1st century BC. e. meant recognition as a victorious commander. Even then, Caesar showed himself to be a decisive commander, capable of quickly moving his troops.

After completing his campaign, Caesar turned to solving the everyday problems of the province. His energetic work in the administrative sphere manifested itself in the revision of taxation and in the analysis of court cases. In particular, the governor canceled the tax imposed as punishment for the support of Quintus Sertorius by the Lusitanians in the recent war. In addition, it ruled that creditors could not collect more than two-thirds of their annual income from debtors.

In the face of a difficult situation with the payment of loans and interest by the inhabitants of the province, such a measure turned out to be beneficial for both borrowers and lenders, since Caesar nevertheless confirmed the need for the obligatory repayment of all debts. Finally, Caesar may have banned the practice of human sacrifice in the provinces.

Some sources claim that the governor extorted money from wealthy residents of the province and robbed neutral tribes, but this evidence is probably based only on hearsay. Richard Billows believes that if Caesar had in fact openly plundered the province, political opponents would have immediately brought him to justice upon his return to Rome. In fact, there was no prosecution, not even a hint of its beginning, which indicates at least Caesar's caution.

Roman law of the 1st century BC e. provided for the responsibility of the governor for extortion, but did not establish clear boundaries between a gift and a bribe, and therefore sufficiently cautious actions could not qualify as bribery.

Caesar, on the other hand, could count on solid gifts, since the inhabitants of the province (especially the rich south) saw in the young aristocrat a potentially influential patron - the protector of their interests in Rome.

Masinta's extremely energetic defense showed them that Caesar would go to great lengths to protect his clients. Apparently, Caesar received the greatest income from civil activities in the southern part of the province, since the main military operations were fought in the poor northern and northeastern regions of Far Spain, in which it was hardly possible to get rich. After the governorship in the province, Caesar significantly improved his financial situation, and the creditors did not bother him anymore. Guy probably did not pay off all the debts, but he proved that he is able to pay off loans thanks to the occupation of new positions. As a result, the creditors could temporarily stop harassing Caesar, counting on a new, more advantageous appointment, which the opponents of Guy later tried to use.

At the beginning of 60 BC. e. Caesar decided to return to Rome without waiting for his successor. The early termination of the governor's office with the delegation of authority to a junior magistrate (probably a quaestor) was considered unusual, but sometimes practiced.

Having received reports of Caesar's victories, the Senate considered him worthy of triumph. In addition to this honorable celebration, in the summer of 60 BC. e. Caesar hoped to take part in the election of consuls next year, since he had reached the minimum age for a new position and had completed all previous master's degrees in the cursus honorum system.

However, the contender for the triumph did not have the right to cross the sacred boundaries of the city (pomery) before the start of the event, and a personal presence in Rome was required to register a candidate for consulship. Since the date for the election had already been set, Caesar asked the senators to grant him the right to register in absentia. There was already a precedent for such a decision in Roman history: in 71 BC. e. the senate allowed Gnaeus Pompey to stand as a candidate, who was also preparing a triumph.

Caesar's opponents were not in the mood to meet him. Having presented Guy with a choice between triumph and consulate, they may have hoped for Caesar's choice of triumph. hoping that Guy's creditors will not wait another year, but will demand their money immediately. However, Caesar had another reason not to postpone participation in the elections until next year: being elected to a new position in “his own year” (lat. Suo anno), that is, in the first year when it was permissible by law, was considered especially honorable.

At the last meeting of the Senate before the elections, when it was still possible to accept special permission, Cato took the floor and spoke all day, until the very close of the meeting. Thus, Caesar did not receive special permission, and he entered the city, choosing to take up a new position and abandoning his triumph.

By the summer of 60 BC. e. Caesar agreed to cooperate with the rich and educated, but little-known to the public, the Roman Lucius Lucceus, who also put forward his candidacy. According to Suetonius, "they agreed that Lucceus would promise his own money to the Centuries on behalf of both." The Roman author mentions that, with the approval of the senators, his rival Bibulus also bribed voters: his father-in-law Cato called this "bribery in the interests of the state." According to the results of the elections by the consuls for 59 BC. e. became Caesar and Bibulus.

Around this time, Caesar entered into secret negotiations with Pompey and Crassus to create a political alliance: in exchange for the support of Guy by the two most influential and wealthy Romans, the new consul pledged to pass several laws in their interests, which had previously been blocked by the Senate.

The fact is that Pompey, who returned from the Third Mithridates War back in 62 BC. e., still has not achieved the ratification of all orders made in the eastern provinces. He also could not overcome the resistance of the Senate on the issue of providing land allotments to the veterans of his army. Crassus also had reasons for dissatisfaction with the Senate, who defended the interests of the publicans (tax farmers), who unsuccessfully asked to reduce the amount of the ransom for the province of Asia.

By uniting around Caesar, both politicians hoped to overcome the resistance of the senators and pass laws beneficial to themselves. It is unclear what Caesar received from the union. Undoubtedly, the very rapprochement with two influential politicians and their equally high-ranking friends, clients and relatives was beneficial to him.

There is a version that when organizing the triumvirate, Caesar hatched plans to seize power with his help.(This point of view was shared, in particular, by Theodor Mommsen and Jerome Carcopino).

Despite the fact that Pompey and Crassus had long been at enmity and even obstructed the passing of laws in the interests of each other, Caesar managed to reconcile them. Suetonius claims that at first Caesar entered into an alliance with Pompey, however, Christian Meyer believes that at first he agreed to cooperate with Crassus, who is closer to him. It is possible that it was planned to include in the political union and the fourth member - Cicero.

The union of three politicians is now known as the first triumvirate (Latin triumviratus - "union of three husbands"), but this term arose by analogy with the later second triumvirate, whose members were officially called triumvirs.

The exact date of the creation of the triumvirate is unknown, which is a consequence of its secret nature. Following the conflicting versions of ancient writers, modern historians also offer different versions: July-August 60 BC. e., the period shortly before the elections or shortly after they were held, after the elections, or 59 BC. e. (in final form).

At the very beginning of the consulate, Guy ordered that the minutes of the meetings of the Senate and the People's Assembly be published daily: apparently, this was done so that citizens could track the actions of politicians.

Caesar, on behalf of the Roman Republic, recognized Ptolemy XII Avlet as the pharaoh of Egypt, which was tantamount to renouncing the claims to Egypt using the will (probably forged) of Ptolemy XI Alexander II, widely known in Rome. According to this document, Egypt was to pass under the rule of Rome, just as, according to the will of Attalus III, the Pergamon kingdom passed to the Roman republic. Ancient historians report that the matter was settled for a huge bribe, which was divided among the triumvirs.

Despite significant support for Caesar's initiatives at the beginning of the year, by the end of 59 BC. e. the popularity of the triumvirs fell sharply.

By the beginning of the proconsulate of Caesar, the Romans controlled the southern part of the territory of modern France, where the province of Narbonne Gaul was formed. At the end of March 58 BC. e. Guy arrived in Genava (modern Geneva), where he entered into negotiations with the leaders of the Celtic tribe of the Helvetians, who began to migrate due to the onslaught of the Germans. Caesar managed to prevent the Helvetians from entering the territory of the Roman Republic, and after they entered the lands of the Aedui tribe allied to the Romans, Guy pursued and defeated them. In the same year, he defeated the troops of the German leader Ariovistus, who was trying to gain a foothold in the Gallic lands of the left bank of the Rhine.

In 57 BC. e. Caesar, having no formal reason for war, attacked the Belga tribes in northeastern Gaul and defeated them in the battles on Axon and Sabis. The commander's legate Publius Licinius Crassus bloodlessly subjugated the lands in the lower reaches of the Loire. However, the following year, the Gauls conquered by Crassus united against the Roman conquest. Caesar was forced to divide his forces between Titus Labienus, who was supposed to subdue the Trever tribe in Belgica, Publius Crassus (he was entrusted with the conquest of Aquitaine) and Quintus Titurius Sabinus, who suppressed the peripheral tribes of the rebels. Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus began building a fleet on the Loire capable of fighting the coastal tribes, and Caesar himself went to Luca, where the triumvirs met and discussed current issues.

Returning to his troops, Caesar led an offensive against the rebellious Gauls. Guy and Sabinus captured all the rebel settlements, and Decimus Brutus destroyed their fleet in a naval battle.

In 55 BC. e. the commander defeated the Germanic tribes that crossed the Rhine. Then he crossed to the right bank of the river using a 400-meter bridge, built near the camp "castellum apud confluentes" (modern Koblenz) in just ten days.

The Roman army did not stay in Germany (during the retreat, the first bridge in history across the Rhine was destroyed), and already at the end of August, Caesar undertook a reconnaissance expedition to Britain - the first trip to this island in Roman history. However, due to insufficient preparation, he had to return to the continent within a month.

Next summer Caesar leads a new expedition to Britain, however, the Celtic tribes on the island continually retreated, weakening the enemy in minor clashes, and Caesar was forced to conclude a truce, which allowed him to report victory to Rome. Upon his return, Caesar divided his troops between eight camps concentrated in northern Gaul.

At the end of the year, the Belga tribes rebelled against the Romans and almost simultaneously attacked several places of their wintering. The Belgians managed to lure the XIV legion and five more cohorts (about 6-8 thousand soldiers) out of the fortified camp and interrupt them from an ambush. Caesar managed to lift the siege from the camp of Quintus Tullius Cicero, the brother of the orator, after which the Belgi abandoned the attack on the camp of Labienus. In 53 BC. e. Guy made punitive expeditions against the Belgian tribes, and in the summer he made a second trip to Germany, rebuilding (and again destroying during the retreat) the bridge over the Rhine. Faced with a shortage of troops, Caesar asked Pompey for one of his legions, to which Gnaeus agreed.

At the beginning of 52 BC. e. most of the Gallic tribes united to fight the Romans. The leader of the rebels became Vercingetorig... Since the Gauls cut off Caesar in Narbonne Gaul from the main part of his troops in the north, the commander, using a deceptive maneuver, lured Vercingetorig into the lands of his native tribe, the Arverni, and he united with the main troops. The Romans took several fortified Gallic cities, but were defeated in an attempt to storm Gergovia. In the end, Caesar succeeded in blocking Vercingetorigus in the well-fortified fortress of Alesia and launching a siege.

