Who united the principalities in Russia. The reasons for the unification of Russia, the main directions of the process of unification of Russia. Socio-economic development in the XIV - XVI centuries

The Moscow principality became independent under the son of Alexander Nevsky Daniel in 1276. At that time, no one could have imagined that it could become the center of the collection of Russian lands. More real contenders were Tver, Ryazan, Novgorod. However, already in the reign of Ivan Kalita, the role and importance of the young principality grew immeasurably.

The main reasons for the rise of Moscow steel: its relative remoteness from the Horde; skillful policy of the Moscow princes; transfer to Moscow of the right to collect tribute; patronage of the Horde khans; the intersection of trade routes in North-Eastern Russia, etc. However, there were two main prerequisites: the transformation of Moscow into the center of the struggle for liberation from the Horde domination; transfer to Moscow under Ivan Kalita of the center of the Russian Orthodox Church.

There are several main stages of collection Moscow of the Russian lands. On the first(from the formation of the Moscow principality to the reign of Ivan Kalita and his sons Semyon Proud and Ivan the Red) laid the foundations for the economic and political power of the principality. On the second(the reign of Dmitry Donskoy and his son Vasily I) the military confrontation between Russia and the Horde begins and proceeds quite successfully. The largest battles of this time were the battles on the river. Vozhe (1378) and on the Kulikovo field (1380). At the same time, the territory of the Muscovite state is expanding significantly. The international authority of the Moscow princes is growing (Vasily 1 was married, for example, to the daughter of the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vitovt). Third stage(1425-1462) is characterized by a long feudal war between Grand Duke Vasily II and his closest relatives. The main meaning of this struggle was no longer upholding the leading position of Moscow, but the desire to seize power in the growing Muscovite state, which was gaining strength and weight. Of great importance was the transformation of the Russian Orthodox Church into the world center of Orthodoxy after the fall of Byzantium (1453). The final stage was the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) and Vasily III (1505-1533), when the main Russian lands were united under the rule of Moscow. A unified code of laws was adopted, unified bodies of state administration, economic orders, etc. were established.

The formation of a unified Moscow state was of great historical significance. It contributed to the liberation of Russia from the Horde domination. The formation of a single political center strengthened the position of the state in the international arena. The processes of forming a single economic space on the Russian lands began. The national self-consciousness of the united Russian people now formed the basis of the spiritual life of the inhabitants of various lands.

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was considered one of the possible centers for collecting Russian lands. The first prince of the Lithuanian state was Mindovg, who managed in a short time to include the lands of Lithuania, Zhmudi, Yatvingians, as well as part of the Polotsk, Vitebsk, Smolensk lands into the young principality. When creating the state of Lithuania, the state traditions and achievements of the Russian principalities were widely used. The Russian nobility had the same strong position in Lithuania as the Lithuanians themselves. But their greatest influence on princely power was achieved under Prince Gediminas (1316-1341), married to a Russian princess. The Russian nobility under him formed the basis of the army, led the embassies, ruled the Lithuanian cities. It is not surprising that in Lithuania, many Russian lands then saw a force capable of reviving Russian statehood. The annexation of Russian territories to Lithuania began. Its official name then became the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia. The gathering of the western and southern Russian lands continued under the heirs of Gediminas - Olgerd and Keistut. They managed to stop the advance of the Germans into the Lithuanian lands and complete the gathering of the southern and western Russian lands. Lithuania has become a strong center for the unification of all Russian lands. The inclusion of the Russian lands in the Lithuanian principality did not cause protest among the Russian population, which perceived it as the revival of the Old Russian state. Only attempts to annex Novgorod and Pskov to Lithuania were unsuccessful.

However, after the death of Olgerd, his son Jagiello married the Polish queen Jadwiga and concluded a state-religious union (Union of Krewo) with Poland in 1385. Jagiello converted to Catholicism and converted the entire Lithuanian nobility to the Catholic faith, and then the population of his country. Lithuanian and Polish lands were transferred to Poland "for all eternity." Vitovt, the son of Keistut, who was killed on the orders of Jagiello, began to fight against the subjugation of Poland. He sought to break the Kreva union and declare himself the Lithuanian king. The joint struggle of Russians, Lithuanians and Poles against the strengthening of German domination in the region led to the defeat of the Germans during the Battle of Grunwald (1410), which marked the beginning of the decline of the Teutonic Order and its dominance in the Baltic states.

Prior to the conclusion of the Union of Kreva, the political system of Lithuania was similar to that which existed in Ancient Russia: the local princes, who had their squads, obeyed the Grand Duke. Veche administration existed in the cities. The Lithuanian prince relied on the advice and support of the clan nobility, united in the Rada.

After the conclusion of the Union of Kreva, the cities were deprived of veche government, in the countryside the dependence of smerds on the owners of the land was introduced. A new estate was also formed, which served the prince for land grants - the gentry (nobility). They had the right to convene local gentry diets, which resolved issues of local importance. The upper class were pans (princes), who had huge land holdings and elected Polish kings.

