Classification of indicators of the standard of living of the population. The concept of the standard of living of the population and the system of indicators Living standard concept and the system of indicators
Studies of the living standards of the population have been carried out comprehensively since the late 1950s. Since 1970, these studies have acquired an ongoing and multifaceted character. In international statistics, there are various definitions of the standard of living of the population.
It is necessary to distinguish between the concept of the standard of living of the population in the narrow and broad sense of the word:
In the narrow sense, this is the satisfaction of personal needs for material and spiritual benefits;
In broad terms - the whole complex of socio-economic conditions of the people's life.
The standard of living in the broadest sense of the word is called the quality of life. There are four levels of quality of life of the population:
1. Poverty is the minimum permissible set of material goods and services according to biological criteria, the consumption of which allows maintaining human vitality.
2. Poverty is the consumption of goods and services at the level of working capacity (the lowest limit of labor force reproduction). International statistics use two definitions of poverty: absolute and relative poverty. In the first case, poverty is understood as a state of households in which they are unable to provide themselves with the sum of benefits that are absolutely necessary for maintaining health and leading a moderately active working life. In the second case, poverty is understood as low household incomes, which are significantly below a given standard.
3. The normal standard of living of the population is the consumption of material goods and services according to rational, scientifically grounded norms that ensure a normal recovery of a person's physical and intellectual strength.
4. Wealth - consumption of goods and services at a level that ensures the all-round development of a person.
The concept of “standard of living” has a complex structure, since it characterizes the sphere of human activity, where economic, social and psychological relations are intertwined. The standard of living is not only the degree of satisfaction of the physical, spiritual and social needs of people, but also the absolute quantity and quality of the goods consumed.
Determination of indicators of the standard of living of the population, even within the framework of national statistics, becomes much more complicated in cases where states are large in terms of territory and population and, therefore, are very heterogeneous in terms of living standards.
As for international statistics, new factors and conditions are emerging that make it even more difficult to compare and contrast the standard of living of the population. These conditions include:
The level of economic development of countries and their potential;
The state of the financial system;
Provision with natural resources;
The level of intellectual potential of countries;
Geographic factors;
National traditions and characteristics.
To the above, it must be added that the standard of living can be considered as a certain minimum of goods and services.
1. Physiological minimum, at which over 80% of funds are spent on food. As for industrial goods, these are the goods that you cannot do without (clothes, shoes, hats). Service costs are negligible. The physiological minimum allows a person only to exist without restoring the ability to work.
2. The subsistence minimum ensures a person not only existence, but also the restoration of his ability to work.
3. Social level. This consumption level is based on a rational budget - the so-called low-income level ™.
The standard of living can be measured both in relation to the entire population and in relation to individual groups of the population. The indicator of the standard of living of the population is considered as an indicator of the social efficiency of social production.
Since there is no unambiguous definition of the category of the population's standard of living, the questions about the list of indicators necessary for its adequate statistical characteristics remain debatable.
To characterize the standard of living of the population, experts in this field suggest:
Selected private indicators;
One summary indicator;
Scorecard.
Private indicators characterize individual aspects of the population's standard of living, which is insufficient for a comprehensive description of this category. The development of a generalized indicator of the standard of living of the population is one of the most important tasks of all international statistics. As a generalizing indicator, the following were proposed: the index of real wages, the index of the subsistence minimum, the index of the cost of living. Each of these indicators is valuable, but they do not provide a comprehensive measure of the standard of living.
In 1960, a UN working group prepared a report on the principles of determining and measuring the standard of living on an international scale. It was the first attempt at creating a scorecard. In 1978, a new system of indicators of the standard of living of the population was developed, which included 12 groups of indicators.
Currently, to assess the standard of living of the population, the UN Statistical Commission recommends distinguishing the following groups of indicators:
Demographic characteristics of the population (fertility, mortality, morbidity, life expectancy);
Population income indicators (real and nominal);
Indicators of expenses and savings;
Indicators of consumption by the population of material goods and services;
Indicators of the provision of the population with housing and durable goods;
Employment and unemployment rates;
Indicators of working conditions of the population;
Free time indicators;
Indicators of education, health care, culture, physical education and sports, tourism and recreation.
The complexity and versatility of the category of the population's standard of living predetermine the need for its comprehensive characteristics based on a system of indicators. Due to the fact that all elements of the standard of living are objectively interconnected, the statistical indicators should also be interconnected.
All indicators included in the system of indicators of the standard of living of the population can be divided into two groups.
1. Quantitative indicators characterizing the quantitative aspect of the standard of living:
Population income indicators;
Indicators of expenditures and consumption of material goods;
Saving;
Indicators of accumulated property and housing provision;
Indicators of income differentiation, poverty level and boundaries.
2. Qualitative:
Indicators of demographic statistics (infant mortality rate, maternal mortality rate, life expectancy);
Health and health indicators;
Indicators of the quality and structure of consumed food products;
Indicators of literacy, education and culture;
Indicators of the comfort of housing.
The following sources are used to characterize the standard of living of the population:
Population census;
Housing census;
Special sample surveys;
Current statistics.
The most complete source of information on the standard of living of the population in most countries of the world is population censuses. Their advantages:
Versatility in terms of coverage of the original population;
A wide range of data received;
Detailed documentation of results.
But this source also has a disadvantage: population censuses are rare.
Examples of special sample surveys include sample surveys of healthcare institutions in the United States, surveys of cities with unfavorable living conditions in France, and sample surveys of household expenditures in the UK. In Sweden and Norway, sample surveys of the living standards of the population are carried out by the statistical services of these countries every 5 years.
Since 1993, the system of indicators of the standard of living of the population is reflected in the System of National Accounts. Accounts based on social information are called satellite accounts.
Notes sheet
The standard of living of the population (UZhN) is a concept, the main indicators of UZhN. Social standards and needs. Subsistence minimum, consumer basket: concept, differences, use.
Living standards of the population (LLL) - concept, main indicators
Standards of living as a socio-economic category, it represents the level and degree of satisfaction of people's needs for material goods, household and cultural services.
Material goods - this is food, clothing, footwear, cultural and household items, dwellings.
Consumer services - in the broadest sense - include public utilities, including transport and communication services, household services, and medical services.
Services in the field of culture are rendered by institutions of culture, art and education.
The standard of living as a characteristic of the well-being of the people is an essential element of the broader concept of “lifestyle”.