The Gallic general called on all the Gallic tribes for help and tried to lift the Roman siege after their arrival. In the most weakly defended section of the fortifications of the siege camp, a fierce battle broke out, in which the Romans won the victory with some difficulty. The next day, Vercingetorig surrendered to Caesar, and the rebellion as a whole ended. In 51 and 50 BC. e. Caesar and his legates completed the conquest of distant tribes and individual groups of rebels. By the end of Caesar's proconsulship, all Gaul was subordinated to Rome.

During his entire stay in Gaul, the commander was aware of the events taking place in Rome and often intervened in them. This became possible due to the fact that two confidants of Caesar remained in the capital, with whom he constantly corresponded - Guy Oppius and Lucius Cornelius Balbus. They gave bribes to magistrates and carried out other orders of the commander.

In Gaul, under the leadership of Caesar, several legates served who later played a significant role in Roman history - Mark Antony, Titus Labienus, Lucius Munatius Plancus, Guy Trebonius and others.

Consuls 56 BC e. Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus and Lucius Marcius Philippe were hostile to the Triumvirs. Marcellinus obstructed the enactment of laws by Caesar's supporters and, more importantly, managed to secure the appointment of a successor to Caesar from among the yet-to-be-elected consuls of the following year. Thus, no later than March 1, 54 BC. e. Guy had to cede the province to his successor.

The most likely candidate to replace Caesar in Cisalpine Gaul was Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, a staunch opponent of the triumvirate. In addition, Caesar's opponents hoped to take away Narbonne Gaul from him. The first attempts to bring Caesar to trial, which failed due to the proconsul's judicial immunity until the end of his powers, date back to this time.

In mid-April 56 BC. e. the triumvirs gathered at Luca(modern Lucca; the city belonged to Cisalpine Gaul, which allowed Caesar to be present) to coordinate further actions.

They agreed that Pompey and Crassus would nominate themselves for consuls for the next year in order to prevent the election of opponents (in particular, Ahenobarbus). Since the outcome of the elections, held in full compliance with the law, was not obvious, the triumvirs decided to influence the elections by attracting legionnaires. Supporters of the Triumvirs had to push the elections to the end of the year, and Caesar promised to send all his soldiers to vote. After the election, Pompey and Crassus had to secure an extension of Caesar's powers for five years in exchange for the Caesarians' support for the distribution of several other provinces in their favor.

In the spring of 55 BC. e. the new consuls fulfilled their obligations assumed at the meeting in Luca: Caesar extended his powers in all three provinces for five years. In addition, Pompey received control over Far and Near Spain for the same period, and Crassus - Syria. In May or June 55 BC. e. Cicero, who became close to the triumvirate, actively supported, and possibly initiated a bill to compensate for the costs of maintaining Caesar's four new legions at public expense. This proposal was accepted. In exchange for Cicero's services to Caesar, the proconsul responded by including Quintus Tullius Cicero, the brother of the orator, among his legates.

In August or September 54 BC. e. Julia, daughter of Caesar and wife of Pompey, died in childbirth. However, the death of Julia and the failure of attempts to conclude a new dynastic marriage did not have a decisive impact on the relationship between Pompey and Caesar, and for several more years the relationship between the two politicians remained good.

A significantly greater blow to the triumvirate and to all Roman politics was dealt the death of Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae... Although Crassus was considered more of a "junior" triumvir, especially after the successful conquests of Caesar in Gaul, his wealth and influence smoothed out the contradictions between Pompey and Caesar.

At the beginning of 53 BC. e. Caesar asked Pompey for one of his legions for use in the Gallic War, and Gnaeus agreed. Soon, Caesar gathered two more legions to make up for the losses of his troops due to the Belga uprising.

In 53-52 BC. e. the situation in Rome was extremely tense due to the struggle (often armed) between the supporters of two demagogues - Clodius and Milo. The situation was greatly aggravated by the murder of Clodius by Milo's slave in January 52 BC. e. By this time, no consuls were elected, and there were calls in Rome to elect Pompey as consuls together with Caesar to restore order.

Caesar proposed to Pompey to organize a new dynastic marriage. According to his plan, Pompey was to marry Octavia the Younger, a relative of Caesar, and he himself intended to marry Pompey, the daughter of Gnaeus. Pompey refused the offer, after some time marrying Cornelia Metella, daughter of Caesar's longtime enemy Metellus Scipio. When it became clear that Caesar would not be able to return from Gaul to restore order in Rome, Cato (according to another version - Bibulus) proposed an emergency measure - the appointment of Gnaeus as consul without a colleague, which allowed him to make the most important decisions on his own. However, the Senate probably saw Pompey as a temporary coordinator for suppressing the unrest, and not as a long-term ruler.

Shortly after his appointment, the new consul initiated passing laws on violent acts (lex Pompeia de vi) and on electoral bribery (lex Pompeia de ambitu)... In both cases, the wording of the laws was clarified to meet the new requirements, stricter measures of restraint were established, and the court hearings in these cases were to be held under armed guard. Both decisions were retroactive. The law of bribery extended until 70 BC. e., and supporters of Caesar considered this decision a challenge to their patron.

At the same time, the tribunes of the people, with the approval of Pompey, adopted a decree allowing Caesar to nominate his candidacy for the consuls while absent from Rome, which he could not achieve in 60 BC. e. However, soon, at the suggestion of the consul, laws on magistrates and provinces were passed. Among the provisions of the first decree, there was a ban on seeking office in the absence of a candidate in Rome.

The new legislation was not only directed against Caesar, but also came into conflict with the recent decree of the tribunes. However, soon Pompey, who allegedly forgot to make an exception for Caesar, ordered the addition of a clause to the law on magistrates on the possibility of a special permit for applying without being present in the capital, but he did this after the law was approved.

Pompey's decrees brought uncertainty to Caesar's future after the end of his proconsulate. It is unclear when he could run for consular office for the following year under special permission - in 50 or 49 BC. e.

Due to the fact that Gnei amended the law on magistrates after its approval, Caesar's opponents had the opportunity to challenge the effect of this clarification and demand the mandatory presence of Caesar at the elections as a private person. Gaius was seriously afraid that immediately after his arrival in Rome and the end of immunity, Caesar's opponents, led by Cato, would bring him to trial.

Since the laws of Pompey were retroactive, Gaius could be held accountable for his actions in 59 BC. e. and before. In addition, it was unclear whether Caesar's successor should be appointed according to the old law or the new one. If the priority of Pompey's decree was recognized, the successor could replace Caesar in the province as early as March 1, 49 BC. e., and it was supposed to be one of the consuls five years ago. However, since the second consul Appius Claudius Pulcher managed to receive an appointment to Cilicia, Gaius was to be succeeded by his implacable opponent Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus.

Although Cato failed in this election of consuls, they elected Marcus Claudius Marcellus, Caesar's enemy. At the very beginning of the year Marcellus demanded that Caesar leave the province and disband all ten legions, citing the end of active hostilities after the capture of Alesia. However, the rebels continued to operate on the periphery of Gaul, and Marcellus' colleague Servius Sulpicius Rufus refused to support this proposal. Pompey tried to maintain the appearance of neutrality, but his statements testified to the rapid cooling of relations with Caesar.

Consuls 50 BC e. after Cato's refusal to participate in the elections, Guy Claudius Marcellus, a cousin of Mark and his associate, and Lucius Aemilius Paul became. The latter was not a staunch opponent of Caesar, and therefore Guy took advantage of his dire financial situation and persuaded him to cooperate for a huge bribe of 1,500 talents (approximately 36 million sesterces, or slightly less than the annual tax revenue from conquered Gaul).

In addition, to the side of Caesar, unexpectedly for everyone, one of his old opponents, Gaius Scribonius Curion, went over. Later sources attribute this change of political position to another bribe comparable to that received by Emilius Paul. It was Curio who used the tribunal veto to overturn the laws with which the senators tried to legalize the removal of Caesar. However, the tribune carefully concealed his run. In his public speeches, he positioned himself as an independent politician and defender of the interests of the people, and not Pompey or Caesar. In May 50 BC. e. the Senate, under the pretext of the Parthian threat, withdrew two legions from Caesar at once, including the one lent to him by Pompey.

As the end of the proconsul's office drew near, Caesar and his Roman opponents began vigorous efforts to defend their position in accordance with their vision of legislation.

By 50 BC. BC, when Caesar's break with Pompey became obvious, Caesar had significant support from the inhabitants of Rome and the population of Cisalpine Gaul, but among the nobles his influence was small and often relied on bribes.

Although the senate was generally reluctant to trust Caesar, the idea of ​​a peaceful settlement of the dispute was supported by the majority of the senators. Thus, 370 senators voted in support of Kourion's proposal on the need to simultaneously disarm both generals, and 22 or 25 against. However, Marcellus closed the meeting before the results of the vote were entered into the minutes. According to another version, the decision of the Senate was vetoed by the tribune Gaius Fournius.

Other proposals were received, although neither Caesar nor Pompey and his supporters were willing to give in. In particular, even before the election of magistrates, Gnaeus suggested that Caesar return to Rome on November 13, 50 BC. e., surrendering proconsular powers and troops to January 1, 49 BC. e. take office as consul. However, contemporaries noticed that Pompey clearly did not want reconciliation. Soon false rumors spread in Rome that Caesar had already crossed the borders of Italy and occupied Arimin, which meant the beginning of a civil war.

In 50 BC. e. Caesar succeeded in getting Mark Antony and Quintus Cassius Longinus into the plebeian tribunes the following year, but his candidate for consul Servius Sulpicius Galba failed. According to the results of the vote, convinced opponents of the proconsul were elected - Guy Claudius Marcellus, the full namesake and cousin of the consul of the previous year, as well as Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Cruz.

From the second half of the year Caesar begins to make persistent attempts to negotiate with the Senate, offering mutual concessions.

In particular, he agreed to abandon Narbonne Gaul and keep for himself only two legions and two provinces - Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum - subject to immunity and participation in the elections in absentia.

The senators refused to accept Caesar's proposal. In response, January 1, 49 BC. e. In Rome, a letter from Caesar was read, in which the proconsul's determination to defend by all available means his right to participate in elections in absentia was already expressed.

In response, the Senate ruled that Caesar should be considered an enemy of the state if he did not resign and disband the troops by a certain date, however, Antony and Longinus who took office vetoed, and the decree was not adopted. Several people, including Cicero, tried to mediate in the reconciliation of the two generals, but their attempts were unsuccessful.

On January 7, at the initiative of a group of senators led by Cato, an emergency law (lat. Senatusconsultum ultimum) was issued on the call of citizens to arms, which in fact meant a complete refusal to negotiate. Troops began to move into the city, and Antony and Longinus were made clear that their safety could not be guaranteed.

