Natural resources of the subtropical zone of Foreign Asia. Anthropogenic modifications arising in the process of economic development of the territory

Human activities in the subtropics

Answer:

The Mediterranean type of climate dominates, the originality of which lies in the discrepancy between the humid and warm periods. The average annual rainfall on the plains is 300-400 mm (in the mountains up to 3000 mm), the predominant part of them falls in winter. Winter is warm, the average temperature in January is not lower than 4 C. Summers are hot and dry, the average temperature in July is above 19 C. In these conditions, Mediterranean rigid-leaved plant communities have formed on brown soils. In the mountains, brown soils are replaced by brown forest soils. The Mediterranean is a territory occupied by ancient civilizations. The grazing of goats and sheep, fires and land exploitation have led to almost complete destruction of natural vegetation cover and soil erosion. In the western part of the Mediterranean with a sufficient amount of precipitation on various parent rocks, a common species was a stone oak sclerophyte up to 20 m high.The shrub layer included low-growing trees and shrubs: boxwood, strawberry tree, philliria, evergreen viburnum, pistachio and many others. The grass and moss cover was thinned out. Cork oak forests grew on very poor, acidic soils. In eastern Greece and on the Anatolian Mediterranean coast, stone oak forests were replaced by kermes oak forests. In the warmer parts of the Mediterranean, oak stands were replaced by plantings of wild olive (wild olive), Lentiiskus pistachios and ceratonia. The mountainous regions were characterized by forests of European fir, cedar (Lebanon), and black pine. Pines (Italian, Aleppo, and seaside) grew on the sandy soils of the plains. As a result of deforestation, various shrub communities have emerged in the Mediterranean for a long time. The first stage of forest degradation is apparently represented by the maquis shrub community with detached trees that are resistant to fires and felling. Its species composition is formed by various shrubs of the undergrowth of degraded oak forests: various types of erika, cistus, strawberry tree, myrtle, pistachio, wild olive, carob, etc. In the lower belt of the Mediterranean mountains, including western Transcaucasia, subtropical evergreen laurel or laurel , forests named by dominant species different types laurel. The fauna of the Mediterranean is diverse and highly depleted in human activities. Among consumers of plant mass, ungulates of small sizes, bearded, or bezoar, goat (the ancestor of domestic goats, which have exterminated all tree and shrub vegetation in many places) and the small mountain sheep mouflon, predominate. Fallow deer and red deer are also encountered. Of the predators, jackals, foxes, ferrets, otters, etc. are common. Many birds that live in the more northern territories of Europe winter here. Amphibians are represented by frogs and toads, newts and salamanders penetrate from temperate latitudes into shady and humid habitats, tree frogs live in the tree layer. Snakes and lizards are common, among which the pearl lizard up to 75 cm long (western Mediterranean) is notable. There are many arthropods: beetles, spiders, scorpions, etc. Forest and shrub formations of the Mediterranean have undergone significant, in many respects devastating human influence. They were replaced by vineyards, citrus plantations, olives and crops of various crops. The centuries-old exploitation of natural resources, industrialization, urbanization, and the tourist boom have caused many environmental problems. They are associated with the destruction of natural vegetation cover and wild animals, soil erosion and air and water pollution. The preservation of the surviving islets of natural vegetation is one of the urgent tasks for the protection of the nature of the subtropics.

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The subtropical zone of foreign Asia stretches from the Asia Minor peninsula in the west to the Japanese islands in the east. It is characterized by the sectoral nature of landscapes. The largest area is occupied by the continental sector, in which zones of deserts, semi-deserts and steppes are distinguished. In the west, in a Mediterranean climate, a zone of evergreen rigid-leaved forests and shrubs is developed, in the Pacific sector - a zone of monsoon mixed forests. Due to the fact that mountainous relief prevails within the belt, natural zoning is complicated by vertical zoning.

Zone of evergreen stiff-leaved forests and shrubs enters the territory of Asia in a narrow strip stretching along the Mediterranean coast of the peninsulas of Asia Minor and Arabia. The vegetation has pronounced xerophytic features. Almost no forests have survived; they were replaced by formations of shrubs. Prevails maquis species depleted in comparison with the European. The dominant feature is the Kermes shrub oak. In the Levant, carob, Palestinian pistachio are mixed with it, and in Asia Minor - red juniper, myrtle, heather, wild olive. On the arid leeward slopes, the maquis gives way to freegane and shibliak. An increasing role is played by deciduous shrubs: tree, dog rose, buckthorn, euonymus, jasmine. Accordingly, the nature of the soil cover changes, the brown soils of the coast are replaced by chestnut ones.