The main tasks and directions of the statistical study of the standard of living are as follows:
1) general and comprehensive characteristics of the socio-economic well-being of the population;
2) assessment of the degree of socio-economic differentiation of society, the degree of differences in the level of well-being between individual social, demographic and other groups of the population;
3) analysis of the nature and degree of influence of various socio-economic factors on the standard of living, study of their composition and dynamics;
4) identification and characteristics of low-income strata of the population in need of socio-economic support.
Socio-economic indicators of the standard of living of the population are formed on the basis of statistical data characterizing the volume, composition, main directions of use and distribution between individual groups of money income of the population, as well as, with the involvement of other data, reflecting the final result of economic and social policy in areas affecting various aspects of the well-being of the population.
Socio-economic indicators are expressed in terms of averages and medians, rates of change, coefficients of frequency, concentration, differentiation and purchasing power. The calculation of socio-economic indicators is carried out in accordance with the general requirements for the formation of macroeconomic indicators and taking into account the specifics of the system of statistical social indicators.
The following are the main definitions of the baselines used in the calculation of socio-economic indicators.
HOUSEHOLD DISTRIBUTED INCOME: defined as income received by households from production activities, from property, as well as from redistributive transactions: adding production and import subsidies received and current transfers and deducting taxes on production and imports paid and current transfers (including current transfers). taxes on income and wealth). Disposable income is the source for final consumption of goods and services and savings.
HOUSEHOLD'S ACTUAL FINAL CONSUMPTION includes expenditure on purchases of consumer goods and services and the value of individual goods and services received by households from government and non-profit organizations free of charge in the form of social transfers in kind.
HOUSEHOLD FINAL CONSUMPTION EXPENDITURE includes expenses for the purchase of consumer goods and services, as well as the consumption of goods and services in kind: produced for oneself (agricultural products of personal subsidiary plots, imputed services for living in one's own home) and received as wages and various types of assistance.
CASH INCOME OF THE POPULATION includes wages for all categories of the population, pensions, allowances, scholarships and other social transfers, receipts from the sale of agricultural products, income from property in the form of interest on deposits, securities, dividends, income of persons engaged in entrepreneurial activities, and also insurance claims, loans, income from the sale of foreign exchange and other income.
CASH EXPENDITURES AND SAVINGS OF THE POPULATION include expenses for the purchase of goods and payment for services, mandatory payments and various contributions (taxes and fees, insurance payments, contributions to public and cooperative organizations, repayment of bank loans, interest on a commodity loan, etc.), purchase of a foreign currency, as well as an increase in savings in deposits and securities.
The publication of socio-economic indicators of the standard of living of the population is carried out on a monthly basis in the reports of the State Statistics Committee of Russia "On the socio-economic situation" in accordance with the following list:
AVERAGE CASH INCOME is calculated by dividing the total amount of cash income for the reporting period by the number of the available population.
REAL ALLOCATED CASH INCOME is determined based on cash income of the current period minus mandatory payments and contributions, adjusted for the consumer price index.
THE AVERAGE MONTHLY ACCOUNTED Wages employed in the sectors of the economy are determined by dividing the accrued monthly wages fund by the average number of employees. Social benefits received by workers from state and non-state extra-budgetary funds are not included in the payroll and average wages.
THE AVERAGE AMOUNT OF THE ASSIGNED MONTHLY PENSION of a pensioner, established in accordance with the legislation, is determined by dividing the total amount of assigned monthly pensions by the corresponding number of pensioners.
PURCHASING CAPACITY OF MONEY INCOME OF THE POPULATION reflects the potential of the population to purchase goods and services and is expressed in terms of the commodity equivalent of the average per capita money income of the population and the ratio of the population's money income to the subsistence minimum.
POPULATION DISTRIBUTION BY THE LEVEL OF AVERAGE PERSONAL MONEY INCOME characterizes the differentiation of the population by the level of material prosperity and represents the indicators of the number (or shares) of the population grouped at specified intervals by the level of average per capita cash income.
DISTRIBUTION OF THE TOTAL VOLUME OF MONEY INCOME BY DIFFERENT POPULATION GROUPS is expressed as a percentage of the total amount of cash income possessed by each of the 20 (10) percent groups of the population.
POPULATION INCOME DIFFERENTIATION RATIO: set the amount of excess cash income of high-income groups in comparison with low-income groups of the population. Differences differ: the coefficient of funds (the ratio between the average values of income within the compared groups of the population or their shares in the total income) and the decile coefficient of differentiation (the ratio of income levels, below and above which tenths of the population are located at different ends of the population distribution by the level of average per capita money income )
INCOME CONCENTRATION RATIO (GINI INDEX): sets the degree of deviation of the actual distribution of incomes of the population from the line of their even distribution.
LIVING RATE is a cost estimate of the subsistence minimum: a natural set of food products that takes into account dietary restrictions and provides the minimum required amount of calories, as well as costs of non-food products and services, taxes and mandatory payments, based on the share of costs for these purposes in the budgets of low-income households. farms.
THE NUMBER OF POPULATION WITH MONEY INCOME BELOW THE LIVING MINIMUM is determined on the basis of the distribution series of the population by the level of average per capita money income and is the result of summing up the number of persons whose money income is below the subsistence minimum.
INCOME DEFICIT is determined on the basis of data on the number and size of incomes of the population with incomes below the subsistence level and is calculated as the total value of income required to increase it to the subsistence level.
In order to eliminate the factor of price changes, nominal cash income and household expenditures are calculated in real terms, adjusted for the deflator index, which reflects price changes for various components of household cash expenditures.
The result of the recalculation is the indicators identified in the definitions as real (real money income, real wages, real amount of the assigned monthly pension, real expenditures on final consumption of households, etc.).
Conversion to comparable prices is carried out using:
· Consumer price indices: consolidated or sub-indices for individual commodity groups;
· Consumer price indices differentiated by population groups with different income levels.
The calculation of indicators in real terms is carried out by bringing the indicators of the current period into comparable prices of the base period according to the formula:
Ir = In: CPI * 100
where Ir is the value of the indicator in real terms for the reporting month,
In is the value of the indicator in nominal terms for the reporting month,
CPI - consumer price index as a percentage of the previous month.
The value of the indicator in real terms for a period exceeding a month is the result of actions with monthly data series in real terms, or using modified values of indices expressing the price change averaged for the corresponding period.