Both the tribunes and the already surrendered Kourion immediately fled from Rome to Caesar's camp - according to Appian, they left the city "at night, in a hired carriage, disguised as slaves."

On January 8 and 9, the senators decided to declare Caesar an enemy of the state, if he did not resign. They also approved his successors - Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Marcus Considius Nonianus - passing them Cisalpine and Narbonne Gaul. The recruitment of troops was also announced.

Caesar, back in December 50 BC. e. summoned the VIII and XII legions from Narbonne Gaul, but by the beginning of January they had not yet arrived. Although the proconsul had only about 5 thousand soldiers of the XIII Legion and about 300 cavalry at the disposal of the proconsul, he decided to act.

After the arrival of the tribunes who had fled from Rome to Caesar's camp, the commander gathered the troops at his disposal and addressed them with a speech. In it, he informed the soldiers about the violation of the sacred rights of the tribunes and about the reluctance of the senators to recognize his legal demands. The soldiers expressed their full support for their general, and he transferred them across the border river Rubicon(according to legend, before crossing the river, Caesar uttered the words "the lot is cast" - a quote from the comedy of Menander).

However, Caesar did not move towards Rome. On January 17, after receiving news of the beginning of the war, Pompey tried to start negotiations, but they were unsuccessful, and the commander sent his troops along the Adriatic coast. Most of the cities along the way didn't even try to fight back. Many supporters of the Senate retreated to Corfinius (modern Corfinio), where Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus was located.

Soon, 30 cohorts, or 10-15 thousand soldiers, were under his control. Due to the lack of a unified command (since Ahenobarbus had previously been appointed governor, Gnaeus did not have the authority to order him) Domitius was locked up in Corfinia and cut off from the troops of Pompey. After Caesar received reinforcements and the impossibility of lifting the siege, Ahenobarbus decided to flee the city with only friends. The commander's plans became known to his soldiers, after which the disgruntled troops opened the gates of the city to Caesar and gave him Ahenobarbus and their other commanders.

The troops stationed in Corfinia and the surrounding area, Caesar annexed to his army, and Ahenobarbus and his associates released.

Upon learning of the surrender of Corfinia, Pompey began preparations for the evacuation of his supporters to Greece. Pompey counted on the support of the eastern provinces, where his influence had been great since the Third War of Mithridates. Due to the lack of ships, Gnaeus had to transport his forces to Dyrrachium (or Epidamnos; modern Durres) in parts.

As a result, by the time of Caesar's arrival (March 9), not all of his soldiers had yet crossed. After Gnaeus refused to negotiate, Guy began a siege of the city and tried to block the narrow exit from the harbor of Brundisium, but on March 17, Pompey managed to get out of the harbor and leave Italy with the remaining troops.

The rapid development of events at the first stage of the war caught the populations of Rome and Italy by surprise. Many inhabitants of Italy supported Caesar, since they saw in him the successor of the cause of Gaius Maria and hoped for his patronage. Italic support for Caesar contributed greatly to the success of Caesar in the first stage of the civil war.

The attitude of the nobility towards Julius was mixed. The gentle treatment of the commanders and soldiers in Corfinia was aimed at persuading not to oppose Caesar, either by opponents or wavering representatives of the nobility.

Caesar's supporters Oppius and Balbus made every effort to present Caesar's actions to the whole republic as an act of outstanding mercy (lat. Clementia). Contributed to the pacification of Italy and the principle of encouraging the neutrality of all hesitant: "Meanwhile, as Pompey declared his enemies all who did not stand up to defend the republic, Caesar proclaimed that those who abstain and will not join anyone, he will consider friends.".

The widespread belief that the bulk of the senators fled Italy along with Pompey is not entirely true. It gained fame thanks to Cicero, who later substantiated the legitimacy of the “senate in exile” by the presence of ten consulars (former consuls) in its composition, but he hushed up the fact that there were at least fourteen of them left in Italy. More than half of the senators chose to remain neutral, sitting out on their estates in Italy.

Caesar was supported by many young people from noble, but poor aristocratic families, many representatives of the equestrian class, as well as various marginalized and adventurers.

Caesar was unable to immediately pursue Pompey in Greece, as Gnaeus commandeered all available military and transport ships. As a result, Guy decided to secure his rear, heading through Gaul, loyal to him, to Spain, where from 54 BC. e. were the legates of Pompey with seven legions.

Before the departure, Guy entrusted the leadership of Italy to Mark Antony, who received the powers of propraetor from him, and left the capital in the care of the praetor Mark Emilius Lepidus and the senators. In dire need of money, Guy took possession of the remains of the treasury. Tribune Lucius Caecilius Metellus tried to stop him, but Caesar, according to legend, threatened to kill him, adding that it is "much more difficult for him to say it than to do it."

In Narbonne Gaul, where all the Gaulish troops of Caesar were gathered, Caesar faced unexpected resistance from the richest city of Massilia (modern Marseille). Not wanting to stay halfway, Caesar left part of the troops to conduct the siege.

By the beginning of the campaign in Spain, according to the "Notes on the Civil War", the Pompeians Lucius Afranius and Mark Petreus had about 40 thousand soldiers and 5 thousand cavalrymen against about 30 thousand soldiers and 6 thousand horsemen at Caesar.

Caesar's troops with skillful maneuvers drove the enemy from Ilerda (modern Lleida / Lleida) to the hills, where it was impossible to find either food or water. On August 27, the entire Pompeian army surrendered to Caesar. Caesar sent all the soldiers of the enemy army to their homes, and allowed those who wished to join his army. After the news of the surrender of the Pompeians, most of the communities of Near Spain went over to the side of Caesar.

Guy soon set out for Italy overland. At the walls of Massilia, Caesar received news of his appointment as dictator on the initiative of the praetor Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. In Rome, Caesar exercised his dictatorial rights and organized the elections for magistrates for the following year.

Caesar himself and Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus were elected consuls; other posts went mainly to the supporters of the dictator. In addition, Guy used his right to legislative initiative and passed a number of laws designed not only to mitigate the consequences of war (for example, the law on loans), but also for the long term (granting full Roman citizenship to residents of certain cities and territories).

While Caesar was in Spain, Caesar's generals suffered defeat after defeat in Illyricum, Africa and the Adriatic Sea. However, Caesar was able to derive some benefit from Curion's defeat in Africa: it allowed him to assert that Pompey's position had become so desperate that he was forced to call upon the barbarians to help him. The unsuccessful actions of the legates on the Adriatic coast left Caesar with only one option for crossing to Greece - the sea.

Apparently, Caesar feared that in the spring Pompey would cross to Italy, and therefore began preparations for the landing in the winter of 49-48 BC. e. However, this idea was considered risky due to the unfavorable season for navigation, the dominance of the Pompeians at sea and the lack of food for a large army in Epirus. In addition, Guy was unable to collect enough ships to ferry the entire army.

However, January 4 or 5, 48 BC e. Caesar's fleet with about 20 thousand soldiers and 600 cavalrymen landed at Epirus, avoiding a meeting with the Pompeian fleet, which was led by Bibulus. Another part of Caesar's army, led by Mark Antony, managed to break through to Greece only in April.

Immediately after the landing, Caesar sent ambassadors to Pompey with a proposal to conclude a truce, but at the same time began to seize cities on the coast, which discredited any attempts to negotiate an end to the war.

Skillfully maneuvering, Caesar, after uniting with Antony, managed to encircle the superior forces of Gnaeus on the coastal hill near Dyrrachium and build strong fortifications that were supposed to protect the camp and the troops of Gaius from attacks from both the besieged and outside. This siege is notable not only for the superiority of the besieged over the besiegers, but also for the famine in the camp of the latter, in contrast to the normal supply situation at the besieged Pompey: according to Plutarch, Caesar's soldiers ate bread from roots by summer. Soon, Gnei took advantage of the access to the coast and his advantage at sea, landing part of the troops in the weakest point of the enemy's fortifications.

Caesar threw all his forces to repel the attack, but in a battle known as the Battle of Dyrrhachium (approximately July 10), Pompey put his opponent to flight. For some reason, Pompey did not dare to strike a decisive blow against Caesar - either because of Labienus's advice, or out of caution before Guy's possible tricks. After the battle, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Appian, said "Today, the victory would remain with the opponents, if they had someone to win".

Gathering the defeated troops, Caesar set out to the southeast, to fertile Thessaly, where he was able to replenish food supplies. In Thessaly, Caesar was joined by two legions of troops that he had previously sent to Macedonia for auxiliary operations. Nevertheless, the number of Pompey's soldiers exceeded the number of Caesar's troops by about two times (about 22 thousand versus about 47 thousand).

The opponents met at Farsal. For some time Pompey did not want to start a general battle in open areas and decided to give battle to Caesar only under pressure from the senators. According to legend, on the day before the battle, senators confident of victory began to distribute magistracy among themselves. Probably, Titus Labienus prepared a battle plan for Pompey, but Caesar was able to unravel the plans of the Pompeians and prepare countermeasures (after the battle, Gnaeus suspected that someone from his entourage had passed the plans to Caesar). On August 9, a decisive battle took place, the outcome of which was decided by Caesar's counterattack on the right flank. A total of 15,000 soldiers died in the battle, including 6,000 Roman citizens. More than 20,000 Pompeians surrendered the day after the battle, and among them were many nobles, including Marcus Junius Brutus and Guy Cassius Longinus.

Soon after the battle Caesar set off in pursuit of Pompey, but Gnaeus disorientated his pursuer and went through Cyprus to Egypt. It was only when Caesar was in the province of Asia that news of the new preparations of his enemy reached him, and he went to Alexandria with one legion (probably with the VI Iron).

Caesar arrived in Egypt a few days after the assassination of Pompey by the Egyptians. Initially, his stay in Egypt was delayed due to unfavorable winds, and the dictator tried to seize the opportunity to solve his urgent need for money. Guy hoped to recover from King Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator 10 million denarii of debts left by his father Ptolemy XII Avlet (a significant part of the debt was a bribe not fully paid for not recognizing the will of Ptolemy XI Alexander II).

For this, the commander intervened in the struggle of the supporters of Ptolemy XIII and his sister Cleopatra... Initially, Caesar probably hoped to mediate a dispute between brother and sister in order to extract the greatest benefit for himself and for the Roman state.