Shrub evergreen formations climb into the mountains to an altitude of 600-800 m, coniferous-broad-leaved forests grow higher (black pine, Cilician fir, cypress, deciduous oak, maple, chestnut). From 2000 m, xerophytic vegetation prevails, often having a pillow-like shape (sticky rose, euphorbia, Cretan barberry, etc.).

In the continental sector subtropical belt overseas Asia, occupying the Near East highlands, is dominated by zone of deserts and semi-deserts... The hollow structure of the highlands is the reason that the landscape zones are in the form of concentric circles. Deserts are located in the central part of the highlands, they are framed by semi-deserts, then mountain steppes and shrub woodlands.

The largest areas of the zone of deserts and semi-deserts occupy the Iranian Highlands. More than 30% of its territory is covered with salt marshes, often devoid of vegetation, a significant place is occupied by rocky and sandy deserts. The zonal soils are desert gray soils and burozems.

The fauna is quite diverse. Ungulates include bezoar goat, mouflon, wild ass - onager, and predators - caracal, striped hyena. There are many rodents - ground squirrels, marmots, jerboas.

At present, the heterogeneity of the development of natural resources in foreign Asia is due to socio-economic factors. From species economic activity the formation of anthropogenic landscapes and their appearance depend on humans.

F_g zoning of Foreign Asia

Differences in the modern conditions for the formation of landscapes and the complexity of paleogeographic development are the most important factors in physical and geographical zoning. The identification of taxonomic units is based on the morphostructural features of the regions, combined with the climate and the nature of the manifestation of geographic zoning. The following taxonomic units are accepted: mainland - a group of countries (subcontinent) - physical-geographical country - natural area.

Differences in the Asian part of Eurasia are no less significant. The history of paleogeographic development here was more complex than in Europe. The formation of geological structures in different regions proceeded individually; Cenozoic tectonic movements contributed to their isolation, further strengthening the morphostructural differences. Each of the regions also differs in the specificity of the climate and geographic zoning. In the studied Asia, the following sub-continents and physical-geographical countries are distinguished.

East Asia:

East China, Northeast China and the Korean Peninsula, Japanese Islands

Central Asia:

Central Asia proper

Tibetan plateau

Western asia

(Western Asia highlands):

Asia Minor Highlands

Armenian highlands

Iranian Highlands.

Southwest Asia:

Arabia , Mesopotamia, Levant (Syrian-Palestinian mountains)

South Asia:

Himalayas, Indo-Gangetic lowland, Hindustan, Sri Lanka

Southeast Asia:

Indochina, Malay Archipelago

F_g characteristic of Arabia

Physico-geographical country captures the Arabian Peninsula, with the exception of its northwestern part (Levant).

Arabia is the largest peninsula in Eurasia. Oman Mountains (Hajar), located in the southwest of Arabia, is a structure of alpine folding, related to the Zagros in both age and composition of rocks. The relief of Arabia is diverse. A narrow coastal strip - Tihama stretches along the coast of the Red Sea. Mountains rise over her steep cliff Hijaz and El-Athir... The largest cuestas are Jebel Tuvaik, Arma, Biyad and Summan.

The Persian Gulf no longer has cuestas; the monotonous, almost undivided sandy plain of the El-Khasa desert stretches here. The southern part of the peninsula is sandy the Rub al-Khali desert... To the north is another vast sandy desert - Bolshoi Nefud, to the south of which lies the Maly Nefud (Dekhna) desert. The Hadhramaut Mountains stretch along the southern coast of the peninsula. There are several types of deserts on the Arabian Peninsula: rocky ( hammada), saline ( sebha), gravelly ( serir), sandy ( erg), clayey ( kevir).

The climate of the Arabian Peninsula is determined by the position of most of it in the tropical zone, only the extreme north belongs to the subtropics. Average January increases from +8 in Damascus to +24, +25 ° С in Aden. July temperatures range from +26 in the north to +33 ° С in the south. Arabia is one of the hottest places in the world; temperatures up to +55 ° С were recorded in Riyadh. The entire peninsula is an area of ​​insufficient, scarce moisture (100-300 mm per year). in the mountains of Yemen, the maximum precipitation is already in the summer season, The annual amount of precipitation in places in the mountains reaches more than 1000 mm. Therefore, the locals call their country "happy Yemen".

Most of the peninsula has no external flow. However, in the relief, in some places ancient river beds are expressed, filled with water during rare rainstorms ( wadi The presence of wadi indicates more favorable moisture conditions in the past

More than 90% of Arabia is tropical deserts. They are dominated by sandy ones with semi-fixed or even waving sands and salt marshes in depressions. Vegetation is poor: there are saltwort, tamarisk, camel thorn. Date palms, acacias, and jeddah grow only in oases.