Purchasing power calculations are carried out in order to identify (in quantitative terms) the degree of relative, structural and interregional changes in the consumer market in relation to the monetary income of the population.
The purchasing power of money income can be expressed in two aspects:
A. as a commodity equivalent of various types of goods and services, characterizing the number of representative goods (or small commodity groups) that can be purchased with an average per capita money income;
B. as the quantity of certain sets of goods and services (in relation to the subsistence minimum or to the cost of a set of 25 food items) that can be purchased with an average per capita money income.
The purchasing power of cash income for the i-th commodity equivalent is determined by the ratio of cash income to the corresponding average price of a given product (representative product):
Where is the purchasing power of the average per capita monetary income of the population of the j-th region, determined by the i-th commodity equivalent,
I j- the value of the average per capita monetary income of the population of the j-th region,
Average price of the i-th representative product in the j-th region.
The purchasing power of the monetary income of the population in the context of population groups with different levels of per capita income is calculated by the formula:
|
The purchasing power of the average per capita monetary income of the population of the q-income group of the population of Russia, determined by the i-th commodity equivalent,
The value of the average per capita monetary income of the qth income group of the population,
Average purchase price of the i-th product for the q-th income group of the population.
For each region, indicators (3) are calculated on the basis of the corresponding regional values (Iq, Piq) in the context of population groups with different incomes.
Indicators of purchasing power of monetary income, calculated in quantities of certain sets of goods and services, are estimated similarly to indicators for individual commodity equivalents. In the formulas: (1), (2), (3) instead of the price of the i-th representative product, the cost of a certain set of goods and services is used.
Social norms and needs
An important role in the study of the standard of living of the population is played by social standards as scientifically grounded guidelines for the direction of social processes in society. There are social standards; development of the material base of the social sphere, income and expenses of the population, social security and services, consumption by the population of material goods and paid services, living conditions, the state and protection of the environment, the consumer budget, etc. They can be level, expressing the absolute or relative value of the norm, respectively in physical terms or as a percentage (possible options for standards: moment, interval, minimum, maximum), as well as incremental, presented as a ratio of gains of two indicators.
The consumer budget is directly related to the standard of living, which summarizes the standards (norms) of consumption of material goods and services by the population, differentiated by social and gender and age groups of the population, climatic zones, conditions and severity of work, place of residence, etc. Distinguish between minimum and rational consumer budgets ... In addition, the main social standards include: minimum wage and temporary disability benefits, unemployment benefits for able-bodied persons, minimum labor and social pensions for the elderly and disabled citizens, disabled people, minimum scholarships for students, regular or one-time targeted benefits for the most vulnerable in material relation to population groups (large and low-income families, single mothers, etc.).
Together, they form a system of minimum social guarantees as the obligation of the state to provide citizens with the minimum wages and retirement pensions, the right to receive social insurance benefits (including unemployment, illness, pregnancy and childbirth, caring for a small child, poverty, etc. .), a minimum set of public and free services in the field of education, health and culture. The core of social policy is the subsistence level, and all other social standards and guarantees should be linked to it.
The existing standards reflect modern scientific ideas about the needs of people for goods and services - personal needs. However, the latter should not be absolutized, since they are always changeable, which makes it difficult to quantify them. Personal needs reflect the objective need for a certain set and amount of material goods and services and social conditions that ensure the all-round activity of a particular person. Personal needs are divided into physiological (physical), intellectual (spiritual) and social.
Physiological needs are determinant of the first order, since they express the needs of a person as a biological being; in their composition, vital, primary, are the needs for food, clothing, shoes, housing, rest, sleep, physical activity, etc.
Intellectual needs relate to education, advanced training, creative activity generated by the inner state of a person.
Social needs are associated with the functioning of a person in society - these are social and political activities, self-expression, communication with people, ensuring social rights, etc.
Intellectual and social needs refer to the needs of non-primary necessities and are satisfied after a certain degree of satisfaction of primary needs comes. They do not have a direct assessment, although they largely depend on the state of culture in society, the general level and quality of life of the population. The conditions for their satisfaction are characterized by the time budget of the population. By the magnitude of the working, non-working and free time, it is possible to assess the effectiveness of working time and the possibility of satisfying the intellectual and social needs of a person.
There are rational (reasonable) and irrational needs. Rational needs correspond to scientific ideas about the consumption of goods and services necessary to maintain a healthy lifestyle and harmonious development of the individual. These are socially useful needs that are difficult to quantify. They can be conditionally determined using rational norms and standards (except for rational norms of food consumption, established on the basis of data from nutritional science). Irrational needs go beyond reasonable norms, take hypertrophied, sometimes perverted forms, in particular in relation to nutrition.
The external form of manifestation of personal needs is the demand of the population, although both quantitatively and qualitatively it differs from the actual need. Distinguish between the general consumer demand, the volume and structure of which correspond to the volume of consumption by the population of material goods and services, and the effective demand for them, reflecting the solvent capabilities of the population.
Along with the personal ones, the social needs of society are distinguished, due to the need to ensure the conditions for its functioning and development, including production, needs for management, defense, environmental protection, etc.
Subsistence minimum, consumer basket: concept, differences, use
In the Federal Law of 24.10.1997 No. 134-FZ "On the subsistence level in the Russian Federation" the following definitions are given:
· « consumer basket- the minimum set of food products, non-food products and services necessary to preserve human health and ensure his life;
· living wage- the cost estimate of the consumer basket, as well as mandatory payments and fees ”.
According to the decree of the Ministry of Labor and Goskomstat "On Approval of the Methodology for Calculating the Subsistence Minimum" (Decree of the Ministry of Labor of Russia dated April 28, 2000 No. 36, Resolution of the Goskomstat of Russia dated April 28, 2000 No. 34):
"The methodology for calculating the size of the subsistence minimum in the Russian Federation as a whole ... has been developed in accordance with the Federal Law" On the subsistence minimum in the Russian Federation ", the Federal Law" On the consumer basket as a whole in the Russian Federation ", Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of February 17, 1999 No. N 192 "On Approval of Methodological Recommendations for Determining the Consumer Basket for the Main Socio - Demographic Groups of the Population in General in the Russian Federation and in the Constituent Entities of the Russian Federation"
The cost of the minimum set of food products is determined on the basis of the minimum set of food products for a man of working age (given in the Methodological Recommendations for determining the consumer basket for the main socio-demographic groups of the population as a whole in the Russian Federation and in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, approved by the decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated February 17, 1999 No. 192). The data on the cost of the set are given per month.