After Cleopatra secretly infiltrated Caesar's camp (according to legend, the queen was taken to the palace wrapped in a carpet), Guy went over to her side. Surrounded by Ptolemy, they decided to take advantage of the small number of Guy's troops to expel him from the country and overthrow Cleopatra. Most of the inhabitants of Alexandria supported the king, and the general uprising against the Romans forced Caesar to lock himself in the royal quarter, putting his life in great danger.

During the battle with the Egyptians, a fire broke out, which spread to the Library of Alexandria- the largest book collection of the ancient world. However, a large branch of the library in the Serapeum with copies of the scrolls survived, and most of the collection was soon restored.

In winter, Caesar withdrew his troops from the besieged palace and, after uniting with the arriving reinforcements, defeated the troops of Ptolemy's supporters. After Guy's victory elevated to the royal throne Cleopatra and the young Ptolemy XIV Theos Philopator II(Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator drowned in the Nile after a battle with the Romans), who traditionally ruled together.

Then the Roman commander spent several months with Cleopatra in Egypt, climbing up the Nile. Ancient writers considered this delay in the war to be caused by an affair with Cleopatra. It is known that the commander and the queen were accompanied by Roman soldiers, so Caesar, perhaps, was simultaneously engaged in reconnaissance and demonstration of power to the Egyptians. Before leaving in July 47 BC. e. Caesar left three Roman legions to maintain order in Egypt. In the summer of the same year, Cleopatra had a son, Caesarion, and the dictator is often considered the father of the child.

While Caesar was in Egypt, supporters of the defeated Pompey gathered in Africa. Leaving Alexandria, Caesar headed not to the west, where his opponents concentrated their forces, but to the northeast. The fact is that after the death of Pompey, the population of the eastern provinces and the rulers of neighboring kingdoms tried to take advantage of the situation in their own interests: in particular, Pharnaces II, the son of Mithridates VI, relying on the remnants of the Pontic kingdom, which Pompey assigned to him, tried to restore his father's empire. invading Roman possessions.

Having settled urgent matters in Syria, Caesar arrived in Cilicia with small forces... There he united with the remnants of the troops of the defeated Gnaeus Domitius Calvin and with the ruler of Galatia, Deiotar, who hoped to be forgiven for supporting Pompey. Guy met Pharnacs at Zela's, and on the third day defeated him. Caesar himself described this victory in three winged words: veni, vidi, vici (came, saw, won)... After defeating Pharnacs, Guy crossed over to Greece, and from there to Italy. After returning, Caesar managed to restore the location of several legions that rebelled in Italy, appearing before them with generous promises.

Having brought the legionaries to order, Caesar set out from Lilibey to Africa in December, once again neglecting the unfavorable conditions for navigation and sailing with only one legion of experienced troops. After ferrying all the troops and organizing supplies, Caesar lured Metellus Scipio and the Numidian king Yubu (the latter was once publicly humiliated by Gaius by pulling his beard during his trial) to fight in the vicinity of Thapsus.

April 6, 46 BC e. at Thapsus, a decisive battle took place. Although the "Notes on the African War" describes the development of the battle as rapid and the nature of the victory as unconditional, Appian describes the battle as extremely difficult. In addition, Plutarch cites the version that Caesar did not participate in the battle due to an epileptic seizure.

Many commanders of Scipio's army fled from the battlefield, but contrary to the declared policy of mercy, they were overtaken and executed at the direction of Caesar. Mark Petreus and Juba committed suicide, but Titus Labienus, Gnaeus and Sextus Pompey fled to Spain, where they soon organized a new center of resistance to Caesar.

After the victory at Thapsus, Caesar moved north to the well-fortified Utica. The commander of the city of Cato was determined to hold the city, but the inhabitants of Utica tended to surrender to Caesar, and Cato disbanded the troops and helped everyone to leave the city. When Guy approached the walls of Utica, Mark committed suicide. After returning to the capital Caesar conducted four triumphal processions in a row - for victories over Gauls, Egyptians, Pharnacs and Juba... However, the Romans understood that Caesar was partly celebrating victories over his compatriots.

Caesar's four triumphs did not end the civil war, since the situation in Spain remained tense: the abuses of the Caesarian governor of Far Spain, Quintus Cassius Longinus, provoked a rebellion.

After the defeated Pompeians arrived from Africa and organized a new center of resistance, the temporarily pacified Spaniards again opposed Caesar.

In November 46 BC. e. Guy decided to go to Spain in person to suppress the last hotbed of open resistance. By this time, however, most of his troops had already been disbanded: there were only two legions of experienced soldiers (V and X legions) in the ranks, all the other available troops consisted of newcomers.

March 17, 45 BC e., shortly after arriving in Spain, opponents clashed in Battle of Mund... In the hardest battle, Guy won. According to legend, after the battle, Caesar said that he "I often fought for victory, but now I fought for my life for the first time".

Killed at least 30 thousand Pompeian soldiers, among those killed on the battlefield was Labienus; Caesar's losses were significantly smaller. The dictator departed from his traditional practice of clementia: Gnaeus Pompey the Younger, who fled from the battlefield, was overtaken and killed, and his head was delivered to Caesar. Sextus Pompey barely managed to escape and even survived the dictator. After the victory at Munda, Caesar celebrated his fifth triumph, and he was the first triumph in Roman history in honor of the victory of the Romans over the Romans.

In the fall of 48 BC. BC, after receiving news of the death of Pompey, Caesar's colleague in the consulate Publius Servilius Vatia Isauric organized the second absentee appointment of Guy as dictator. This time, the rationale for the appointment of an extraordinary magistrate was probably the waging of war (the wording rei gerundae causa was used). The commander of the cavalry was Mark Antony, whom Caesar sent to rule Italy during his stay in Egypt. According to sources, Guy received unlimited power for one year instead of the usual six months for a dictator.

In the fall of 47 BC. e. the term of the dictatorship expired, but Caesar retained his proconsular powers, and on January 1, 46 BC. e. took office as consul. According to Dion Cassius, Caesar also received the powers of a plebeian tribune (tribunicia potestas), but some researchers (in particular, H. Skallard) doubt the veracity of this message.

After the Battle of Thapsus, Caesar became dictator for the third time.

The new appointment had a number of unusual features: firstly, there was no formal justification for occupying the position, and secondly, the position was provided for ten years, although, apparently, it had to be renewed annually. In addition to unlimited power, Guy's supporters arranged for him to be elected to the special position of "prefect of morals" (praefectus morum or praefectus moribus) for three years, which effectively gave him the powers of censor.

Since Caesar was already 54 years old at the time of his appointment, the ten-year magistracy of the dictator, taking into account the low average life expectancy in the ancient era, was actually considered as lifelong.

In 45 BC. e. Guy, in addition to the powers of a dictator, became a consul without a colleague, which did not allow the collegiality inherent in this magistracy to be realized, and only in October he refused the consulate, appointing two successors in his place - consuls-suffects.

In the same year, Guy supplemented his name by including the title "Emperor", which was used to designate a victorious commander (from now on, his full name became Imperator Gaius Iulius Caesar).

Finally, at the beginning of 44 BC. e. (no later than February 15) Caesar received another appointment as dictator. This time he received an extraordinary master's degree for life (Latin dictator perpetuus).

Caesar began to re-use the dictator's magistracy, which had previously been used in exceptional cases. Traditionally, the dictator was appointed for six months, and in the event of a more prompt resolution of the crisis situation, he was expected to resign early. Less than forty years ago, Sulla first awarded a master's degree for an indefinite period, but after reforms, he resigned and died a private person.

Caesar was the first to directly declare his intention to rule indefinitely. However, in fact, Caesar ruled the republic by right of the strong, relying on troops and numerous supporters, and his posts only gave the semblance of legitimacy.

The cult of personality and the sacralization of Caesar:

Caesar strengthened his power not only by taking new positions, reforming the political system and suppressing the opposition, but also by sacralizing his personality.

First of all, the legend about the relationship of the Julian Caesar clan with the goddess Venus was actively used: in accordance with ancient ideas, the descendants of the gods stood out from the general mass of people, and Caesar's claims as a direct descendant were even more serious.

Wishing to publicly show his connection with the gods, going beyond simple kinship, the dictator erected a luxuriously decorated temple of Venus at the Forum. He was dedicated not to Venus the Victorious (lat.Venus Victrix), as Caesar originally intended (this was his vow given before the battle of Pharsalus), but to Venus the Progenitor (lat.Venus Genetrix) - the legendary ancestor and Julius (in a straight line) , and all the Romans at the same time. He established a lavish cult in the temple and gave it one of the most important places in the hierarchy of Roman organized rituals.

The dictator also organized magnificent games at the temple and ordered them to be held in the future, appointing young men from noble families for this, one of which was Guy Octavius. Even earlier, on some coins minted by monetarians from among the representatives of the Julian clan, there was an image of the god Mars, to which the family also tried to build its clan, although less actively.

Caesar planned to build a temple to Mars in Rome, designed to popularize the lesser-known legend of the descent from this god. However, the dictator did not have time to implement this idea, and Octavian put it into practice. Some of the attributes of sacred power came to Caesar thanks to his office as the great pontiff.

From 63 BC e. Caesar not only enjoyed numerous priestly powers, but also had tremendous prestige.

Even before Caesar's first triumph, the Senate decided to grant him a number of honors, which began preparations for the sacralization of the personality of the dictator and the establishment of a new state cult. The success of this decision by the Senate was due to the flight of the majority of the adherents of the Roman tradition with Pompey and the dominance of the "new people" in the Senate. In particular, the chariot of the dictator and his statue in the image of the conqueror of the world were installed in the temple of Jupiter Capitoline, and thus the most important temple of Rome became dedicated to both Jupiter and Caesar.

The most important source reporting this honor - Dio Cassius - used the Greek word "demigod" (ancient Greek ἡμίθεος - hemitheos), which was usually applied to mythological heroes born from the connection between gods and people. However, the dictator did not accept this honor: soon, but by no means immediately, he canceled this decree.

The news of the dictator's victory in the Battle of Munda reached Rome on the evening of April 20, 45 BC. e., on the eve of the holiday of Parilius - according to legend, it was on this day (April 21) that Romulus founded Rome. The organizers decided to hold the next day of the game in honor of the winner, as if he were the founder of the city. In addition, in Rome, it was decided to build a sanctuary of Liberty in honor of Caesar the Liberator (Latin Liberator). The Senate also decided to install on the rostral tribune in the forum, from where the magistrates usually delivered speeches, a statue of Caesar, facing towards the people listening to the orators.