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russia could become a real center for the unification of Russian lands. However, its merger with Poland and the beginning of catholization did not allow the Lithuanian princes to win in the struggle for the unification of the Russian lands.

The political unification of the Russian lands began in the northeastern principalities and had a number of prerequisites. But the main thing was political factor- the combined efforts of the Russian lands were needed to overthrow the Horde domination and counter the increased threats from Lithuania and Livonia. Thus, the predominance of political factors over economic ones was the main feature of the process of formation of a unified Russian state, in contrast to Western Europe.

but economic reasons were also very significant. The transition in agriculture to a two- or three-field crop rotation system, the development of new types of equipment (a plow with an iron plowshare, etc.), the use of new technologies (in particular, the use of organic fertilizers), the development of landownership (associated exclusively with the service of princes) - all this created economic prerequisites for the unification of Russian lands into a single state. The growth of cities was also of great importance, the growing importance of which was mainly due not to their economic power, but to their transformation into strategically important defensive points around which forces gathered to overthrow the rule of the khans.

Relative synchronicity of the development of Russian lands also made painless integration possible.

Besides, legal regulations most of the Russian principalities had a single source - "Russian Truth".

The fundamentals of culture were the same various Russian lands, based on the all-Russian national identity.

An important prerequisite was the role Russian Orthodox Church, which has always acted from the standpoint of maintaining nationwide unity.

Finally, an important prerequisite was the existence of political centers around which the political unification of the Russian lands could take place. Such centers at different times were Moscow, Novgorod, Tver, Lithuania.

In the unification of Russian lands into a single state, several stages can be traced.

The first one covers almost allXIV in. During this period, the rise and gradual strengthening of Moscow takes place. The largest events here should be considered the receipt by Ivan Kalita of a label for a great reign and the right to collect tribute for the Horde (1327); the Battle of Kulikovo, during which Dmitry Donskoy for the first time at the head of a national army defeated the Horde (1380); the transfer by Dmitry Donskoy of the Vladimir grand-ducal throne by inheritance to his son without the khan's consent (1389).

The second period refers to 1389-1462 gg. and is characterized by a long feudal (sometimes called civil) war between the heirs of Dmitry Donskoy. At this stage, there was still a possibility that the unification processes in Russia could be led not by Moscow, weakened during the war, but by Novgorod or other centers. However, the role and importance of Moscow. Principalities grew significantly during this period. Even the feudal war itself was fought not so much for the place and role of Moscow, but for taking into account its significance - for power in it. The decisive role in the victory of Vasily II was played by the support of the Horde khans, which he asked for to strengthen his power. No less important was the proclamation of the Russian Orthodox Church as autocephalous after the fall of Byzantium in 1453.

Third and final stage associated with the fall of the Horde yoke and the completion of the formation of the territory of the unified Muscovite state during the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) and Vasily III (1505-1533). Moscow stopped paying tribute to the Horde (1476); achieved independence from her (1480); annexed, among other territories, those principalities and territories that quite recently were considered more possible centers for the unification of Russian lands: Novgorod lands (1478), Tver principality (1485), Pskov (1510), Ryazan (1521). Moscow princes began to be called "sovereigns of all Russia" and to transfer power in the Russian state by inheritance.

The governing bodies of the unified Russian state were created: Boyar Duma consisted of the tribal nobility and was an advisory body to the sovereign; orders were in charge of managing national affairs by industry ; governors, appointed by the sovereign, carried out his policy on the ground. Introduced uniform measures of weight, length etc.

An important step towards the creation of a single state was the creation of a single code of laws for the entire country - Sudebnik, adopted in 1497. Article 57 laid the foundation for the formalization of serfdom. She allowed peasants to move from one owner to another only within two weeks (a week before and a week after St. George's Day - November 26). Peasants were required to pay a special tax - "elderly" for the right to live on the land of one or another feudal lord.

Was the concept of "Moscow - the third Rome" was formulated»: Moscow is the capital of the entire Orthodox world. Appeared coat of arms- double-headed eagle

Significance of the creation of a unified Russian state was very significant. It made it possible to overcome the dominance of the Horde khans in the Russian lands and ensure their safety from other external threats. The formation of a single economic space of the country began. Feudal strife, a heavy burden on the shoulders of the population, ceased. Russia's international prestige and authority among European states have grown significantly.

The process of formation of the Russian centralized state (the second half of the 13th - the beginning of the 16th century).