This indicator reflects the interregional differentiation of consumer price levels and is not a constituent element of the subsistence minimum determined in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, which is explained by the difference in methodological approaches in their formation. When calculating the cost of the minimum set of food products in the Russian Federation and the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, uniform (established as a whole for the Russian Federation) minimum consumption volumes are used, while when calculating the value of the subsistence minimum, the volumes formed on the basis of the zoning of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, depending on factors influencing the characteristics of food consumption ”.
Thus, we have the following structure of definitions:
The subsistence minimum is determined from the consumer basket. When compiling the consumer basket, methodological recommendations for determining the consumer basket from 1999 are used.
The minimum food package is also determined based on the same 1999 guidelines.
The cost of the minimum food set is not equal to the estimated cost of the minimum required food set included in the subsistence minimum, since the second figure is calculated based on regional characteristics.
The size of the subsistence minimum at the regional level is determined by the local executive authorities, based on the local characteristics of consumption and resource opportunities. The procedure for calculating the subsistence minimum is described in the "Methodological Recommendations" of the Ministry of Labor of Russia and is based on the following principles.
The subsistence minimum is an indicator of the volume and structure of consumption of the most important material goods and services at the minimum permissible level, which provides the conditions for maintaining the active physical condition of adults, the social and physical development of children and adolescents.
The living wage is used:
To assess the standard of living of the population in the development and implementation of social policy and federal social programs,
Substantiation of the minimum wage established at the federal level,
To determine the amount of scholarships, benefits and other social benefits,
· As well as for the formation of budgets.
The subsistence minimum budget is a cost estimate of the natural set of the subsistence minimum, in addition, it includes the costs of taxes and other mandatory payments.
The needs of the population are significantly differentiated depending on its socio-demographic characteristics and living conditions, therefore, the subsistence minimum is calculated not only on average per capita or family, but also separately for different categories: children (under 7 years old), adolescents (7-15 years old ), able-bodied citizens, pensioners. The subsistence minimum for a particular family can be determined based on its actual composition and size.
The basis of all calculations is a set of food products of the subsistence level, including food products, combined into 10 aggregated groups: bread products; potato; vegetables; fruits and berries; meat products; dairy products; fish products; eggs; sugar and confectionery; vegetable oil, margarine. The sets are calculated both for individual categories of the population and for individual territorial zones of Russia, identified taking into account natural and climatic conditions.
So, to calculate the subsistence level:
1) the consumer basket is determined - it is clear that it depends on the place of residence, age, gender and other factors;
2) the cost of the consumer basket is calculated plus mandatory payments and fees (personal income tax and contributions to the Pension Fund) - this is the amount of the subsistence minimum.
The size of the subsistence minimum is set
In general for the Russian Federation (by the Government of the Russian Federation),
· In the constituent entities of the Russian Federation (by the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation).
The consumer basket is determined at least once every five years, and the value of the subsistence minimum is determined quarterly (and published in official publications).
The consumer basket is determined on the basis of the "Methodological recommendations for determining the consumer basket for the main socio-demographic groups of the population in the whole of the Russian Federation and in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation", approved by the Government of the Russian Federation of February 17, 1999 N 192.
The consumer basket is determined for the main socio-demographic groups of the population:
· able-bodied population, including men aged 16-59 and women aged 16-54, with the exception of unemployed disabled people of I and II groups of this age,
· pensioners, including men over the age of 60 and women over the age of 55, as well as persons receiving a disability pension,
· children, including children aged 0-15 years.
The consumer basket is determined
· As a whole in the Russian Federation;
· In the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.
Taking into account the natural and climatic conditions, national traditions and local characteristics of the consumption of food, non-food goods and services - therefore, the constituent entities of the Russian Federation are divided into zones.
The composition of the minimum set of food products, non-food products and services is determined taking into account:
· The actual volume of consumption of food, non-food goods and services in low-income families.
The composition of the consumer basket is determined by the Federal Law "On the consumer basket as a whole in the Russian Federation" - currently the Federal Law of March 31, 2006 N 44-FZ "On the consumer basket in the whole in the Russian Federation" is in force.
The consumer basket includes about several groups of food products and non-food products, as well as services, and minimum consumption levels have been established.
The basket does not contain alcohol, tobacco, etc. - they are not included in the goods “necessary to preserve human health and ensure his life” and, therefore, are not included in the basket.
The subsistence minimum is determined on the basis of the "Methodology for calculating the amount of the subsistence minimum in the Russian Federation as a whole," approved by the Resolution of the Ministry of Labor of Russia and the State Statistics Committee of Russia dated April 28, 2000 No. 36/34.
The subsistence minimum is calculated as the sum:
· The cost of the consumer basket (at Rosstat prices);
· Expenses for compulsory payments and fees.
Part 2
Exercise 1
Table 1 - Initial data
| Index | 1997 | 1998 |
| Population at the beginning of the year, thousand people | 1506,4 | 1491,9 |
| including aged: | ||
| younger than able-bodied | 343,4 | 328,6 |
| able-bodied | 895,6 | 896,2 |
| older than able-bodied | 267,4 | 267,1 |
| Number of births, people | ||
| The number of deaths, people | ||
| Natural increase (+), decrease (-), pers. | ||
| Migration inflow (+), outflow (-), people | -7613 | |
| Total increase (+), decrease (-), people | ||
| Fertility rate, ‰ | ||
| Mortality rate, ‰ | 13,0 | |
| Natural growth rate, ‰ | ||
| Migration rate, ‰ | ||
| Coefficient of total growth (loss), ‰ |
The total number of inhabitants of the region in 2000 decreased by 16498 people. At the beginning of 2001, the share of the population aged younger and older than the able-bodied population was 20.2% and 19.9%, respectively.
1. Determine:
· Indicators of natural movement and population migration;
· The age structure of the population;
· Coefficients of demographic load.
2. Graphically depict the age structure of the population at the beginning and end of the year.
Solution
Natural movement of the population - the change in population due to births and deaths. In statistics, the indicator of natural population growth is widely used, which is defined as the difference between the number of live births and the number of deaths over a certain period, meaning primarily a positive result (the number of births must exceed the number of deaths). If the difference is negative, then we are talking about the rate of natural population decline.