Soon, new steps were taken towards the deification of Caesar. First, after the dictator's return to Rome in May, his statue was placed in the temple of Quirinus, a deity identified with Romulus, the mythical founder of Rome. The dedication inscription on the statue read: "To the undefeated god."

At public expense, the construction of a new house for Caesar began, and its shape bore significant resemblance to temples - the houses of the gods. In circus performances, the image of Caesar made of gold and ivory was among the images of the gods. Finally, in 45 BC. e. coins with the image of Caesar in profile were minted, although before that images of living people were never placed on the coins.

At the beginning of 44 BC. e. the senate, and then the popular assembly, inspired by Mark Antony, issued a number of decrees that endowed Caesar with new privileges and gave him new honors. Among them - title of father of the fatherland (lat.parens patriae) with the right to place it on coins, the introduction for the Romans of the oath of the genius of Caesar, the transformation of his birthday into a holiday with sacrifices, the renaming of the month of quintile in July, the introduction of a mandatory oath to preserve all his laws for magistrates taking office.

In addition, annual sacrifices were introduced for the safety of Caesar, one tribe was renamed in his honor, all temples in Rome and Italy were obliged to install his statues. A collegium of the Julian Lupercs (junior priests; lat. Luperci Iuliani) was created, and in Rome, the construction of the Temple of Concord was to begin in honor of the pacification of the state. In the end, the Senate authorized the beginning of the construction of the temple of Caesar and his Mercy (lat.Clementia) and created a new priestly office specifically to organize the worship of a new deity, appointing Mark Antony to it.

The creation of a special priest of the highest level for the veneration of Guy put him on a par with Jupiter, Mars and Quirin. The other gods of the Roman pantheon were served by priests and colleges of lower levels. The deification of Caesar completed the creation of a new state cult. Lily Ross Taylor believes that at the beginning of 44 BC. e. the senate decided to consider Caesar a god. His deification was finally confirmed posthumously by a special decree of the Second Triumvirate in 42 BC. e.

By 44 BC. e. Caesar also accepted a number of honors that brought him closer to the Roman kings. So, he constantly wore the clothes of a triumphant and a laurel wreath, which also created the impression of constant triumph.

Suetonius, however, notes that Caesar used the right to constantly wear a laurel wreath due to baldness.

In addition, he refused to rise from the throne when the senators approached him. The latter circumstance caused particular indignation in Rome, since only absolute monarchs enjoyed such privileges. Nevertheless, he stubbornly refused the old Roman title of king (lat. Rex), although this could be a consequence of the calculation.

February 15, 44 BC e. at the festival of Lupercalia, he rejected the diadem proposed by Mark Antony - a symbol of monarchical power. Already after his assassination, rumors spread that at the meeting on March 15 it was planned to declare him king, but only for the provinces - territories outside Rome and Italy.

Perhaps Caesar did not want the restoration of royal power in its Roman form, since this implied the election of a new ruler after the death of the previous one. Lily Ross Taylor suggested that Guy wanted to create a system in which the transfer of power would be carried out by inheritance, as was the case in the Hellenistic monarchies.

In the process of sacralizing his power, the dictator was clearly guided by the one who adopted the traditions of government from the conquered Persians. In addition, the first steps towards the deification of the Macedonian ruler appeared after a visit to Egypt, as in the case of Caesar, where both rulers could personally get acquainted with the monumental evidence of the sacralization of the power of the pharaohs, although Guy was much more careful in announcing the final deification.

It is possible that for Caesarion, who was born of Cleopatra, the last living heiress of Alexander's empire, Caesar had further plans that he did not have time to implement. However, the paternity of the dictator was questioned even in ancient times and Caesarion was never declared the official heir of Guy.

Julius Caesar's reforms:

Using a combination of different powers and not meeting open opposition in the Senate and the People's Assembly, Caesar carried out a series of reforms in 49-44 BC. e.

The details of the dictator's activities are known mainly from the writings of the authors of the era of the Empire, and there is very little evidence of contemporaries on this issue.

In the sphere of government, Caesar increased the number of the majority of the colleges of the curule (senior) magistrates. The number of praetors elected annually increased from 8, first to 14, and then to 16. The number of quaestors was increased by 20 people annually, and aediles by 2 at the expense of aediles ceriales, who controlled the supply of bread.

The number of augurs, pontiffs, and members of the College of Quindezemvir also increased.

The dictator arrogated to himself the right to nominate candidates for key positions: at first it was done unofficially, and then he officially received this right. He removed unwanted candidates from the elections. Guy often promoted people of common origin to high positions: it is known that more than half of the consuls elected under the patronage of Caesar were "new people" (homines novi), among whose ancestors there were no consuls.

The dictator also replenished the Senate, which was empty as a result of civil strife in the 50s BC. e. and civil war. In total, Caesar revised the lists of senators three times and, according to Dion Cassius, eventually brought their number to 900 people, but this number was hardly accurate and constant. Many of the people included in the Senate did not belong to the old Roman families, but to the provincial aristocracy and the equestrian class. Contemporaries, however, spread rumors that both the children of freedmen and barbarians were enrolled in the number of senators.

The dictator revised the system of recruiting judges for permanent criminal courts (quaestiones perpetuae), granting half of the seats to senators and equestrians instead of the previous third, which became possible after the expulsion of the era tribunes from the collegiums.

Caesar legislatively joined the ranks of the patrician class, whose representatives traditionally held some important positions in the religious sphere. Most of the patrician families have already died out, and by the middle of the 1st century BC. e. there are only a little more than ten of them left.

Dismissed many public collegia (collegiae), a large part of which in the 50s BC. e. was used to recruit armed supporters of demagogues and to bribe voters in the polls.

Assessments of Caesar's political reforms vary. A number of researchers see in his political activities the actual establishment of a "democratic monarchy" (Theodor Mommsen), a Hellenistic or Eastern monarchy (Robert Yurievich Vipper, Eduard Meyer) or the Roman version of an absolute monarchy (Matthias Geltzer, John Bolsdon).

In an effort to enlist the support of the inhabitants of the provinces, Caesar actively bestowed various benefits and privileges on them. Residents of several cities (in particular, Hades and Olisipo) received full Roman citizenship, and some others (Vienne, Tolosa, Avennio and others) received Latin law.

At the same time, only the cities of the western provinces received Roman citizenship, while the Hellenized policies of Greece and Asia Minor did not receive such privileges, and the Greek cities of Sicily received only Latin law.

Physicians and liberal arts teachers who lived in Rome received full Roman citizenship.

The dictator reduced taxes from Narbonne Gaul, and also transferred the provinces of Asia and Sicily to direct payment of taxes, bypassing the tax farmers. The dictator made adjustments to the process of distributing free bread, which took away a significant part of the state budget expenditures. First, the lists of recipients of free bread were cut in half - from more than 300 to 150 thousand (this reduction is sometimes associated with a drop in the total population due to civil wars). Secondly, some of the former recipients were able to relocate to new colonies in various provinces of the Roman state. Caesar's demobilized soldiers also received land plots and did not create an additional burden on the grain distribution system.

Among other measures for colonization, Caesar repopulated Carthage and Corinth, destroyed by the Romans simultaneously in 146 BC. e. To solve the important task of increasing the number of people fit for military service, Caesar took various measures to support fathers with many children.

In an effort to limit uncontrolled emigration to the provinces, Caesar forbade the full-fledged residents of Rome and Italy between the ages of 20 and 40 to leave the Apennines for more than three years in a row, and the children of senators could go to the province only as soldiers or members of the viceroy's retinue.

To replenish the budgets of urban communities, Caesar decided to return to Italy trade duties on imported goods.

Finally, to partially solve the problem of unemployment, the dictator issued a decree that at least a third of the shepherds in Italy should be recruited from free people, not slaves.

Caesar's extensive construction projects, both in Rome and outside the capital, also pursued the task of reducing unemployment. By 46 BC. e. the construction of the new Forum of Caesar, which began during the Gallic War, was completed (only the ruins of the temple of Venus the Ancestor, which was laid according to a vow made before the Battle of Pharsal, have survived to this day). The dictator undertook to rebuild the Senate building, which burned down in 52 BC. BC: Faust Sulla, who had previously been entrusted with this mission by the Senate, was killed during the civil war.

As a punishment for a number of crimes, Caesar consolidated exile, and ordered that half of the fortune be confiscated from the rich.

He also issued new laws against luxury: the use of personal stretchers, pearl jewelry, purple-dyed clothing was prohibited, in addition to which the trade in refined products was regulated and the luxury of tombstones was limited.

Guy also planned to create in Rome a large library based on the model of Alexandria and Pergamon, entrusting the organization to the encyclopedist Mark Terence Varro, but the death of the dictator upset these plans.

Finally, in 46 BC e. Caesar announced the reform of the Roman calendar... Instead of the previous lunar calendar, a solar calendar was introduced, developed by the Alexandrian scientist Sozigen and consisting of 365 days with one additional day every four years. However, in order to carry out the reform, it was first necessary to bring the current calendar in line with astronomical time. The new calendar was used throughout Europe throughout sixteen centuries, until the development of a slightly revised version of the calendar, called the Gregorian, on behalf of Pope Gregory XIII.

Assassination of Julius Caesar:

At the beginning of 44 BC. e. in Rome, there was a conspiracy among the Roman nobles, dissatisfied with the autocracy of Caesar and feared rumors about the coming name of him tsar. Mark Junius Brutus and Guy Cassius Longinus are considered the inspirations of the conspiracy. In addition to them, many other prominent persons were involved in the conspiracy - both the Pompeians and the supporters of Caesar.

The conspiracy around Brutus, apparently, was not the first attempt to kill the dictator: the conspiracy of 46 BC is known, although without details. e. and preparations for an assassination attempt by Gaius Trebonius. At this time, Caesar was preparing for a war with Parthia, and rumors spread in Rome about his upcoming appointment as king and about the transfer of the capital to Troy or Alexandria.

The implementation of the plans of the conspirators was scheduled for a meeting of the Senate in the curia of Pompey near his theater on March 15 - Ides of March according to Roman time. The ancient authors accompany the description of the events that preceded the Ides of March with a listing of various signs and indications that the well-wishers tried to warn the dictator, but by coincidence he did not listen to them or did not believe their words.