Modern historian N.S. Borisov noted that “the recognition of the policy of the Moscow princes at the end of the 13th - the first half of the 14th century. an important (and even decisive) factor in Moscow's success in the unification of Russian lands has long been a commonplace in historical writings". Another modern researcher A.A. Gorsky singled out several mechanisms of Moscow “imaginations”, as they called in the Middle Ages the accession to the possessions of lands that were not originally the property of the clan. These mechanisms varied and were used depending on the situation. As a result of the vigorous activity of the Moscow princes, a new united state was formed by the end of the first quarter of the 16th century. Eastern Slavs with its capital in Moscow.

background

The Moscow principality was not the only one that carried out “inventions”. One way or another, representatives of many branches of the Rurik dynasty sought to expand their territory and influence. After the collapse of the Kievan state (1132), a significant number of lands passed from hand to hand, changing "homelands" and "grandfathers". However, in pre-Mongolian times, the hunt for "imaginations" did not become a common phenomenon, changes in political geography did not occur often. Things were different starting from the second half of the 13th century, when the Mongol invasion and the subsequent establishment of the dependence of the Russian lands on the Golden Horde led to the breakdown of many political traditions of the previous era.

Reasons for the rise of Moscow

Already in the works of historians of the 19th century, the reasons why it was the Grand Dukes of Moscow who managed to unite the Russian lands around their throne and, ultimately, create a single Russian state were outlined. Part of the historians agreed in their assessments, while certain provisions of their constructions differed. V.O. Klyuchevsky. His concept turned out to be extremely tenacious - up to the present day, in educational and popular literature, the explanation of the reasons for the rise of Moscow, expressed by Klyuchevsky, is often read. The great historian wrote about the favorable economic and military-strategic position of the Moscow principality, the support of the aspirations of the Moscow princes by the Church, and also that the policy undertaken by the princes themselves was extremely precise and accurate, surpassing the similar actions of their rivals.

Meanwhile, the sketchiness and ambiguity of Klyuchevsky's constructions on modern level historical knowledge can hardly be questioned. The objective process of the rise of Moscow from the point of view of the reasons explaining why this particular city managed to become the new capital of the united state of the Eastern Slavs can still be explained relatively relatively.

When discussing the unification of the lands around Moscow, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the political system in the North-East of Russia, in the former Vladimir-Suzdal land, in the post-Mongolian period. On the one hand, the Grand Duchy of Vladimir is taking shape here - a political entity that consisted of a number of territories and the disposal of which depended on the will of the ruling Horde Khan. On the other hand, North-Eastern Russia is divided into many separate possessions, princely "fatherlands" and "dedins", the inheritance of which is the internal affair of the princes themselves (which did not cancel the possibility of sanctions from the Horde khans to secure territories for new owners). Both the Great Vladimir principality and individual principalities could grow with new lands. Until the throne of Vladimir is assigned forever to the Moscow princes, the lands that were part of the Vladimir territorial complex fell into the temporary possession of the prince who received the khan's label. Thus, at the stage of loss of independence, the individual lands that ended up under Moscow dominion could initially be subordinated by no means to Moscow princes. So, the Kostroma principality, the first of those annexed in the post-Batiev time, in 1277 was included in the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. Pereslavl-Zalessky, occupied after the death of the local prince Daniil Alexandrovich of Moscow (1276-1303) in 1302, after some time passed in favor of the new Grand Duke of Vladimir Mikhail Yaroslavich.

The first stage of the unification of lands around Moscow

Probably the first city that became directly part of the Moscow principality was Kolomna, the possession of which was the result of a struggle within the Ryazan principality, in which the Moscow princes intervened. Various dates for this event have been given in the historical literature. Apparently, it should be considered that Kolomna was part of Moscow between 1300-1306. Soon Kolomna occupies a special position in the principality, it is no coincidence that N.M. Karamzin called it "Soviet" Moscow. In 1303, the Moscow rati subdued Mozhaisk. A notable milestone in the unification of the lands around Moscow was the "purchase" of Ivan Kalita (1325-1340): Uglich, as well as the northern lands of Beloozero and Galich Mersky. By "purchases" one should understand the acquisition of part or full ownership rights to "fatherlands". This method was widely used by Moscow princes to expand their territories. Some lands were acquired gradually - the former owners could retain the remnants of sovereignty for a long time.

The second stage of the unification of lands around Moscow

A huge political event for the entire North-Eastern Russia at the end of the XIV century was the approval of the great reign of Vladimir for the Moscow princely house. Dmitry Donskoy (1359-1389), in his will, drawn up shortly before his death in 1389, transfers the right of ownership to his son Vasily (1389-1425): “And now I bless my son, Prince Vasily, with my fatherland a great prince.” This step of Dmitry Donskoy, of course, reflected the increased political power of the Moscow princes, their real weight in the political system of North-Eastern Russia at the end of the 14th century. However, it is also obvious that such an epochal change could not occur without approval in the Horde. A major Moscow success was consolidated in 1392 with the annexation of Nizhny Novgorod to the Moscow "fatherland".

feudal war. The final stage of the unification of lands around Moscow: Vasily III, Ivan III

The collection of Moscow lands was suspended in the second quarter of the 15th century, when an internecine war (1425-1453) between Vasily II (1425-1462) and his uncle Yuri Zvenigorodsky flared in the Moscow principality, ending with the victory of the forces of centralization.