Reproduction of the population is measured using the crude birth rate and the crude death rate (calculated per 1000 people, i.e. per thousand, ‰).
The mortality rate of the population is measured by the general mortality rate K cm, which is the ratio of the total number of deaths during the year (M) to the average annual population (Sav).
Determine the average annual population:
S av = (1506.4 + 1491.9) / 2 = 1499.15 thousand people.
Then we determine the total number of deaths:
Kcm = M / S avg * 1000 ‰ (4)
13 = M / 1499150 * 1000
M = 13 * 1499150/1000 = 19489 people.
We calculate the number of births:
S = Sn + N– M + P - V, (5)
where S is the population at the beginning of the next year;
N is the number of births;
M is the number of deaths;
P is the number of arrivals to the territory of the region;
B - the number of people who left the territory of the region;
P-V - migration inflow (outflow).
1506400 = 1520200 + N - 19489 - 7613
N = 1506400 - 1520200 + 19489 + 7613 = 13302 people.
We calculate the natural increase (decrease), which shows how much the population has increased (decreased) due to the natural factors of fertility and mortality):
N - M = 13302 - 19489 = -6187 people
The total increase (decrease) is:
(N - M) + (P - B) = -6187 - 7613 = -13800 people.
Let's calculate the fertility rate:
K p = N / S avg * 1000 ‰ = 13.302 / 1499.15 * 1000 ‰ = 8.9 ‰
The coefficient of natural increase (loss) is:
To eat.ub. = (N - M) / S av * 1000 ‰ (6)
To eat.ub. = -6.187 / 1499.15 * 1000 ‰ = 4.1 ‰
The migration rate is:
K migr.ub. = (P - B) / S av * 1000 ‰ (7)
K migr.ub. = -7.613 / 1499.15 * 1000 ‰ = 5.1 ‰
We calculate the coefficient of total loss:
To total. kill = [(N - M) + (P - B)] / S avg * 1000 ‰ =
To eat.ub. + K migr.ub. (eight)
To total. kill = 4.1 + 5.1 = 9.2 ‰
We will enter the received data into the table.
Table 2 - Calculation of indicators of natural movement and population migration
The main indicators that study the age structure of the population:
1) the number and proportion of individual age groups in the total population;
2) the aging coefficient is the ratio of the number of persons over 60 (65) years old to the total population, in%.
3) the demographic load factor is the ratio of the sum of the number of persons aged 0-15 years and 60+ to the number of persons aged 15-60 years,%.
Table 3 - Age structure of the population
The population of the region at the beginning of 1997 was 1506.4 thousand people, including the younger than the able-bodied population - 22.8%, the able-bodied population - 59.4%, the population older than the able-bodied population - 17.8%.
The population of the region at the end of 1997 amounted to 1491.9 thousand people, including the younger than the able-bodied population - 22.0%, the able-bodied population - 60.1%, the population older than the able-bodied population - 17.9%.
Thus, during the year, there is a decrease in the population of the region by 14.5 thousand people, or by 1.0%, including a decrease in the population under the working age by 0.8% percentage points, an increase in the working-age population by 0.7 percentage points. point and the growth of the older working age population - by 0.1 percentage point.
We calculate the aging coefficient:
at the beginning of the year: 267.4 / 1506.4 * 100% = 17.8%;
at the end of the year: 267.1 / 1491.9 * 100% = 17.9%.
The dependency ratio is the number of people aged 0-15 and aged 60 and over per 1000 people aged 16-59. Serves to express the ratio of the economically and socially inactive population and the able-bodied population and characterizes the "load" on the economy of the unproductive population.
There are three types of dependency ratio:
The ratio of the total number of children and the elderly to the size of the working-age population,
The ratio of the number of children to the size of the working-age population,
· The ratio of the number of old people to the size of the able-bodied population.
We calculate the dependency ratio as the ratio of the total number of children and the elderly to the size of the working-age population:
at the beginning of the year: (343.4 + 267.4) / 895.6 * 100% = 68.2%;
at the end of the year: (328.6 + 267.1) / 896.2 * 100% = 66.5%.
The "load" on the economy of the non-productive population of the region is at the beginning of 1997 - 68.2%, and at the end - 66.5%, i.e. the load drops by 1.7%.
We calculate the dependency ratio as the ratio of the number of children to the size of the working-age population:
at the beginning of the year: 343.4 / 895.6 * 100% = 38.3%;
at the end of the year: 328.6 / 896.2 * 100% = 36.7%.
We calculate the dependency ratio as the ratio of the number of old people to the number of working-age population:
at the beginning of the year: 267.4 / 895.6 * 100% = 29.8%;
at the end of the year: 267.1 / 896.2 * 100% = 29.8%.
conclusions .
The average annual population of the region in 1997 was 1499.15 thousand people.
There is a tendency towards a decrease in the population, which at the beginning of 1997 amounted to 1506.4 thousand people, at the end of the year - 1491.9 thousand people, in 1996 - 1520.2 thousand people.
The total fertility rate was 8.9 births (per 1000 population) in 1997.
The crude death rate was 13.0 deaths (per 1000 population) in 1997.
Natural decline population amounted to 6187 people in 1997.
The migration outflow of the population from the region in 1997 amounted to 7,613 people.
During 1997, there is a tendency of increasing working age population(from 895.6 thousand people at the beginning of the year to 896.2 thousand people at the end of the year, and the absolute growth of the working-age population - 0.6 thousand people). At the same time, there is a decrease in the population over the working age (from 267.4 thousand people at the beginning of the year to 267.1 thousand people at the end, and the absolute decrease was 0.3 thousand people), as well as people younger than working age ( from 343.4 thousand people at the beginning of the year to 328.6 thousand people at the end of the year, and the absolute decrease was 14.7 thousand people).
Consequently, there is an increase in the population of working age and a decrease in the population younger and older than working age.