Wormwood-ephemeral steppes are confined to the more humid places of northern Arabia; individual acacias grow in dry river valleys. In such places, mountainous red-brown and dark-colored (on volcanic rocks) soils are developed. Coffee, indigo, grapes, citrus fruits are cultivated from cultivated plants.

The fauna is represented by ungulates (antelopes, gazelles, onager), rodents (shrews, jerboas), predators (hyenas, jackals); many reptiles and birds.

Economic use the territory of Arabia has its own specific features. Non-irrigated agriculture is possible here only in the peripheral mountainous area (Al-Athir mountains, Yemen, Oman). Main crops - wheat, barley, sorghum

Groundwater is the only source of irrigation in Arabia. However, in many cases they have increased salinity, therefore they are suitable for irrigation of few crops - dates, tomatoes, onions. Great importance has desalination of waters (sea, underground). Kuwait ranks first among Asian countries in terms of the scale of desalination works (up to 215 million liters of water per day). V Saudi Arabia these works are also very successful. Irrigated lands have reached the central regions of Arabia in recent decades. Vegetables and melons and gourds are grown here. In the Al-Khasa lowlands, up to 80% of the usable land is already being cultivated. The leading place belongs to orchards and plantations of date palm, in field cultivation - rice, which is very remarkable for such an extra-arid region. It is characteristic that animal husbandry also has a meat and dairy direction, which is not typical for Arabia.

F_g characteristics of the Armenian Highlands

The Armenian Highlands lies east of the Anatolian Highlands, forming a mountainous knot, the core of which is composed of ancient Caledonian and Hercynian structures. In the formation of the modern relief, the Cenozoic tectonic movements played a decisive role, breaking the highlands into separate blocks. The upper layers of the upland are formed by thick strata of volcanic-sedimentary rocks. The features of ancient and modern volcanism are well expressed throughout the territory: cone-shaped peaks, mineralized springs, lava fields. The highest points of the highlands (most often in the central part) are represented by extinct volcanoes - Big Ararat (5165 m), Syupkhan (4434 m).

The Armenian Highlands are the largest lava highlands in the world.

Climate The Armenian Highlands is subtropical continental. Marine air masses are trapped by marginal ridges and bring little precipitation to the central parts of the highlands. Therefore, in the intermontane basins, continental conditions are created with annual temperature amplitudes up to +40 ºС and precipitation amounts of 350-700 mm per year. The winter maximum precipitation is not expressed here. The greatest amount of precipitation is observed in spring. The snow line is at a high altitude. Some rivers originate from the glaciers: Euphrates, Tigris, Kura, Araks. The largest of them, the Euphrates, crosses the Armenian Highlands and forms deep gorges.

Salt lakes - Van, Urmia - are located in the hollows. Lake Van is located at an altitude of 1720 m and covers an area of ​​about 3.7 thousand km 2; it was formed as a result of damming a small watercourse with lava from the Syupkhan and Nemrut volcanoes. Lake Urmia is much larger in size (5.8 thousand km 2), has a high salinity and is much shallower than Lake Van.

The intermontane basins of the Armenian Highlands are occupied by steppes on chernozem and chestnut soils. Forests with a predominance of pine, armenian oak and chestnut-leaved oak, elm have been preserved on the better humidified slopes of the mountains; in some places there are thickets of the shiblyak type, consisting of blackthorns, tree holders and hornbeams.

Animal world It is better preserved in mountainous regions: rodents and reptiles (snakes - gyurza, viper) are numerous, among mammals - bezoar goat, mouflon, roe deer, hyena.

Ф_г characteristic of East China. Anthropogenic modification of landscapes

Between 18 and 41º c. sh. Eastern China is located, in the north it is bounded by the Liaoxi mountains, and in the south by the state border of the PRC, in the west, Eastern China extends to the Nanshan mountain systems and the Sino-Tibetan mountains (Sichuan Alps).

At the base of East China lies the Chinese Platform. Its crystalline base, intensely crumpled into folds in the Proterozoic, is overlain by rocks of a sedimentary cover of various ages (from Paleozoic to Quaternary).

In the Jurassic and Cretaceous epochs in the west of East China, denudation processes prevailed, which led to a wide spread of flattening surfaces and accumulation in the Sichuan Basin of a thick stratum of red-colored sandstones.

In the Lower Pleistocene in the north of the region, the deposition of huge masses of loess began, in area and thickness unparalleled in the world. Loess formations are widespread up to the Yangtze River valley.