The final stage of the unification of the Russian lands in the second half of the 15th - the first third of the 16th centuries paid back a hundredfold to the aspirations of the Moscow rulers. This stage is associated with the names of the Grand Dukes Ivan III Vasilyevich (1462-1505) and Vasily III Ivanovich (1505-1533). Moving towards one goal - to concentrate in the hands of a kind of land where they spoke Russian and professed Orthodoxy - these rulers used different methods to expand Moscow's influence. One of these methods was the establishment of preliminary control, which could last for decades while maintaining the formal independence of the state. Examples are the stories of the subjugation of Pskov and Ryazan.

Accession of the Pskov land and Ryazan

The position of Pskov in the system of the Grand Duchy of Moscow finally took shape by the end of the 1460s: in April 1467, Pskov received the Moscow governor, Prince Fyodor Shuisky, and after March 1468, Pskov began to use a new seal in office work: “The seal of the Pskov vodchina of the Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich” . From a union state, the Pskov land turned into a vassal of the Grand Duke. The liquidation of formal Pskov independence took place in 1510 under Vasily III.

The history of the annexation of the Grand Duchy of Ryazan to Moscow became longer in time. Back in 1456, the dying Ryazan ruler Ivan Fedorovich "ordered his son Vasily" to the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily the Dark. In 1464, Vasily Ivanovich, who lived for eight years in Moscow, was sent to Ryazan "to his fatherland, to the great reign", and Ivan III's sister Anna was given to him as his wife. Since then, Ryazan has been following Moscow's policy. Only the intensification of separatist sentiments in Ryazan, which increased significantly on the eve of the invasion of the Crimean Khan Mohammed-Giray into Russia in 1521, prompted Vasily III to remove the last Grand Duke of Ryazan Ivan Ivanovich from power. Most likely, the "capture" of Ivan Ivanovich took place in the winter of 1520/21.

Accession of the Yaroslavl lands and the Principality of Rostov

Among those who became dependent on Moscow in the 1460s were the Yaroslavl lands. It is known from the genealogies that the childless Prince Alexander Fedorovich sold Yaroslavl to Ivan III. The governor Ivan Vasilyevich Striga Obolensky went to the annexed city, whose methods of management were so harsh that in one of the annals he was awarded the characterization of the "existing devil". And on March 23, 1464, Ivan III issued the first of the known charters for the land "in my fatherland, the Grand Duke, in Yaroslavl." However, until the death of Alexander Fedorovich in 1471, a kind of “dual power” existed in the principality. Apparently, Alexander Fedorovich retained some formal princely rights.

In the same years, the final subjugation of the principality of Rostov took place. By the beginning of the reign of Ivan III, a significant part of the Rostov lands, including "half" of Rostov, was already in the power of the Grand Dukes of Moscow. According to the will of Vasily the Dark, these lands were transferred to his wife Maria Yaroslavna, who, having become a widow, settled directly in Rostov. In 1474, the Rostov princes Vladimir Andreevich and Ivan Ivanovich sold to Ivan III the Rostov “half” that remained in their possession.

Annexation of Novgorod land

The most significant success in creating a unified Russian state was the annexation of Novgorod land to Moscow. The offensive Novgorod policy was typical already for the first years of the reign of Ivan III. He perceived Novgorod as his "fatherland" and "grandfather". The reason for the offensive was the events that unfolded in Novgorod at the end of 1470: the struggle over the election of a new archbishop and the arrival in the city at the invitation of the veche of the Lithuanian prince Mikhail Alexandrovich. Moscow was afraid to allow the strengthening of Lithuanian influence on Novgorod, namely, the “Lithuanian trace” was seen behind these Novgorod events. In addition, the Novgorodians' hesitation in choosing the place of ordination of a new archbishop (Moscow or Lithuania) was regarded in Moscow as an attempt to betray Orthodoxy, since Moscow considered itself the guardian of the purity of Eastern Christianity.

In the spring of 1471, the so-called. The "church service cathedral" is a new phenomenon in the political practice of the Grand Dukes of Moscow, which responded to the desire to enlist the widest possible moral and political support from the population. Ivan III sent invitations to participate to the bishops, "both for princes, and for their boyars, and for governors, and for all their own." The cathedral supported the Grand Duke in his desire to start a fight with Novgorod. In May-June 1471, military men moved from Moscow in three directions to Novgorod. The decisive battle took place on July 14 on the river. Sheloni, 30 versts from Novgorod. The Novgorod army was utterly defeated. The confrontation ended with the signing of a peace treaty in the town of Korostyn, according to which the Novgorodians paid a significant indemnity, and the independence of Novgorod both in foreign and foreign domestic politics was significantly limited.