Age structure of the region's population
Figure 1 - Age structure of the population at the beginning and end of 1997
Task 2
Table 4 - The number of employees of an industrial enterprise in 2008
| Index | Meaning |
The average number of workers in the main activity at an industrial enterprise: in the first half of the year |
|
| in the III quarter | 770 |
| in October | 760 |
| In November | 755 |
| Average number of employees in non-core activities for the year, people | 105 |
| They actually came to work on December 1, people. | 750 |
| Didn't show up for work in December: | |
| - due to illness from 4 to 12 December | 2 |
| - performed state duties from the 18th to the 20th | 1 |
| - walked from 21 to 22 | 1 |
| From December 25, they stopped working without warning the administration | 3 |
| From December 21, employees left due to a reduction in the number of personnel | 8 |
| By order from December 12, they are hired | 10 |
| The staffing table is provided: on average, there are workers per 1 employee per year | 7 |
Based on the information provided, determine:
1) payroll number of payroll workers at the end of December;
2) the average number of payroll workers in December;
3) absolute and relative indicators of the movement of workers at the enterprise in December;
4) average headcount in the reporting year:
· Workers of the main activity;
· Employees of the main activity;
· Workers of industrial and production personnel;
· All personnel of the enterprise.
5) Draw the structure of the number of employees of the enterprise using a bar or pie chart.
Solution
The payroll number of employees for each calendar day includes both those who actually work and those who are absent from work for any reason. Based on this, the payroll in whole units includes, in particular, employees:
· Those who actually came to work, including those who did not work due to downtime;
· Those who did not show up for work due to illness;
· Those who did not show up for work in connection with the performance of state or public duties.
Employees are not included in the payroll:
· Who submitted a letter of resignation and stopped working before the expiration of the warning period or who stopped working without warning the administration. They are excluded from the payroll from the first day of absence from work.
Let's calculate the payroll number of workers (CR) at the end of December.
At the end of December, the payroll number of workers amounted to 749 people (see Table 5).
MF km = MF nm + P - V= 750 +10 - 3 - 8 = 749 people.
Table 5 –Specified number of workers in December 2008, people.
| December day | Number of staff |
| 1 | 750 |
| 2 | 750 |
| 3 | 750 |
| 4 | 750 |
| 5 (day off) | 750 |
| 6 (day off) | 750 |
| 7 | 750 |
| 8 | 750 |
| 9 | 750 |
| 10 | 750 |
| 11 | 750 |
| 12 | 760 |
| 13 (day off) | 760 |
| 14 (day off) | 760 |
| 15 | 760 |
| 16 | 760 |
| 17 | 760 |
| 18 | 760 |
| 19 | 760 |
| 20 (day off) | 760 |
| 21 (day off) | 751 |
| 22 | 751 |
| 23 | 752 |
| 24 | 752 |
| 25 | 749 |
| 26 | 749 |
| 27 (day off) | 749 |
| 28 (day off) | 749 |
| 29 | 749 |
| 30 | 749 |
| 31 | 749 |
| Total | 23339 |
The average number of employees per month is calculated by summing up the payroll number of employees for each calendar day of the month, i.e. from the 1st to the 30th or 31st day (for February - to the 28th or 29th day), including holidays (non-working) and weekends, and dividing the amount received by the number of calendar days of the month.
The number of employees on the payroll for a day off or a holiday (non-working) day is taken to be equal to the payroll number of employees for the previous working day. If there are two or more days off or holidays (non-working) days in a row, the number of employees on the payroll for each of these days shall be taken equal to the number of employees on the payroll for the working day preceding the weekend and holidays (non-working) days.
To calculate the average number of workers per month, it is recommended to use the layout of the table. 5.1.
Table 5.1 - Calculation of the average number of workers in December 2008
To calculate the average payroll number of employees for a month, the following formula is used:
=
people
The movement of employees on the payroll is characterized by a change in the payroll number of employees as a result of hiring and leaving for various reasons. The movement of employees for the reporting period can be presented in the form of a balance sheet: the payroll number of employees at the beginning of the reporting period plus the number of employees hired during the reporting period minus the number of those who left for the reporting period is equal to the payroll number of employees at the end of the reporting period.
Let's define the absolute indicators of the movement of workers of the enterprise in December (Table 6).
Table 6 - Indicators of movement of workers at the enterprise in December 2008
| Index | Symbol | Calculation method | Meaning |
| 1. Number at the beginning of the month, people | T n | 750 | |
| 2. Accepted - total, man | NS | 10 | |
| 2.1 Including for additionally entered places. | NS' | ||
3. Retired - total, person including: |
V | 11 | |
| 3.1 due to staff cuts | V' | 8 | |
| 3.2 at will | V" | ||
| 4. Number at the end of the month, people | T to | page 1 + page 2-page 3 | 749 |
| 5. Average headcount | SSH | 753 | |
| 6. Reception turnover ratio,% | To vol. NS. | (page 2: page 5) ∙ 100 | 1,3 |
| 7. Ratio of turnover on disposal,% | To vol. select. | (page 3: page 5) ∙ 100 | 1,5 |
| 8.The coefficient of replenishment of workers,% | To rec. | (page 2: page 3) ∙ 100 | 90,9 |
| 9. Change in the number of personnel, people | ∆Т | page 4 - page 1 | -1 |
| 10. Change in the number of personnel,% | ∆Т | (p. 4: p. 1) ∙ 100-100 | -0,1 |
The number of hired includes persons who were enrolled in this organization in the reporting period by an order (decree) on hiring.
The number of retired workers includes all employees who left work in this organization, regardless of the grounds (termination of the employment contract on the initiative of the employee, the initiative of the administration; agreement of the parties; conscription or admission to military service; transfer of an employee with his consent to another organization or transfer to an elective position and etc.), the departure or transfer of which is formalized by an order (decree), as well as those who left in connection with death.
The number of voluntarily retired employees includes employees who retired from the organization on the initiative of the employee himself, as well as in the following cases:
Election to positions filled by competition;
Moving to another area; transfer of a spouse to another locality, abroad;
Enrollment in an educational institution, graduate school or clinical residency;
Dismissal of their own free will with the onset of retirement age or receiving an old-age pension;
The need to care for sick family members or disabled people of group I;
Agreement of the parties;
Dismissal at their own request of pregnant women, women with children under the age of 14, single mothers - if they have a child under the age of 14 or a disabled child under 16.
The number of hired and retired employees on the payroll does not include:
Employees hired under special contracts with state organizations (military personnel and serving a sentence of imprisonment);
External part-timers;
Employees who performed work under civil contracts.
The movement of employees is characterized by indicators of personnel turnover and an indicator of personnel constancy.