Eastern China is located mainly in the subtropical climatic zone, only the extreme south enters the subequatorial belt, and the extreme north - into the temperate one. The seasonal change in air masses characteristic of the monsoon climate is clearly expressed.

Summer isotherms have a direction close to the meridional one. On the coast, July temperatures are +20, in the interior regions they reach +30 ºС. Especially high temperatures (32-35 ºС) are typical for inner basins. The summer monsoon brings a large amount of moisture from the ocean, in the northern part of East China at this time 60-70% of precipitation falls, in the southern part - 75-90%.

In late summer and autumn, hurricane winds (typhoons) hit eastern China, sometimes reaching incredible strength and causing catastrophic disasters.

River network Eastern China is dense and ramified. The rivers are widely used for navigation and irrigation of fields. The valleys of the largest rivers (Yangtze, Yellow River, Huaihe, Xijiang) are densely populated and cultivated. The regime of the rivers is determined by the monsoon circulation: they are deep in summer and shallow in winter.

Flora and fauna Eastern China is diverse, due to the stability of the climate and the absence of cold snaps in the Pleistocene. A rich vegetation of temperate, subtropical and tropical latitudes has developed here.

In the Holarctic part of East China, there are two provinces of the East Asian region - north chinese mixed forests and central china laurel forests. The border between them is the Qinling Ridge in the west and the Shandong Mountains in the east. The northern parts are dominated by temperate forests, which include maple, elm, ash, walnut, pine. The Central Chinese province is characterized by representatives of evergreen flora: magnolia, laurel, ginkgo, camphor laurel, cryptomeria, evergreen oak.

Anthropogenic modification of landscapes

The forest vegetation of East China has been severely destroyed. However, in the PRC, a lot of work is being done on artificial reforestation. With an annual plantation of 3.5 million hectares, the country's forest cover increased from 7% at the end of the 1940s to 20% in 2000.

In addition to industrial plantations, there are afforestation of sands, fields, soil-protective afforestation, water protection forests, plantations of industrial species, etc. As a result, more than 50% of the forest area is artificial plantations.

Fauna has also suffered significant destruction. Wildlife has been pushed into the least populated areas. In the north, there are red wolves, foxes, lynxes, martens, mountain goats, and red deer. In the southern and central regions, monkeys are common - macaques, raccoon dogs. The fauna of birds is rich; grouse, hazel grouse, parrots, partridges, bustards, pheasants, peacocks are found in the forests; many waterfowl (pelicans, cranes, geese, ducks, herons). There are over 1000 species of fish in the rivers and lakes of China.

F_g characteristic of the Himalayas

From the north, South Asia is bounded by the highest mountain system on Earth, the Himalayas, stretching for almost 2500 km with a width of 200-300 km.

The Himalayas have clearly defined natural boundaries: in the north, these are the longitudinal valleys of the Indus and Brahmaputra, in the west and east - the transverse sections of the valleys of the same rivers, in the south - the Indo-Gangetic lowland.

In geological and orographic terms, four longitudinal stages are distinguished in the Himalayas: 1) Pre-Himalayas; 2) Small Himalayas; 3) Great Himalayas; 4) the ridges of Ladakh, Kailash, etc. (step of the northern slope). The Pre-Himalayas are represented mainly by the Sivalik mountains, reaching an altitude of 700-1000 m. 6000 The third, highest step - the Great Himalayas - has an average height of 6000 m, more than a dozen peaks rise to 8000 m and more. the highest peaks - eight-thousanders: Dhaulagiri, Chomolungma (Everest), Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Annapurna and others The fourth step is formed by the ridges of Ladakh, Kailash and others, raised by an average of 4000-4500 m.

The Himalayas are the largest climatic division in Asia. Continental temperate air masses prevail to the north, equatorial ones to the south. In this regard, the climate of the northern and southern slopes is sharply different. The contrasts in moisture are especially great: on the northern slopes there is 100 mm of precipitation per year, on the southern slopes - 2000-3000 mm. The Eastern Himalayas are more moistened (4500-5000 mm).

High altitude and abundant precipitation contribute to the formation of powerful glaciers and a dense river network. Especially many rivers flow down from the southern slope, but the largest ones originate in the Zagimalay zone and on the northern slopes of the mountains. Such are the Indus and its tributaries (Sutlej, Dzhelam, Chinab), Brahmaputra, Arun, and the abundant tributaries of the Ganges. The rivers are fed by snow, rain and glaciers. They flow in unexploited valleys such as canyons and gorges teeming with rapids and waterfalls

In terms of landscape, the Himalayas are subdivided into three regions: Eastern (Assam), Central (Nepalese) and Western (Kashmir).