The 1470s passed in Novgorod under the sign of a further increase in social contradictions. It was very beneficial for Ivan III that the “living and young” Novgorodians appealed to him with a petition for harassment by the boyars. At the end of 1475, Ivan III personally went to Novgorod and arranged a trial. Four boyars found guilty were sent to Moscow. The decision of the sovereign not only increased the authority of the Grand Duke of Moscow in the eyes of ordinary Novgorodians and secured the subordinate status of Novgorod. The image of Ivan III as a fair judge turned out to be a successful political device. In the spring of 1477, crowds of townspeople moved from Novgorod to Moscow, wishing to receive satisfaction for the insults inflicted on them. The Moscow chronicler noted that “that did not happen from the beginning, just as their land [Novgorod] became, ... before this Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich, but this will bring them to that.” Anti-Moscow unrest in Novgorod itself led to a new military campaign. On September 30, 1477, Ivan III sent the Novgorodians a "folding letter" - a notice of the beginning of the war. By the end of November, Novgorod was in a dense ring of Moscow troops. Negotiations continued for a month and a half, the Novgorodians ceded one position after another. January 13, 1478 the city was surrendered. Ivan III spent another month in Novgorod, swearing in his inhabitants, punishing his most staunch opponents and liquidating the main veche institutions.

Annexation of the Grand Duchy of Tver

By the mid-1480s, it was the turn of the Grand Duchy of Tver. After the fall of the independence of Novgorod, Tverskaya land turned out to be surrounded on almost all sides by territories belonging to Moscow. Only the southwestern borders of the principality bordered on Lithuania. This created serious inconveniences of a geopolitical nature for Moscow: the Tver principality was strongly wedged deep into the Moscow one and was increasingly inclined towards an alliance with the neighboring state of Lithuania. At the same time, Lithuania saw in Tver not an equal ally, but an object of expansion. The first Moscow-Tver war began at the end of 1484. As in the history of Novgorod, the reason for the war was "treason": the intention of Grand Duke Mikhail Borisovich to intermarry with the Grand Duke of Lithuania and King of Poland Casimir IV, marrying his granddaughter. The main goal of the war was reconnaissance in force - testing the forces of the Grand Duchy of Tver and Casimir's readiness to help Tver. The king, as in the case of Novgorod, chose not to interfere. This inspired Ivan III to take more decisive action. The second Moscow-Tver war, which ended with the subjugation of Tver, began in August 1485. The campaign was given a general Russian character. After several days of siege, the Grand Duke of Tverskoy Mikhail Borisovich fled to Lithuania. The city surrendered on 12 September. On the Tver table, Ivan III seated his eldest son and co-ruler Ivan the Young, who came from a Tver princely family on his mother's side.

Fight with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania

In parallel with the annexation of independent Russian lands, Ivan III and Vasily III began a struggle with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, about 90% of whose territory was Russian lands. At the end of XIV - early XVI centuries, Chernigov and Bryansk lands, Smolensk were conquered from Lithuania.

Results

The vigorous activity of the Moscow princes leads to the fact that already in the first third of the 16th century the young Moscow state becomes the largest in Europe. It will stretch from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Donetsk steppes in the south; from the Gulf of Finland, Lake Peipsi, the upper reaches of the Western Dvina and the Dnieper in the west to the Urals and the Ob in the east. The vast territories to which the power of the sovereign of "All Russia" would extend were not the same in their natural conditions. However, in general, they were characterized by an abundance of forests. The presence of a large number of forests also affected the soil conditions, which were not good. The low fertility of the soil, coupled with harsh climatic conditions, led to low and inconsistent yields. The situation was aggravated by the predominance of archaic farming systems - cuttings, fallows, inevitable in those natural and climatic conditions. Three-fields, although it existed, but occupied an insignificant place in overall structure agriculture, often combined with archaic systems. The vastness of the territory did not provide the state with sufficient natural resources, the need for which is constantly growing. Iron ore was predominantly of low quality, mined from the surface layers. There were few stocks of precious and non-ferrous metals necessary for monetary and military affairs. The limited economic opportunities of the Muscovite princes made them even more eager to expand their territories in a persistent attempt to discover resources. So laid characteristic's socio-political structure - low population density. Presumably, it was 5-7 times lower than in Europe as a whole. As a result, the implementation of the most important state tasks was complicated: effective management and tax collection. The low population density impeded trade and the spread of various technical improvements, and contributed to the preservation of archaic social relations. These circumstances left a seal on the entire political system and the nature of relations between the monarch and his subjects, largely determining the nature of political and social psychology in Russia.