Personnel turnover (K about) - a set of hired (enrolled in the payroll) and retired employees, considered in relation to the average number of employees for a certain (reporting) period. The intensity of personnel turnover is characterized by the following coefficients: total turnover, which is the ratio of the total number of hired and dropped out during the reporting period to the average number of employees; turnover on admission, which is the ratio of the number of employees hired during the reporting period to the average number of employees for the same period; turnover on disposal, which is the ratio of those disposed of during the reporting period to the average headcount for the same period.
The employee replacement ratio characterizes the replacement of employees who left the organization for various reasons by newly hired employees and is calculated by dividing the number of employees hired for the period by the number of employees who left for various reasons during this period.
Personnel constancy ratio - the ratio of the number of employees on the payroll for the entire reporting year to the average number of employees for the reporting year. The number of employees on the payroll from January 1 to December 31 inclusive, i.e. of those who worked the whole year is determined as follows: from the number of employees who were on the lists at the beginning of the year (as of January 1), those who left during the year for all reasons (except those transferred to other organizations) are excluded, but those who left the number of those who were accepted in the reporting year are not excluded since they were not on the lists of the organization as of January 1.
For a period consisting of several months (quarter, half-year, year), the average headcount is determined as the weighted average of the indicators of the average headcount of employees for all months (t) of a given period.
Tsl = (people)
Let's determine the average number of employees of the main activity (Tcl) for the year:
Tsl = (people)
Let us determine the average number of employees of industrial and production personnel (TPT) for the year:
Trt = 782 + 112 = 894 (people)
The average number of employees in non-core activities for the year was 105 people. (by condition).
The average number of all personnel of the enterprise (Тп) was for the year: Тп = 894 + 105 = 999 people.
Figure 2 - The structure of the number of employees of the enterprise for 2008
Problem 3
1. Build the balance of fixed assets (OS).
2. Calculate at the beginning and end of the reporting year:
Specific structure of fixed assets and structural changes for the year,
· Determine the cost and share of the active part of the funds.
3. Calculate the indicators characterizing the movement of certain types and all fixed assets of the enterprise:
· Coefficients of input and renewal;
· Ratio of disposal and liquidation;
· Indicators of dynamics (absolute and relative increase or decrease) in the value of fixed assets;
4. Determine the average annual cost of fixed assets.
5. Draw graphically at the beginning and at the end of the year the structure of the fixed assets of the enterprise.
Table 7 - Availability of fixed assets of an industrial enterprise at the beginning of the year, thousand rubles
Table 8 - Fixed assets of the main activity in the reporting year (+) Total received (including new), (-) Total disposed of (including written off), thousand rubles.
| Type of funds | Date of entry, disposal | Sum |
| Building | in September | -7 (7) |
| cars and equipment | ||
| Nov. 1 | -6 (6) |
Solution
Table 9 - Balance of fixed assets
| Types of fixed assets | Availability at the beginning of the year | Received in the reporting year | Retired in the reporting year | End of year availability | ||
| Total | Including the commissioning of new funds | Total | Including liquidated (written off) funds | |||
| A | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 |
| Building | 22149 | 7 | 7 | 22142 | ||
| Constructions | 3210 | 3210 | ||||
| cars and equipment | 9600 | 150 | 83 | 107 | 74 | 9643 |
| Vehicles | 1168 | 1168 | ||||
| Production and household inventory | 26 | 6 | 6 | 20 | ||
| 20 | 20 | |||||
| TOTAL | 36173 | 150 | 83 | 120 | 87 | 36203 |
Depending on the purpose and natural-material characteristics, the main production assets in accounting and reporting are divided into the following types: buildings, structures, transmission devices; machinery and equipment, vehicles, tools, production equipment and accessories, household equipment, working and productive livestock, perennial plantations and other types of fixed assets not listed above (library funds, museum exhibits, capital expenditures on leased fixed assets recorded on the balance sheet tenant).
The ratio (specific weight) of certain types of fixed assets in their total value forms the specific structure of fixed assets.
Table 10 - Species structure of fixed assets in 2008
| Name | Availability at the beginning of the year | End of year availability | Structural shifts, |
||
| thousand roubles. | percentage of the total | thousand roubles. | percentage of the total | ||
| Building | 22149 | 61,2% | 22142 | 61,1% | -0,1 |
| Constructions | 3210 | 8,9% | 3210 | 8,9% | 0 |
| cars and equipment | 9600 | 26,5% | 9643 | 26,6% | +0,1 |
| Vehicles | 1168 | 3,2% | 1168 | 3,2% | 0 |
| Production and household inventory | 26 | 0,1% | 20 | 0,1% | 0 |
| Other types of fixed assets not listed above | 20 | 0,1% | 20 | 0,1% | 0 |
| Total | 36173 | 100,0% | 36203 | 100,0% | 0 |
Over the year, fixed assets increased by 30 thousand rubles, or by 0.1%, including an increase in the cost of machinery and equipment by 0.4%, a decrease in the cost of buildings, industrial and household equipment by 23.1%.
At the same time, the structure of the main ones practically did not change over the year. Only there is a decrease in the share of the cost of buildings in the total value of fixed assets by 0.1 percentage points, an increase in the share of the cost of machinery and equipment by 0.1 percentage points. Thus, there is an increase in the share of the active part of fixed assets (including machinery and equipment) and a decrease in the share of the passive part of assets (including the cost of buildings).
For practical purposes, fixed assets are divided into two large groups: active and passive part of the funds. Active assets include workers and power machines and equipment, as well as any means of labor that affect the subject of labor or control the production process - measuring and regulating devices and instruments, production tools, vehicles, certain types of structures. Everything else is passive.
Table 11 - Species structure of fixed assets
| Type of fixed assets | Cost at the beginning of the year | Share in the total cost of fixed assets | Year end cost | Share in the total cost of fixed assets | Cost growth rate,% | Share change, % points |
| Active part | 10794 | 29,8 | 10831 | 29,9 | 100,3 | +0,1 |
| cars and equipment | 9600 | 26,5% | 9643 | 26,6% | 100,4 | +0,1 |
| Vehicles | 1168 | 3,2% | 1168 | 3,2% | 100 | 0 |
| Production and household inventory | 26 | 0,1% | 20 | 0,1% | 76,9 | 0 |
| Passive part | 25359 | 70,1 | 25352 | 70,0 | 99,97 | -0,1 |
| Building | 22149 | 61,2% | 22142 | 61,1% | 99,97 | -0,1 |
| Constructions | 3210 | 8,9% | 3210 | 8,9% | 100 | 0 |
| Other types of fixed assets not listed above | 20 | 0,1% | 20 | 0,1% | 0 | 0 |
| TOTAL | 36173 | 100,0% | 36203 | 100,0% | 100,0 | 0 |
The cost of the active part of fixed assets at the end of the year increased by 0.3% compared to the cost at the beginning of the year, while its share in the total cost of fixed assets increased by 0.1 percentage points.