The eastern Himalayas are distinguished by the maximum humidity of the climate. It receives up to 5000 mm of precipitation per year. At the foot of the mountains there is a strip of swampy jungle with black muddy soils - terai. Their development is facilitated by the waters of numerous rivers, streams and springs that saturate dense soils. Above, up to 1000 m, subequatorial forests grow with lush woody vegetation - pandanus, tree ferns, magnolias, bananas, bamboos, many within heights of 1000-2700 m evergreen subtropical forests of magnolias, laurels, evergreen oaks, chestnuts, Himalayan pines grow. Tea is cultivated in this belt.

Above 2000 m, deciduous tree species prevail. Within 2700-3700 m there is a belt of coniferous forests, represented by Himalayan species: silver fir, larch, hemlock, blue and silver spruce, Himalayan cedar, tree juniper Above 3700 m there is a belt of subalpine and alpine vegetation, where perennial flowering buttercups prevail, edelweiss, primroses, gentian, saxifrage, etc. The upper limit of the distribution of vegetation on Chomolungma is at an altitude of 6218 m, where the arenaria was found.

The fauna of the Himalayas is rich and varied. In terai, rhinos, tigers, buffaloes are found, in mountain forests - monkeys, leopards, sirau antelope, deer, leopards, lynxes, wolves, Himalayan bears. The mountain meadows are inhabited by wild goats and rams, goral antelope, Tibetan gazelle, yaks.

Ф_г characteristic of the Indo-Gangetic plain

The Indo-Gangetic Plain stretches parallel to the Himalayas for 3000 km between the marginal mountains of the Iranian Highlands and Indochina. Compared to its small width, 350 km, it is determined by the southern border of the Himalayas and the northern border of the Deccan plateau. On the meridians of Delhi and Calcutta, the plain narrows to 250 km. A gradual, imperceptible rise of the surface of the plain from the Bay of Bengal upstream of the Ganges leads on the Delhi meridian to the Indo-Gangetic watershed with elevations reaching only 270 m. To the west of the watershed, the heights gradually decrease towards the Indus delta, which is based on the Hindustan platform.

The left bank of the Ganges is distinguished by the greatest density of the river network, which collects abundant precipitation from the Himalayas. On leaving the foothills to the plain, the rivers sharply slow down their flow, accumulate suspended material and make a path in their own sediments. In the Indus basin, there is a more rare river network, but it is complemented by a dense network of canals.

The landscapes of the Indo-Gangetic alluvial lowland are very diverse, due to contrasts in moisture. Several landscape areas stand out here: the lowland of the lower reaches of the Ganges and Brahmaputra (Bengal), the lowland along the Brahmaputra along with the Shillong massif (Assam), the Ganges lowland (along the river Ganges), top part the lowlands of the Indus (Punjab), the plain of the middle and lower reaches of the Indus (Sindh); to the east lies the Thar Desert.

Lowlands of Bengal and Assam lie in the subequatorial belt, where the annual precipitation exceeds 2000 m, and on the Shillong plateau it reaches 12 000 mm at a summer maximum (Cherrapunji).

The often flooded coastal part of the delta is called Sundarban where the waters of the sea during high tides mix with the river. Mangroves grow along the coast; drier areas are dominated by bamboos, tree ferns, bananas, and mangoes.

Most of Bengal and Assam are densely populated. the landscape of the cultural savannah prevails. The population density exceeds 200 people per 1 km 2. The fields are occupied with crops of rice, which gives here two harvests a year; cotton, jute, sugarcane, bananas, and mangoes are cultivated.

On the Gangetic Plain the amount of precipitation decreases to 700-1000 mm, the dry period prevails over the wet period in duration. Woody vegetation gives way to shrub and herbaceous vegetation. V Punjab(Pyatirechye), where precipitation (about 400-500 mm) is very small compared to the volatility (about 2000 mm) and moisture is scarce and even negligible, landscapes of dry savannah and semi-desert develop, and in the lower reaches of the Indus River ( Sindh) - semi-desert. Among the irrigated crops are cotton, rice, millet, wheat, melon growing and horticulture are developed.

To the east of the lower course of the Indus River lies a sandy Thar desert, in places covered with ridge and dune sands. The desert is geologically heterogeneous. Its western part is located in the ancient Indus valley, which occupies the area of ​​the foothill trough, and the eastern part is located on the eroded area of ​​the Indian platform. The platform part of the desert is characterized by a complex of aeolian sandy ridges, alternating with outcrops of bedrocks. A significant area is occupied by drainless lakes (salt, soda) and salt marshes. Tar cannot be classified as a very harsh desert with sparse vegetation. Semi-desert areas are found here, the vegetation is represented by saxaul, camel thorn, and saltwort; there is an acacia. Grows in oases date palm, cereals and melons are cultivated.