In the Middle Ages, the concept of "state" was embodied in the personality of the ruler, who was also the owner of his principality. The unity of the state was maintained thanks to personal loyalty to the ruler of a rather thin ruling stratum. Therefore, in central administration The Moscow principality played a special role in the princely "court", which consisted of administrative departments of economic origin. From the Moscow "court", which gradually lost its economic properties, over time, a bureaucratic central apparatus of power grew. In the bowels of the "court" gradually increased the layer of officials; there were groups of employees - clerks - who were responsible for the most important branches of government. The boyars of the annexed lands began to enter the "yard". The advisory body under the prince, which consisted of close associates - the Boyar Duma - turned into a permanent supreme council, the composition of which was appointed by the Grand Duke. Representatives of princely lines that had lost their independence (Rostov, Yaroslavl, Tver princes) got into the Duma. Gradually, the "boyars" became court officials, and the Boyar Duma itself turned out to be an important rallying mechanism political elite: the princes, who lost power in the field, acquired it in the center, albeit in the rank of servicemen.

The growth of the territory of the Moscow principality was much faster than the organization inner life on new beginnings. The country needed a new army, a system of government and justice. Traditional socio-political institutions, which were still fully consistent with their tasks in the first half of the 15th century, turned out to be insufficient in the second half of the century. The state needed to create a unified financial system. The most important task was the unification of taxation. To this end, since the end of the 15th century, economic descriptions have been undertaken in the country. Their results were fixed in the so-called. scribe books, which served as the basis for taxable land taxation - soshny writing. The oldest scribe books have been preserved in the Novgorod land. An obstacle to the coordinated action of the mechanism of a single state was the tax privileges of secular and ecclesiastical landowners. The Grand Duke's government sought to limit them.

The unification of Russian lands by Moscow led to the gradual merging of numerous local cultural traditions into a single all-Russian one. The process of convergence of artistic traditions was reflected in literature, architecture, icon painting, monumental painting, etc. The difference in dialects was leveled in the language. The most important manifestation of the emerging unity was the formation of a common Russian ethnic identity. It was in the territories collected by the Grand Dukes of Moscow that the Great Russian ethnos was established. Of course, all these processes were not simultaneous. Such epochal changes could not happen suddenly and continued into the 16th century, and sometimes much longer.

The unification of Russia is the process of creating a single centralized state under the control of Moscow and the Grand Duke. The unification of Russia began in the 13th century. and ended only in the 16th.

The beginning of the unification of Russia

The unification of Kievan Rus had several preconditions. Until the beginning of the 13th century. Kievan Rus was not a single state, but a commonwealth of several disparate principalities, which were nominally subordinate to the authorities of Kyiv and the Kiev prince, but in fact were absolutely independent territories with their own laws and policies. Moreover, principalities and princes regularly fought each other for territory and the right to political influence. As a result internecine wars Russia was greatly weakened (both politically and militarily) and could not resist the constant nomad raids and attempts by other states to conquer the country's territories. Due to the lack of a unified army Russia in the 13th century was under the influence of Lithuania and Golden Horde (Mongol-Tatar yoke), lost its independence and was forced to pay tribute to the invaders. The economy was in decline, the country was in chaos, the state desperately needed a new political system.

Features of the unification of Russia

Constant internecine wars and the failure of power gradually led to the weakening of the power of Kyiv and the Kiev prince. There was a need for a new strong center. Several cities claimed the title of a possible capital and center of the unification of Russia - Moscow, Tver and Pereyaslavl.

The new capital city had to be far from the borders to be difficult to conquer. Secondly, he had to have access to all major trade routes so that the economy could be adjusted. Thirdly, the prince of the new capital had to be related to the ruling Vladimir dynasty. Moscow met all these requirements, which by that time was gaining strength and influence thanks to the skillful policy of its princes.

It was around Moscow and the Moscow principality that the process of unification of Russian lands gradually began.

Stages of the unification of Russia

The creation of a unified state took place in several stages. Many princes ( Oleg, Dmitry Donskoy, Ivan Kalita etc.) were related to this.

In the 13th c. the just begun process of unification of the lands was interrupted by atrocities and ruin on the part of the Golden Horde, which did not want Russia to be a strong unified state, therefore, in every possible way contributed to civil strife and disunity. The already autonomous principalities began to be divided into even smaller territories, there were constant separations of cities and lands, accompanied by wars and ruin.

In the 14th c. Russia fell under the influence of the Lithuanian principality, which gave impetus to the unification of some lands under the rule of the Grand Duke of Lithuania. As a result, in the 14-15th centuries. Lithuania managed to subjugate Kiev, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Gorodensk principalities, as well as Chernigov, Smolensk and Volyn. Although these territories lost their independence, they still represented some semblance of a single state. At the end of the century, Lithuania captured most of the Russian territories and came close to Moscow, which by that time had become the center of political power for the remaining principalities and lands. There was also a third center - the northeast, where the descendants of Vladimir Monomakh, and the princes from Vladimir bore the title of grand dukes.

By the end of the 14th - the beginning of the 15th century. there have been new changes. Vladimir lost his power and completely submitted to Moscow (Moscow became the capital in 1389). Lithuania, on the other hand, joined the Kingdom of Poland and, after a series of Russo-Lithuanian wars, lost a fairly large part of the Russian territories, which began to gravitate toward Moscow.