After the meeting began, a group of conspirators gathered around Lucius Tillius Zimber, who asked Caesar for forgiveness for his brother, while another group stood behind Caesar. When Cimbrus began to pull the toga from Caesar's neck, signaling the conspirators, Publius Servilius Casca, standing behind, struck the first blow in the neck of the dictator. Caesar fought back, but when he saw Mark Brutus, then, according to legend, said "And you, my child!" in Greek (Old Greek καὶ σὺ τέκνον).

According to Plutarch, Guy fell silent at the sight of Brutus and ceased to resist. The same author notes that Caesar's body happened to be near the statue of Pompey standing in the room, or was deliberately transferred there by the conspirators themselves. In total, 23 wounds were found on Caesar's body.

After the funeral games and several speeches, the crowd burned Caesar's corpse at the forum, using the benches and tables of market traders for the funeral pyre: “Some offered to burn it in the Temple of Jupiter Capitoline, others in the curia of Pompey, when suddenly two unknown persons appeared, belted with swords, brandishing darts, and set fire to the building with wax torches. Immediately, the surrounding crowd began to drag dry brushwood, benches, judicial chairs, and everything that had been brought into the fire into the fire. Then the flutists and actors began to strip off the triumphal garments they had worn for such a day, and, tearing them apart, threw them into the flames; old legionnaires burned the weapons with which they adorned for the funeral, and many women - their clothes that were on them, bulls and children's dresses ".

According to Caesar's will, each Roman received three hundred sesterces from the dictator, the gardens over the Tiber were transferred to public use. The childless dictator, unexpectedly for everyone, adopted his grand-nephew Guy Octavius ​​and gave him three-quarters of his fortune. Octavius ​​changed his name to Guy Julius Caesar, although he is better known in historiography as Octavian. Some Caesarians (in particular, Mark Antony) unsuccessfully tried to achieve recognition as the heir of Caesarion instead of Octavian. Subsequently, Antony and Octavian formed a second triumvirate together with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, but after a new civil war, Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome.

Shortly after Caesar's assassination, a bright comet appeared in the sky. Since it was very bright (its absolute stellar magnitude is estimated at -4.0) and appeared in the sky during the ceremonial games in honor of Caesar by Octavian, the belief spread in Rome that it was the soul of a murdered dictator.

Family and personal life of Julius Caesar:

Caesar was married at least three times.

The status of his relationship with Cossutia, a girl from a wealthy equestrian family, is not entirely clear, due to the poor preservation of sources about Caesar's childhood and youth. Traditionally, it is assumed that Caesar and Cossutia were engaged, although Guy's biographer Plutarch considers Cossutia to be his wife.

The dissolution of relations with Cossutia occurred, apparently, in 84 BC. e.

Very soon Caesar married Cornelia, daughter of the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna.

The second wife of Caesar was Pompey, the granddaughter of the dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla (she was not a relative of Gnaeus Pompey). The marriage took place around 68 or 67 BC. e. In December 62 BC. e. Caesar divorces her after a scandal at the festival of the Good Goddess.

For the third time, Caesar married Calpurnia from a wealthy and influential plebeian family. This wedding took place, apparently, in May 59 BC. e.

Around 78 BC e. Cornelia gave birth to Julia. Caesar organized the engagement of his daughter to Quintus Servilius Tsepion, but then changed his mind and passed her off as Gnaeus Pompey.

While in Egypt during the civil war, Caesar cohabited with Cleopatra, and presumably in the summer of 46 BC. e. she had a son known as Caesarion (Plutarch specifies that this name was given to him by the Alexandrians, and not by the dictator). Despite the similarity of names and time of birth, Caesar did not officially recognize the child as his own, and his contemporaries knew almost nothing about him before the assassination of the dictator.

After the Ides of March, when Cleopatra's son was circumvented in the will of the dictator, some Caesarians (in particular, Mark Antony) tried to get him to be recognized as the heir instead of Octavian. Due to the propaganda campaign unfolding around the issue of Caesarion's paternity, it is difficult to establish his relationship with the dictator.

According to the unanimous testimony of ancient authors, Caesar was distinguished by sexual promiscuity. Suetonius gives a list of his most famous mistresses and gives him the following description: "By the general opinion, he was greedy and wasteful for amorous pleasures."

A number of documents, in particular, the biography of Suetonius' authorship, and one of the epigram poems of Catullus, sometimes allow Caesar to be ranked among the famous homosexuals.

Robert Etienne, however, draws attention to the extreme scarcity of such evidence - as a rule, the story with Nicomedes is mentioned. Suetonius calls this rumor "the only stain" on Guy's sexual reputation. Such hints were made, among others, by ill-wishers. However, modern researchers draw attention to the fact that the Romans reproached Caesar not with homosexual contacts themselves, but only with a passive role in them. The fact is that in the Roman view, any actions in the "penetrating" role, regardless of the sex of the partner, were considered normal for a man. On the contrary, the passive role of the man was considered reprehensible. According to Dion Cassius, Guy vehemently denied all hints of his connection with Nicomedes, although he usually rarely lost his temper.

Gaius Julius Caesar had many talents, but he remained in history thanks to the main one, the ability to please people. Origin played a significant role in Caesar's success - the Julian family, according to biographical sources, was one of the most ancient in Rome. Julia's ancestry originated from the legendary Aeneas (son of the goddess Venus), who fled from Troy and founded a dynasty of Roman kings. Caesar was born in 102 BC, while the husband of his aunt Guy Marius defeated an army of thousands of Germans on the border of Italy. His father, who was also called Gaius Julius Caesar, did not achieve heights in his career. He was the proconsul of Asia. But the relationship of Caesar Jr. with Mary opened up a brilliant future for the young man.

At the age of 16, young Caesar marries Cornelia, daughter of Cinna, Mary's closest associate. Around 83 BC. they had a daughter, Julia, Caesar's only legitimate child, while he had illegitimate children already in his youth. Often leaving his wife alone, Caesar roamed the taverns in the company of his drinking companions. He differed from his peers only in that he loved to read - Caesar read all the books in Latin and Greek that he could find, and more than once amazed his interlocutors with knowledge in various fields.

As an admirer of ancient sages, he did not believe in the constancy of his life, peaceful and secure. And he was right - when Marius died in Rome, a civil war began. Power took over the leader of the aristocratic party Sulla, who began repressions against the Marians. Guy, who refused to divorce his daughter Cinna, was deprived of his property, and he himself was forced into hiding. "Look for the wolf cub, a hundred Marievs are sitting in it!" The dictator demanded. However, Guy, meanwhile, had already gone to Asia Minor, to the friends of his recently deceased father.

Not far from Miletus, his ship was captured by pirates. The smartly dressed youth interested them, and they demanded a large ransom for him - 20 talents of silver. "You appreciate me inexpensively!" - answered the descendant of Venus and offered 50 talents for himself. Having sent his servant to collect the ransom, he was "visiting" the pirates for two months.

Julius Caesar behaved quite defiantly with the pirates - he forbade them to sit in his presence, called them boors and threatened to be crucified on the cross. Having finally obtained the money, the pirates were relieved to let the impudent go. Guy immediately went to the Roman military authorities, equipped several ships and overtook his captors in the same place where he was captured. Taking money from them, he actually crucified the pirates - however, those who were more attractive to him, he had previously ordered to strangle.

Sulla, meanwhile, had died, but his party supporters remained in power, and Julius Caesar was in no hurry to return to the capital. He spent a year in Rhodes, studying eloquence - the ability to speak was necessary for the politician, whom he firmly decided to become.

From the school of Apollonius Molon, where Cicero himself studied, Caesar emerged as a brilliant orator, ready to conquer Rome. His first speech was delivered in 68 BC. at the funeral of his aunt, widow Maria, - he fervently praised the disgraced commander and his reforms, thereby causing a commotion among the Sullans. An interesting fact is that at the funeral of his wife, who died in unsuccessful childbirth a year earlier, he did not say a word.

The speech in defense of Mary was the beginning of his election campaign - Julius Caesar put forward his candidacy for the post of quaestor. Such an insignificant post made it possible to become a praetor, and then a consul - the highest representative of power in the Roman Republic. Having borrowed from whom he could only a huge amount, 1000 talents, the descendant of Venus spent it on magnificent feasts and gifts to those on whom his election depended. In those days, two commanders, Pompey and Crassus, were fighting for power in Rome, to whom Guy offered his support in turn.

This earned him the post of quaestor, and then aedilus, the official who was in charge of the festivities in Rome. Unlike other politicians, he generously gave the people not bread, but entertainment - either gladiator fights, or music competitions, or the anniversary of a long-forgotten victory. Simple Romans were delighted with him. He earned the sympathy of the educated Roman stratum of society by creating a public museum on Capitol Hill, where he exhibited his rich collection of Greek statues. As a result, he was elected to the post of high pontiff, that is, a priest.

Believing in nothing but your luck. Julius Caesar found it difficult to maintain seriousness during his lavish religious ceremonies. However, the post of pontiff made him inviolable. This kept him alive when Catalina's conspiracy was discovered in 62. The conspirators gathered to offer Guy the post of dictator. They were executed, but Caesar survived.

In the same 62 BC. he becomes a praetor, but he got into such debts that he was forced to leave the Eternal City and go to Spain as governor. There he quickly amassed a fortune, bringing rebellious cities to ruin. He generously shared the surplus with his soldiers, saying: "Power is strengthened by two things - the army and money, and one is unthinkable without the other." He was declared emperor by grateful soldiers - this ancient title was given as a reward for a major victory, although the governor never won a single such victory.

After that, Guy was elected consul, but this position was too small for him. The days of the republican system were drawing to a close, things were moving towards autocracy, and Julius Caesar was determined to become the true ruler of Rome. To do this, he had to enter into an alliance with Pompey and Crassus, whom he did not manage to reconcile for long.

60 BC - a triumvirate of new allies seized power. To consolidate the alliance, Caesar gave his daughter Julia to Pompey, and he himself married his niece. Moreover, rumor attributed to him a relationship with the wives of Crassus and Pompey. Yes, and other Roman matrons, according to rumors, he did not bypass his attention. The soldiers sang a song about him: "Hide your wives - we are taking a bald lecher to the city!"

In fact, he went bald early, he was embarrassed about it and got permission from the Senate to wear the laurel wreath of triumphant on his head all the time. Bald, according to Suetonius, was the only flaw in the biography of Julius Caesar. He was tall, well built, had fair skin, and his eyes were black and lively. In food, he knew when to stop, he also drank quite a bit for a Roman; even his enemy Cato said that "Caesar was one of all who carried out a coup d'etat, being sober."