F_g characteristics of the Iranian highlands

To the east of the mountainous knot of the Armenian Upland stretches the most extensive of the Near Asian Uplands - the Iranian Upland. It is located in the alpine geosynclinal area. In the north, the Iranian Highlands are bounded by the Elburs Mountains with the highest point of Demavand (5604 m). To the east, they pass into the medium-altitude Turkmen-Khorasan mountains. The Kuchano-Mashkhed basin divides them into two chains, the northern one - Kopetdag and the southern one - Nishapur mountains. The basin is distinguished by increased seismicity, the epicenters of devastating earthquakes are located here. To the east is the Paropamiz mountain system. It joins with the Hindu Kush mountains, the highest in the frame of the Iranian highlands. The highest point of the mountainous country is Tirichmir (7690 m). From the south, the Iranian plateau is bordered by the Zagros and Mekran mountains. A narrow strip of the Hermsir plain stretches between them and the coast of the Persian Gulf. From the east, the highlands are bounded by the Suleiman Mountains. The ridges of these mountains passed the ancient caravan routes.

In the center of a part of the highland there are internal plateaus, closed basins and individual mountain ranges. The largest of them, the East Iranian and Central Iranian (Kukhrud) troughs are endless, their lower areas are occupied by saline, sandy and clayey deserts (Deshte-Lut, Deshte-Kevir, Deshte-Markokh, Registan

The northern part of the Iranian Highlands is located in the subtropical climatic zone, the southern - in the tropical one. Average January temperatures gradually increase from north to south from +1, +2 ºС in the Tehran region to +19 ºС on the coast of the Gulf of Oman. The differences in summer temperatures are smaller; average July temperatures vary from +28 in the north to +32 ºС in the south. Almost the entire Iranian plateau is an area of ​​insufficient moisture. The only exceptions are the South Caspian Lowland and the northern slopes of the Elburz Mountains, where the annual precipitation in some places is up to 2000 mm. Almost throughout the entire territory of the Iranian Highlands, the maximum precipitation occurs during the cold season.

In conditions of insufficient moisture, the problem of water becomes especially acute. Small streams flowing from the mountains are thin, their waters are taken apart for irrigation. For water supply, water is used, obtained from wells and underground galleries - kyariz. Nowadays, boreholes that extract water from deep layers of the earth are gaining more and more importance. The largest rivers of Iran - Karun in the south and Sefidrud in the north - are shallow. The Helmand River is lost in the sands of Registan.

Evergreen deciduous forests of humid subtropics are widespread on the northern slopes of Elburs and the South Caspian Lowland: sycamore, alder, gleditsia, lapina, chestnut oak, iron tree, yew, boxwood, acacia, in the undergrowth there are hazelnuts, blackberries, medlar. For deciduous forests of this type, rich in endemics, the name "Hyrcanian flora" (after the name of the historical province of Iran Hyrcaniki) was fixed. As the amount of precipitation decreases, the vegetation cover becomes poorer. Forests are replaced by shrub associations (juniper forests, pistachio woodlands). The interior regions are a dry steppe, turning into a semi-desert and a desert with hodgepodge, wormwood on desert gray soils and salt marshes. The most lush vegetation is typical for oases, confined, as a rule, to the valleys of small rivers (Mashhad, Herat, Kandahar, etc.

The fauna is rich in reptiles, there are many snakes (gyurza, snake-mouth, cobra, arrow-snake, sand viper), lizards (agama, gecko, monitor lizard). There are few large mammals; mountain goats and rams, corsac fox, hyena, leopard live in the mountains.

The possibilities for the development of agriculture are limited by the arid and super-arid climates, the widespread development of saline deposits, and thin stony soils. Winter crops (wheat, barley) are cultivated, they account for 97% of crops. Irrigated agriculture covers more than 3.5 million hectares. The largest areas are the Herat oasis in Afghanistan and Isfahan in Iran.

Ф_г characteristic of the Levant

The Levant is the extreme northwestern section of the East African Rift. Geologically, it is part of the Arabian crystalline plate. The rise of the Syrian-Palestinian Mountains occurred in the Alpine folding, when the African Great Rifts were forming.

The continuation of the Red Sea graben is the Gkhor rift valley, which is well expressed in the relief. The Dead Sea is located at the lowest point on land (-392 m).