The last stage of the unification of Russia dates back to the end of the 15th - the beginning of the 16th century, when Russia finally became a single centralized state with its capital in Moscow and the Grand Duke of Moscow. Since then, new territories have periodically joined the state.

It became that further development individual Russian principalities went in different ways. Western Russian lands (Polotsk, Turov-Pinsk, later Smolensk principalities) could not withstand the onslaught of the XIII century. Lithuanian state. In the XIV-XV centuries. they ended up in the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. They could not maintain the independence and the lands of South-Western Russia. The possessions of the descendants of Daniel of Galicia were divided in the middle of the XIV century. between Lithuania and Poland. Kyiv also went to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Only in North-Eastern and North-Western Russia did independent principalities continue to exist, which, however, were in vassal dependence on.

Gradually, the largest and most powerful principalities stand out - Moscow, Tver, Suzdal, Nizhny Novgorod, Ryazan. The Vladimir Grand Duchy with its capital Vladimir-on-Klyazma was considered the center of Russia. The label of the Khan of the Golden Horde for this reign gave its owner supreme power over all the principalities of the northeast and northwest (Novgorod the Great and Pskov). However, virtually all the principalities of the northeast, as well as Novgorod and Pskov, remained independent states.

The principalities concluded treaties among themselves - on borders, trade, settlement of disputes, the extradition of fugitive peasants and serfs, mutual military assistance, and a common line in foreign affairs. Disputes and strife between rulers, violations of treaties and mutual attacks were a constant phenomenon.

Misunderstandings between rulers were often settled with the help of senior or neutral princes and spiritual masters. In this regard, the Russian metropolitans, who at the end of the 13th century, played an important role. from Kyiv to Vladimir, and in the XIV century - to Moscow. Metropolitans Kirill, Peter, Alexei and other lords personified the spiritual (religious) unity of Russia, which was preserved despite the fragmentation. In the absence of political, state unity, this was very important - metropolitans, archimandrites, bishops, as it were, gathered together the thoughts and aspirations of the Russian people, separated from each other by the borders of principalities, often at enmity with each other. They often reconciled the princes, as did, for example, Sergius of Radonezh, the founder of the Trinity Monastery.

The lands of each principality consisted of cities and townships. They were ruled by princely boyars and servants - governors and volosts, who usually sat in them for a year or two per day. "feeding": collecting taxes in the grand ducal treasury, they themselves were contained - "fed" at the expense of townspeople and peasants.

In the principalities, the rulers conducted all business with the help of the Boyar Duma - a council of boyars. The boyars also led the administration of certain "ways"- branches of the palace economy, hence their name - "traveling boyars"(the paths of the equestrian, falconer, stolnik, trapper, chalice; the positions corresponding to them, which later became ranks, are equestrian, steward, chalice, etc.).

The fight for the championship. A struggle for primacy in Russia unfolded between the principalities. In essence, it was about which principality would lead the process of unification of the Russian lands. The form of this struggle in the first half of the XIV century. there was a fight between the rulers major principalities for the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir. The prince who received it attached the rich lands of the Vladimir principality to his possessions, received large incomes from Novgorod and was considered the first among other princes. The fate of the great reign of Vladimir depended on the will of the Golden Horde Khan.

The most developed and strong principality at the beginning of the XIV century. became Tver. It was in Tver that the first stone temple in post-Mongolian Russia appeared. The ruler of Tver, Mikhail Yaroslavich, nephew, in 1304 received from the khan a label for the great reign of Vladimir. However, Moscow soon entered the arena of struggle for political leadership. Alexander Nevsky bequeathed Moscow to his youngest son Daniel. Under him, she became the capital of the principality, perhaps the most seedy and unenviable in Russia. However, at the turn of the 13th and 14th centuries, its territory expanded noticeably: it included Kolomna (1300) and Mozhaisk (1303) with their lands captured by the regiments of Daniel and his son Yuri. According to the will of Prince Ivan Dmitrievich, the childless grandson of Alexander Nevsky, the Pereyaslav principality passes to Moscow.

Yuri Danilovich, who became the prince of Moscow after the death of his father in 1303, began a struggle with Mikhail Yaroslavich for the throne of Vladimir. In 1317, he managed, by marrying the sister of the Khan of the Golden Horde, Uzbek, to receive the label of the Grand Duke of Vladimir. With his retinue and the Tatar detachment, Yuri moved against Tver, but was defeated. Yuri's wife, the Khan's sister, was captured by the Prince of Tver. She soon died, and the ruler of Moscow accused Mikhail Yaroslavich of poisoning her. The prince of Tver was summoned to the Horde and, after a trial, was executed in 1318. But the struggle for power did not end. Soon, Yuri lost the trust of the Uzbek. The son of Mikhail Yaroslavich Dmitry in 1325 in the Horde hacked to death the Moscow prince. Enraged by this lynching, Uzbek ordered the execution of Dmitry, but gave the label for the great reign of Vladimir to his brother Alexander. Yuri's brother Ivan Danilovich, nicknamed Kalita, became the Prince of Moscow.