He also had one more nickname - "the husband of all wives and the wife of all husbands." It was rumored that in Asia Minor the young Caesar had a relationship with the king of Bithynia Nicomedes. Well, the customs in ancient Rome were such that it could well turn out to be true. In any case, Guy never tried to shut the mouth of the scoffers, professing a completely modern principle "whatever they say, just say." As a rule, they said good things - in his new post he, as before, generously supplied the Roman mob with spectacles, to which he now added bread. Popular love was not cheap, the consul again went into debt and in irritation called himself "the poorest of citizens."

He breathed a sigh of relief when, after a year in the post of consul, he, according to Roman customs, had to resign. Caesar got from the Senate that he was sent to rule Schllia, the present-day France. The Romans owned only a small part of this rich country. For 8 years, Julius Caesar was able to conquer the whole of Shllia. But, oddly enough, many Gauls loved him - having learned their language, he asked with curiosity about their religion and customs.

Today, his "Notes on the Gallic War" is not only the main source of biography about the Gauls, who went into oblivion not without the help of Caesar, but one of the first historical examples of political PR. In them the descendant of Venus was flaunted. that they took by storm 800 cities, destroyed a million enemies, and another million were enslaved, giving their lands to the Roman veterans. Veterans gratefully said at all corners that on campaigns Julius Caesar walked alongside them, encouraging those who lagged behind. He rode on a horse like a born rider. I spent the night in a cart under the open sky, only in the rain I covered myself with a canopy. At a halt, he dictated to several secretaries two or even three letters on various topics.

The correspondence of Caesar that was so lively in those days was explained by the fact that after the death of Crassus in the Persian campaign, the triumvirate came to an end. Pompey no longer trusted Caesar, who already surpassed him in fame and wealth. At his insistence, the senate recalled Julius Caesar from Gillia and ordered him to appear in the Eternal City, leaving the army at the border.

The decisive moment has come. At the beginning of 49 BC. Caesar approached the border river Rubicon north of Rimini and ordered 5,000 of his soldiers to cross it and advance to Rome. They say that while he uttered once again the historical phrase - "the lot is cast." In fact, the die was cast much earlier, even when the young Caesar was mastering the intricacies of politics.

Already in those days, he realized that power is given into the hands of only those who can sacrifice everything else for it - friendship, family, a sense of gratitude. Former son-in-law Pompey, who helped him a lot at the beginning of his career, now became the main enemy and, not having time to gather strength, fled to Greece. Caesar with his army set off after him and, without giving him time to recover, defeated his army at Pharsalus. Pompey fled again, now to Egypt, where local dignitaries killed him, deciding to earn the mercy of Julius Caesar.

Such an outcome was quite beneficial for Tom, especially since he gave him a reason to send an army against the Egyptians, accusing them of killing a Roman citizen. Having demanded a huge ransom for this, he wanted to pay off the army, but everything turned out differently. The young Cleopatra, sister of the reigning king Ptolemy XTV, who appeared to the commander, suddenly offered herself to him - and in a place with her, her kingdom.

Guy, before going to Gaul, married a third time - to the wealthy heiress Calpurnia, but did not feel for her. He fell in love with Cleopatra as if she had bewitched him. But over time, she also experienced a real feeling for the aging Caesar. Later, the conqueror of the world, under a hail of reproaches, received Cleopatra in the Eternal City, and she listened to even worse reproaches for going to him, the first of the Egyptian rulers to leave the sacred Nile Valley.

In the meantime, the lovers were besieged by the rebellious Egyptians in the harbor of Alexandria. To save the city, the Romans set fire to the city. destroying the famous Library of Alexandria. They were able to hold out until the arrival of reinforcements, and the uprising was suppressed. On the way home, Julius Caesar casually defeated the army of the Pontic king Pharnaces, reporting this to Rome with the famous phrase: "I came, I saw, I won."

He had a chance to fight twice more with the adherents of Pompey - in Africa and Spain. Only in 45 BC. he returned to Rome, ravaged by civil wars, and was declared dictator for life. Julius Caesar himself preferred to call himself emperor - this emphasized his connection with the army and military victories.

Having achieved the desired power, the descendant of Venus managed to do three important things. First, he reformed the Roman calendar, which the malicious Greeks called "the worst in the world." With the help of Egyptian astronomers, who were sent by Cleopatra, he divided the year into 12 months and ordered to add an extra leap day to it every 4 years. The new, Julian calendar turned out to be the most accurate of the existing ones and lasted one and a half thousand years, and the Russian Church uses it to this day. Second, he pardoned all his political opponents. Third, he began to mint gold coins, on which, instead of the gods, Caesar himself was depicted in a laurel wreath. After Caesar, they began to officially call the Son of God.

From this there was only a step to the royal title. Flatterers had long offered him the crown, and the Egyptian queen had just given him a son, Caesarion, who could have been his heir. Caesar found it tempting to found a new dynasty, uniting the two great powers. But when the closest associate Mark Anthony publicly wanted to put on him a golden royal crown, Caesar pushed him away. Maybe he decided that the time had not come yet, maybe he didn’t want to turn from the only emperor in the world into an ordinary king, of whom there were many around.

The smallness of what was done is easily explained - Julius Caesar peacefully ruled Rome for less than two years. The fact that at the same time he was remembered for centuries as a great statesman is another manifestation of his charisma, influencing his descendants as strongly as his contemporaries. They planned new transformations, but the treasury of Rome was empty. To replenish it. Caesar decided to embark on a new military campaign that promised to make him the greatest conqueror in history. He wanted to crush the Persian kingdom, and then return to the Eternal City by the northern route, conquering the Armenians, Scythians and Germans.

Leaving Rome, he had to leave reliable people "on the farm" in order to avoid a possible rebellion. Guy Julius Caesar had three such people: his devoted comrade-in-arms, Mark Antony, his adopted son, Guy Octavian, and the son of his longtime mistress Servilia, Mark Brutus. Antony attracted the emperor with the decisiveness of a warrior, Octavian - with the cold prudence of a politician. It is more difficult to understand what could connect Caesar with the already elderly Brutus, a boring pedant, an ardent supporter of the republic. And yet Caesar promoted him to power, publicly calling him his "dear son." Perhaps, with the sober mind of a politician, he understood that someone should remind of the republican virtues, without which the Eternal City will decay and perish. At the same time, Brutus could try on two of his comrades, who clearly disliked each other.

The emperor, who knew everything and everyone, did not know - or did not want to know or believe - that his "son", together with other Republicans, was preparing a conspiracy against him. Caesar was informed about this more than once, but he brushed it off, saying: "If so, it is better to die once than to live in fear constantly." The assassination attempt was scheduled for the Ides of March - the 15th day of the month when Guy was supposed to appear in the Senate. Suetonius' detailed account of this event gives the impression of a tragic action, in which the emperor played the role of a victim, a martyr of the monarchist idea, like clockwork. At the Senate building he received a warning note, but he waved it off.

One of the conspirators, Decimus Brutus, distracted the stalwart Antony at the entrance, so as not to interfere. Tillius Cimbre grabbed Julius Caesar by the toga - this was a signal for the others - and Servilius Casca hit him first. Further blows rained down one after another - each of the killers tried to do their bit, and in the junkyard they even wounded each other. After the conspirators parted, and Brutus approached the barely alive emperor leaning against the column. The "son" silently raised his dagger, and the slain descendant of Venus fell dead, having managed to utter the last historical phrase: "And you, Brutus!"

As soon as this happened, the senators, seized with horror, who had become unwitting spectators of the murder, rushed to flee. The murderers also scattered, throwing down their bloody daggers. The corpse of Julius Caesar lay for a long time in an empty building, until the faithful Calpurnia sent slaves for it. The body of the emperor was burned at the Roman forum, where a temple to the divine Julius was later erected. The month of quintiles in his honor was renamed July (Iulius).

The conspirators hoped for the Romans' loyalty to the spirit of the republic, but the solid power established by the dictator seemed more attractive than the republican chaos. Soon enough, the townspeople rushed to look for Caesar's killers and put them to a cruel death. Suetonius ends his story about the biography of Gai Yulia with the words: “No one of his killers has lived more than 3 years after that. They all died in different ways, and Brutus and Cassius struck themselves with the same dagger with which they killed Caesar. "

V.Erlikhman

A courageous man and seducer of women, Gaius Julius Caesar is a great Roman commander and emperor, famous for his military exploits, as well as for the character that made the name of the ruler a household name. Julius is one of the most famous rulers who ruled in ancient Rome.

The exact date of birth of this person is unknown, historians are considered to be that Gaius Julius Caesar was born in 100 BC. At least this is the date used by historians in most countries, although in France it is generally accepted that Julius was born in 101. A German historian who lived in the early 19th century was sure that Caesar was born in 102 BC, but the assumptions of Theodor Mommsen are not used in modern historical literature.

Such disagreements between biographers are caused by ancient primary sources: ancient Roman scholars also disagreed about the true date of birth of Caesar.

The Roman emperor and commander came from a noble patrician family Julius. Legends tell that this dynasty began with Aeneas, who, according to ancient Greek mythology, became famous in the Trojan War. And the parents of Aeneas are a descendant of the Dardanian kings Anchises and the goddess of beauty and love Aphrodite (according to Roman mythology, Venus). The story of the divine origin Julius knew the Roman nobility, because this legend was successfully spread by the relatives of the ruler. Caesar himself, at an opportunity, liked to remember that there were Gods in his family. Scientists hypothesize that the Roman ruler comes from the Julian family, who were the ruling class at the beginning of the founding of the Roman Republic in the 5th-4th centuries BC.

Scientists also put forward various assumptions about the nickname of the emperor "Caesar". Perhaps one of the Julian dynasty was born by caesarean section. The name of the procedure comes from the word caesarea, which means "royal". According to another opinion, someone from the Roman family was born with long and unkempt hair, which was designated by the word "caeserius".

The family of the future politician lived in abundance. Caesar's father, Gaius Julius, served in a public office, and his mother came from a noble family of Cott.

Although the general's family was wealthy, Caesar spent his childhood in the Roman region of Subura. This area was full of women of easy virtue, and also lived there by and large poor. Ancient historians describe Suburu as a dirty and damp area, devoid of intellectuals.

Caesar's parents strove to give their son an excellent education: the boy studied philosophy, poetry, oratory, and also developed physically, studied equestrian sports. The Gaulish scholar Mark Antony Gnifon taught the young Caesar literature and etiquette. Whether the young man was engaged in serious and exact sciences, such as mathematics and geometry, or history and jurisprudence, biographers do not know. Gaius Julius Caesar received a Roman education, from childhood the future ruler was a patriot and was not influenced by fashionable Greek culture.