The rift valley descends from north to south. It is flanked on both sides by the handfuls of twin mountain ranges Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon. The western slope of the Lebanon ridge descends in steps to the Mediterranean coast, the eastern one drops abruptly to the intermountain valley of the Bekaa. The mountains are composed of limestones and sandstones, with well-defined karst landforms.

Climate The Levant has a number of features common to both the European Mediterranean and the deserts of Arabia. Summer and winter temperatures gradually increase from north to south, the amount of precipitation decreases from 1000-1100 mm in the north to 50-60 mm in the south. From the sea coast to the east to the central parts of Arabia, the continentality of the climate is increasing: summer temperatures are increasing, and precipitation is decreasing. In winter, Mediterranean cyclones (shemel) often burst from the side of the sea, in summer you can feel the hot breath of the Arabian deserts.

The rivers serve as the main source for irrigation of fields. In the Levant, 15% of the cultivated land is irrigated. They are concentrated mainly on the Mediterranean coast, but are also found in the bottoms of the El-Gab, Bekaa, and Gkhor depressions.

The change in soil and plant conditions reflects the characteristics of the climate. The western slopes of the Lebanon ridge are covered with Mediterranean-type forests (seaside and alep pine, kermes oak, tree juniper, noble laurel, oleander, wild olive). Some groves of Lebanese cedar have been preserved. At an altitude of more than 2000 m, a belt of deciduous forests of the Central European type begins. The rift valley is occupied by landscapes of deserts and semi-deserts. The Anti-Lebanon mountains are much poorer than the Lebanon mountains and much drier, there are many stony placers.

Vegetation and fauna heavily exterminated. In the east of Syria, jackals are found, there are quite a few reptiles. To protect the rift structures and historical monuments in Israel, the Meiron National Park, the only one in the Levant, was created.

F_g characteristics of the Malay Archipelago

The Malay Archipelago is the largest archipelago of the Earth, which includes the Great and Small Sunda, Moluccas, Philippine Islands, as well as several small groups of small islands. on the archipelago, two young folded zones converge: the Alpine-Himalayan and the Pacific, which merge in the Moluccas and partly on the island of Sulawesi. The Malay archipelago is the largest cluster of islands on earth. Sumatra Island there are about 15 active volcanoes: most of them are confined to the Barisan ridge. The most active vl Kerinchi, or Indrapura (3805 m). The largest center of modern volcanism - O. Java.136 volcanoes, of which 30 are active, including the highest point of the island - Semeru volcano (3676 m). In the Sunda Strait, which separates Sumatra from Java, there is volcano Krakatoa. the largest island of the Malay archipelago - Kalimantan the northern part is the highest point of the arch of Kinabalu (4101 m). Philippine Islands form the northeastern periphery of the island world. The entire archipelago is included in the zone of the Pacific volcano ring and serves as one of its most active links. There are more than 90 volcanoes here, many of them active. Strong eruptions are accompanied by earthquakes.

The climate of the Malay archipelago is determined by the position of most of it in the equator and partly subequator latitudes. Equatorial and tropical sea air dominate here all year round. The insular position leads to good moisture in the territory. In the lowlands, 2000 mm fall, in the mountains - 3000-5000 mm per year. The temperature regime is uniform, monthly amplitudes do not exceed 1 ° С; average temperatures +27 ° С. In the mountains at an altitude of 1500-2000 m, the temperature of the coldest and warmest months is, respectively, +15, +17 °

The river network of the Malay Archipelago is dense. The rivers are short, but full, their upper reaches are rapids, with therefore reserves of hydropower. The largest river is Kapuas (1040 km) on the island. Kalimantan. There are many small lakes in the river valleys; of the largest, the most famous is Toba in Sumatra.

The Malay Archipelago is rich in organic life. The combination of heat and moisture promotes the development of humid equatorial forests. Only in places they give way to monsoon forests and savannas. Mangrove vegetation is widespread in river estuaries and in the flooded coastal strip. Equatorial forests cover mountains with a height of 1200-1300 m, they are dense, multi-tiered, with a large number of lianas and epiphytes. Above 1200 m, representatives of the subtropical (oaks, conifers) and boreal (chestnuts, maples, etc.) flora appear; at an altitude of 2500-2600 m, they give way to a zone of shrubs. Above the zone of shrubs, alpine meadows rise, and beyond them - a belt of eternal snow.