All these years in Russia reigned, according to the chronicles, "confusion"- cities and villages were robbed and burned by the Horde and their own Russian detachments.

In 1327, an uprising broke out in Tver against the Horde detachment led by Chol Khan. The reason for it was a skirmish at the auction - the Tatar took away the horse from the local deacon, and he called for help from fellow countrymen. The people fled, the alarm sounded. Having gathered at the veche, the Tverites made a decision about the uprising. They attacked the rapists and oppressors from all sides. Chol Khan and his entourage took refuge in the princely palace, but it was set on fire along with the Horde. The few survivors fled to the Horde.

Uzbek moved a Tatar detachment against Tver and ordered the Russian princes to join him with their troops. He took an active part in the campaign. Punishers passed through the Tver lands with fire and sword. Alexander Mikhailovich fled to Pskov, then to Lithuania. After the Tver uprising, Uzbek decided to divide the great reign of Vladimir into two parts: the Moscow prince received Novgorod and Kostroma. Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod and Gorodets came under the rule of another Grand Duke of Vladimir - Alexander Vasilyevich, the ruler of Suzdal. Only after his death in 1332 did Ivan Kalita finally receive a label for the entire reign of Vladimir.

The unification of Russia is a process of political unification of disparate Russian lands into a single state.

Prerequisites for the unification of Kievan Rus

The beginning of the unification of Russia dates back to the 13th century. Until that moment, Kievan Rus was not a single state, but consisted of scattered principalities that were subordinate to Kiev, but still largely remained independent territories. Moreover, smaller destinies and territories arose in the principalities, which also lived an autonomous life. The principalities were constantly at war with each other and with Kiev for the right to independence and independence, and the princes killed each other, wanting to claim the throne of Kyiv. All this weakened Russia, both politically and economically. As a result of constant civil strife and enmity, Russia could not gather a single strong army in order to resist the nomad raids and overthrow the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Against this background, the power of Kyiv was weakening and a need arose for the emergence of a new center.

Reasons for the unification of Russian lands around Moscow

After the weakening of the power of Kyiv and constant internecine wars, Russia desperately needed to be united. Only an integral state could resist the invaders and finally throw off the Tatar-Mongol yoke. A feature of the unification of Russia was that there was no one clear center of power, political forces were scattered throughout the territory of Russia.

At the beginning of the 13th century, there were several cities that could become the new capital. The centers of the unification of Russia could be Moscow, Tver and Pereyaslavl. It was these cities that had all the necessary qualities for the new capital:

• They had a favorable geographical position and were removed from the borders on which the invaders ruled;
• They had the opportunity to actively engage in trade due to the intersection of several trade routes;
• The princes ruling in the cities belonged to the Vladimir princely dynasty, which had great power.

In general, all three cities had approximately equal chances, however, the skillful rule of the Moscow princes led to the fact that it was Moscow that seized power and gradually began to strengthen its political influence. As a result, it was around the Moscow principality that a new centralized state began to form.

The main stages of the unification of Russia

In the second half of the 13th century, the state was in a state of strong fragmentation, new autonomous territories were constantly separated. Tatar-Mongol yoke interrupted the process of natural unification of lands, and the power of Kyiv by this period was greatly weakened. Russia was in decline and needed a completely new policy.

In the 14th century, many territories of Russia united around the capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the 14-15 centuries, the great Lithuanian princes owned Gorodensky, Polotsk, Vitebsk, Kiev and other principalities, Chernihiv, Volyn, Smolensk and a number of other lands were under their rule. The reign of the Ruriks was coming to an end. By the end of the 15th century, the Lithuanian principality had grown so much that it came close to the borders of the Moscow principality. The North-East of Russia all this time remained under the rule of a descendant of Vladimir Monomakh, and the Vladimir princes bore the prefix "all Russia", but their real power did not extend beyond Vladimir and Novgorod. In the 14th century, power over Vladimir passed to Moscow.

At the end of the 14th century, Lithuania joined the Kingdom of Poland, after which a series of Russo-Lithuanian wars followed, in which Lithuania lost many territories. New Russia began to gradually unite around the strengthened Moscow principality.

In 1389 Moscow becomes the new capital.

The final unification of Russia as a new centralized and unified state was completed at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries during the reign of Ivan 3 and his son Vasily 3.

Since then, Russia periodically annexed some new territories, but the basis of a single state had already been created.

Completion of the political unification of Russia

In order to keep the new state together and avoid its possible collapse, it was necessary to change the principle of government. Under Vasily 3, estates appeared - feudal estates. The fiefdoms were often crushed and smaller, as a result, the princes, who received their new possessions, no longer had power over vast territories.

As a result of the unification of the Russian lands, all power was gradually concentrated in the hands of the Grand Duke.