At about 85g. BC. Julius lost his father, so Caesar, as the only man, became the main breadwinner.

Politics

When the boy was 13 years old, the future commander was elected to the priesthood of the main God in Roman mythology, Jupiter - this title was one of the main posts of the then hierarchy. However, this fact cannot be called the pure merits of the young man, because Caesar's sister, Julia, was married to Mary, an ancient Roman commander and politician.

But in order to become a flamin, according to the law, Julius had to marry, and the military commander Cornelius Cinna (he offered the boy the role of priest) chose Caesar's chosen one - his own daughter Cornelia Cinilla.

In 82, Caesar had to flee Rome. The reason for this was the inauguration of Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, who began a dictatorial and bloody policy. Sulla Felix presented Caesar to divorce his wife Cornelia, but the future emperor refused, which provoked the anger of the current commander. Also Gaius Julius was expelled from Rome because he was a relative of Lucius's opponent Cornelius.

Caesar was stripped of the title of Flamin, as well as the giving of a wife and his own property. Dressed in poor clothes, Julia had to flee the Great Empire.

Friends and relatives asked Sulla to take pity on Julius, and because of their petition, Caesar was returned to his homeland. In addition, the Roman emperor did not see the danger in the person of Julius and said that Caesar was the same as Marius.

But life under the leadership of Sulla Felix was unbearable for the Romans, so Gaius Julius Caesar went to the Roman province of Asia Minor to learn the craft of war. There he became an associate of Mark Minucius Therma, lived in Bithynia and Cilicia, and also participated in the war against the Greek city of Methylene. Taking part in the capture of the city, Caesar saved the soldier, for which he received the second most important award - the civil crown (oak wreath).

In 78 BC. residents of Italy who disagreed with Sulla's activities tried to organize a rebellion against the bloody dictator. The initiator was the military leader and consul Mark Aemilius Lepidus. Mark invited Caesar to participate in the uprising against the emperor, but Julius refused.

After the death of the Roman dictator, in 77 BC, Caesar tries to bring to justice two of Felix's henchmen: Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella and Guy Antony Gabrida. Julius appeared before the judges with a brilliant oratorical speech, but the Sullans managed to avoid punishment. Caesar's accusations were written down in manuscripts and spread throughout Ancient Rome. However, Julius considered it necessary to improve his oratory skills and went to Rhodes: The teacher, rhetorician Apollonius Molon, lived on the island.

On the way to Rhodes, Caesar was captured by local pirates, who demanded a ransom for the future emperor. While in captivity, Julius was not afraid of robbers, but, on the contrary, joked with them and recited poems. After being freed from the hostages, Julius equipped a squadron and set off to capture the pirates. It was not possible to provide the court of robbers to Caesar, so he decided to execute the offenders. But due to the gentleness of character, Julius initially ordered them to be killed, and then crucified on the cross so that the robbers would not suffer.

In 73 BC. Julius became a member of the high college of priests, which was formerly ruled by the brother of Caesar's mother, Gaius Aurelius Cotta.

In 68 BC, Caesar marries Pompey, a relative of the companion-in-arms, and then the worst enemy of Gaius Julius Caesar, Gnaeus Pompey. Two years later, the future emperor receives the post of Roman magistrate and is engaged in the improvement of the capital of Italy, organizes celebrations, and helps the poor. And also, having received the title of senator, he appears on political intrigues, which is what gains popularity. Caesar participated in the Leges frumentariae ("laws of bread"), according to which the population acquired bread at a reduced price or received it for free, as well as in 49-44 BC. Julius carried out a number of reforms

Wars

The Gallic War is the most famous event in the history of Ancient Rome and the biography of Guy Julius Caesar.

Caesar became proconsul, by this time Italy owned the province of Narbonne Gaul (the territory of present-day France). Julius went to negotiate with the leader of the Celtic tribe in Geneva, as the Helvetians began to migrate due to the invasion of the Germans.

Thanks to his oratory, Caesar managed to persuade the leader of the tribe not to enter the territory of the Roman Empire. However, the Helvetians reached Central Gaul, where the Aedui, allies of Rome, lived. Caesar, pursuing the Celtic tribe, defeated their army. At the same time, Julius defeated the Germanic Suevi, who attacked the Gallic lands located on the territory of the Rhine River. After the war, the emperor wrote an essay on the conquest of Galia "Notes on the Gallic War."

In 55 BC, the coming Germanic tribes were defeated by the Roman commander, and later Caesar himself decided to visit the territory of the Germans.

Caesar is the first commander of Ancient Rome who made a military campaign on the territory of the Rhine: Julius's detachment moved along a specially built 400-meter bridge. However, the army of the Roman commander did not stay on the territory of Germany, and he made an attempt to make a campaign against the possessions of Britain. There, the commander won a number of crushing victories, but the position of the Roman army was unstable, and Caesar had to retreat. In addition, in 54 BC. Julius is forced to return to Gaul in order to suppress the rebellion: the Gauls outnumbered the Roman army, but were defeated. By 50 BC, Gaius Julius Caesar had restored the territories that belonged to the Roman Empire.

During the hostilities, Caesar showed both strategic qualities and diplomatic skill, he knew how to manipulate the Gallic leaders and instill contradictions in them.

Dictatorship

After the seizure of Roman power, Julius became a dictator and enjoyed his position. Caesar changed the composition of the Senate, and also transformed the social structure of the empire: the lower classes stopped chasing to Rome, because the dictator canceled payments of subsidies and reduced the distribution of bread.

Also, while in office, Caesar is engaged in construction: in Rome, a new building named after Caesar was erected, where the Senate meeting was held, and an idol of the patroness of love and the Julian family, the Goddess Venus, was erected in the central square of the Italian capital. Caesar was named emperor, his images and sculptures adorned the temples and streets of Rome. Every word of the Roman general was equated to the law.

Personal life

In addition to Cornelia Cinilla and Pompeii Sulla, the Roman emperor also had women. Julia's third wife was Calpurnia Pisonis, who came from a noble plebeian family and was a distant relative of Caesar's mother. The girl was married to the commander in 59 BC, the reason for this marriage is explained by political goals, after the marriage of his daughter, Calpurnia's father becomes consul.

If we talk about Caesar's sex life, then the Roman dictator was loving and had connections with women on the side.

The Women of Guy Julius Caesar: Cornelia Cinilla, Calpurnia Pisonis and Servilia

It is also rumored that Julius Caesar was bisexual and entered into carnal pleasures with men, for example, historians recall his youthful relationship with Nicomedes. Perhaps such stories took place only because they tried to slander Caesar.

If we talk about the famous mistresses of the politician, then one of the women on the side of the commander was Servilia - the wife of Mark Junius Brutus and the second bride of the consul Junius Silanus.

Caesar was condescending to the love of Servilia, so he tried to fulfill the wishes of her son Brutus, making him one of the first persons in Rome.

But the most famous woman of the Roman emperor is the Egyptian queen. At the time of meeting with the ruler, who turned 21, Caesar was over fifty: a laurel wreath covered his bald head, and there were wrinkles on his face. Despite the age, the Roman emperor conquered the young beauty, the happy existence of the lovers lasted 2.5 years and ended when Caesar was killed.

It is known that Julius Caesar had two children: a daughter from his first marriage, Julia, and a son, born to Cleopatra, Ptolemy Caesarion.

Death

The Roman emperor died on March 15, 44 BC. The cause of death is a conspiracy of senators who resented the dictator's four-year rule. The conspiracy involved 14 people, but Mark Junius Brutus, the son of Servilia, the emperor's mistress, is considered the main one. Caesar infinitely loved Brutus and trusted him, placing the young man in the highest position and protecting him from difficulties. However, the devoted Republican Mark Junius, for political purposes, was ready to kill the one who supported him infinitely.

Some ancient historians believed that Brutus was Caesar's son, since Servilia had an amorous relationship with the commander at the time of the conception of the future conspirator, but this theory cannot be confirmed by reliable sources.

According to legend, the day before the conspiracy against Caesar, his wife Calpurnia had a bad dream, but the Roman emperor was too trusting, and besides, he recognized himself as a fatalist - he believed in the predetermination of events.

The conspirators gathered in the building where the Senate meetings were held, near the theater of Pompeii. No one wanted to become the sole killer of Julius, so the criminals decided that everyone would deal one single blow to the dictator.

The ancient Roman historian Suetonius wrote that when Julius Caesar saw Brutus, he asked: "And you, my child?", And in his book he wrote the famous quote: "And you, Brutus?"

Caesar's death precipitated the fall of the Roman Empire: the inhabitants of Italy, who valued Caesar's government, were enraged that a group of Romans had killed the great emperor. To the surprise of the conspirators, Caesar was named the only heir - Guy Octavian.

The life of Julius Caesar, as well as stories about the commander, are replete with interesting facts and riddles:

• The month of July is named after the Roman emperor;
• Caesar's contemporaries argued that the emperor had epileptic seizures;
• During gladiatorial battles, Caesar constantly wrote something on sheets of paper. Once the ruler was asked how he manages to do two things at once? To which he replied: "Caesar can do three things at the same time: And write, and watch, and listen."... This expression became winged, sometimes Caesar is jokingly called the person who simultaneously takes on several cases;
• In almost all photographic portraits, Gaius Julius Caesar appears before the audience in a laurel wreath. Indeed, in life the commander often wore this triumphant headdress, because he began to go bald early;

• About 10 films have been filmed about the great commander, but not all of them are biographical. For example, in the series "Rome" the ruler recalls the uprising of Spartacus, but some scholars believe that the two commanders are connected only by the fact that they were contemporaries;
• Phrase "I came, I saw, I conquered" belongs to Gaius Julius Caesar: the commander pronounced it after the capture of Turkey;
• Caesar used a code for secret correspondence with the generals. Although the "Caesar cipher" is primitive: the letter in the word was replaced by the symbol that was to the left or to the right in the alphabet;
• The famous Caesar salad is named not after the Roman ruler, but after the chef who came up with the recipe.

Quotes

• "Victory depends on the valor of the legions."
• "When one loves - call it what you want: slavery, affection, respect ... But this is not love - love is always reciprocity!"
• "Live so that your friends will get bored when you die."
• "No victory will bring as much as one defeat can take away."
• "War gives the conquerors the right to dictate any conditions to the conquered."