The fauna of the Malay arch. Is rich and varied. It is home to more than 200 species of mammals, 600 birds, 100 snakes, 1000 species of butterflies, etc. Mammals are represented by humans (orangutans) and narrow-nosed monkeys (gibbons, monkeys, etc.). Among the predators, the tiger, the "sun bear", is found here. There are elephants, rhinos, buffalo ,. Birds (paradise, hornbills) and reptiles (Komodo monitor lizard) are diverse. V last years forest areas have declined sharply. Deforestation in Indonesia in some years covers more than 60 thousand hectares. Industrial logging, exploration and production of P.I. associated with this, the laying of roads and clearings deep into the forests, the construction of drilling rigs here. As a result, forests are being destroyed, and huge wastelands appear in place of the deforested forests. The uncontrolled trapping of exotic animals has intensified. Currently, there are 117 reserves and nature reserves in Indonesia. parks with a total area of ​​3 million hectares. The largest Kutai (307 thousand hectares) on the island of Kalimantan, Sumatra-Selatan (356 thousand hectares) in Sumatra.

The main forest ecosystems of the constantly humid equatorial forests of Southeast Asia are the most ancient and complex, the most biologically productive and valuable in terms of their gene pool on the globe. In modern conditions, they are degrading and destroyed at such a rate that this forces them to be considered as non-renewable biological resources. The complete destruction of equatorial forests would be an irreparable loss not only in the ecological resources of individual countries, but also for the development of the entire biosphere of the Earth.

F_g characteristics of the Asia Minor Highlands

The physical and geographical country occupies the Asia Minor peninsula, which is a natural bridge between Europe and Asia. It stretches between the Mediterranean and Black Seas and is separated from Europe only by the narrow straits of the Bosphorus and Dardanelles. The peninsula is located in a zone of young alpine folding and constitutes one of the links connecting the alpids of Europe with the young uplifts of Asia. The central part of it is formed by ancient Paleozoic blocks involved in the later orogenic movements. These middle arrays include Anatolian plateau, stretching from northwest to southeast. The highest point of Anatolia is located here - the extinct volcano Erdzhiyas (3916 m). Pontine mountains, Highest point -- Kachkar city(3937 m). From the south, the Anatolian plateau is bounded by the Taurus mountains, reaching approximately the same heights as the Pontic ones.

The climate of Asia Minor is subtropical, maritime in coastal regions and continental in inland. In the west, the climate is Mediterranean, with dry summers and maximum winter precipitation; in the central regions these differences are gradually smoothed out. Average January changes from +10 ºС on the southern coast to -5 ºС in the inner basins of Central Anatolia; average July - from +22 on the Black Sea coast to +30 ºС on the inner plateaus. The largest amount of precipitation is received by the northern slopes of the East Pontic Mountains facing the Black Sea (up to 3000 mm per year); on the southern slopes their number decreases sharply. The Mediterranean coast receives less precipitation than the Black Sea coast. The interior regions are especially arid, where the annual precipitation in places drops to 200-350 mm.

The rivers of Asia Minor are shallow, some become very shallow in summer, and even dry up in some years. The largest river - Kyzyl-Irmak - flows into the Black Sea, and Yesil-Irmak, Chorokh, Sakarya also give their waters there; the Menderes River flows to the west. Lakes Tuz, Beysehir and others are located in the depressions. The concentration of salts in salt lakes increases greatly in summer, Lake Tuz turns into a wet salt layer.

The nature of the vegetation also changes depending on the climate. On the northern slopes of the East Pontic Mountains, the Colchian flora is developed, represented by local species of oak, zelkova, lapina, alder, hornbeam, plane tree, boxwood. In the undergrowth there are thickets of blackthorn, cherry laurel, dogwood, blackberry. Higher in the mountains deciduous and conifers appear. In the interior regions there are dry low-grain steppes on chestnut soils, sometimes saline. About a third of plant species are endemic.

The fauna is greatly exterminated. Some species - wild sheep, bezoar goat, roe deer, wild ass (onager) - are under protection. Migratory routes of migratory birds pass along the shores of Asia Minor.

The land resources of the Asia Minor Highlands are concentrated on the coastal lowlands, in the intermontane valleys and hollows of the Anatolian plateau. Despite the predominance of mountainous terrain, more than 30% of the region's area is plowed up. Rain-fed agriculture dominates almost 90% of the arable land. The main crop is wheat, barley, corn. In places with a milder climate, gardens and vineyards are planted.

The pasture resources of the Asia Minor Highlands are experiencing an extreme stage of degradation due to the widespread development of erosion and overgrazing. The load on pastures exceeds their natural capacity by 100-200 times. Due to the lack of feed, most of the goat herd grazes in the forests, as a result of which the forests of the eastern part of the highlands are on the verge of extinction.

F_g characteristic of Mesopotamia

Between the Iranian Highlands and the Arabian