Let's calculate the indicators characterizing the movement of certain types and all fixed assets of the enterprise.
Let's calculate the cost of the commissioned objects of fixed assets during the year:
F B = tr.
Let's calculate the cost of liquidated objects of fixed assets during the year:
Ф Л = 
tr.
The fixed asset retirement rate is calculated using the formula:
where K obn - the coefficient of renewal of fixed assets;
With input - the total cost of fixed assets introduced for the year;
With kg - the initial cost of fixed assets at the end of the year.
Let's define the update rate:
Fixed assets are renewed faster than they are retired, i.e. do not have time to become obsolete.
Table 12 presents an analysis of the absolute and relative changes in the value of property, plant and equipment.
Table 12 - Indicators characterizing the movement of fixed assets in 2008
| Index | Symbol | Calculation method | Groups of fixed assets | |||||
| building | structures | Vehicles | Prod. and households. inventory | Other OS | ||||
| 1. Availability at the beginning of the year, thousand rubles. | Os ng | 22149 | 3210 | 9600 | 1168 | 26 | 20 | |
| 2. Received, thousand rubles. | OS entered | 150 | ||||||
| 2.1 including new, thousand rubles | OS is new | 83 | ||||||
| 3. Retired, thousand rubles. | OS select | 7 | 107 | 6 | ||||
| 3.1. Including written off, thousand rubles | OS list | 7 | 74 | 6 | ||||
4. Availability at the end year, thousand rubles |
OS kg | page 1 + page 2-page 3 | 22142 | 3210 | 9643 | 1168 | 20 | 20 |
| 5. Input coefficient,% | To input | (page 2: page 4) ∙ 100 | - | - | 1,6 | - | - | - |
6. Ratio updates,% |
To obn. | (page 2.1: page 4) ∙ 100 | - | - | 0,9 | - | - | - |
7. Ratio disposal,% |
To select. | (page 3: page 1) ∙ 100 | 0,03 | - | 1,1 | - | 23,1 | - |
8. Coefficient liquidation,% |
Click. | (page 3.1: page 1) ∙ 100 | 0,03 | - | 0,8 | - | 23,1 | - |
9. Absolute change, thousand rubles |
∆ОС | p. 4-p. 1 | -7 | 0 | +43 | 0 | -6 | 0 |
| 10. Rate of change,% | ∆Т | (p. 4: p. 1) ∙ 100-100 | -0,03 | 0 | +0,4 | 0 | -23,1 | 0 |
We calculate the average annual cost of fixed assets according to the average chronological formula, using the data in Table 13.
Table 13 - Calculation of the average annual cost of fixed assets, thousand rubles.
Figure 3 - Structure of fixed assets at the beginning and end of the year
Problem 4
Table 13 - Distribution of the region's population by average per capita money income
Define:
· Average per capita money income; model income; median income;
· The ratio of the average per capita income and the size of the subsistence minimum.
Graphically depict the distribution of the population by the size of the average per capita income.
Solution
It is recommended to determine the average per capita income in the interval distribution series using the formula of the arithmetic weighted average.
Let's define the average per capita income (tab. 14).
Table 14 - Calculation of average per capita money income
Average per capita income, rubles |
Mean |
Distribution of the region's population by average per capita money income,% |
x * f |
| A | 1 | 2 | 3 |
| Up to 1000 | 750 | 1,6 | 12 |
| 1000 – 1500 | 1250 | 5,3 | 66,25 |
| 1500 - 2000 | 1750 | 8,7 | 152,25 |
| 2000 – 3000 | 2500 | 21,0 | 525 |
| 3000 – 4000 | 3500 | 18,7 | 654,5 |
| 4000 - 4500 | 4250 | 7,5 | 318,75 |
| 4500 – 5000 | 4750 | 6,4 | 304 |
| 5000 and more | 5250 | 30,8 | 1617 |
| Total | 3649,8 | ||
The average per capita monetary income of the region's population in the second quarter of 2003 amounted to 3649 rubles. 80 kopecks
Modal Income (Mo) - This is the level of income that occurs most often among the population (having the highest frequency).
where X Mo is the lower boundary of the modal interval. Modal is called
the interval with the highest frequency;
i is the value of the modal interval;
d Mo is the frequency of the modal interval;
d Mo -1 - frequency of the interval preceding the modal;
d Mo +1 - frequency of the interval following the modal.
Let's define the modal income:
The highest frequency is observed in the population with an average per capita monetary income of 2,000 to 3,000 rubles.
The most common per capita income is characterized by an average value of 2842.46 rubles.
Median income (Me ) Is the level of income that divides the population into two equal parts: half of the population has an average per capita income not exceeding the median, and the other half has an income not less than the median.
The median income is calculated using the formula:
(13)
where X Me is the lower border of the median interval. The median is the first interval, the accumulated frequency of which exceeds half of the total frequency;
i is the value of the median interval;
F Me -1 - accumulated frequency of the interval preceding the median;
f Me is the frequency of the median interval.
Let's determine the median income. The median interval is the interval 3000 - 4000 thousand rubles, since it is in this interval that the accumulated frequency S j = 55.3 for the first time exceeds a value equal to half the number of units in the population
rub.
In the population under consideration, half of the region's population has an average per capita income of no more than 4550.80 rubles, and the other half - no less than 4550.80 rubles.
Let's determine the ratio of the average per capita income to the subsistence level:
3649,80 / 2371 = 1,54.
Thus, the average per capita monetary income of the population in the second quarter of 2003 exceeded the subsistence minimum by 1.54 times and amounted to 3649.80 rubles.
Figure 4 shows the distribution of the population by average per capita income.
Figure 4 - The structure of monetary incomes of the population of the region in the 2nd quarter of 2003
Problem 5
Table 15 - Distribution of the total cash income of the region's population
1. Construct the Lorentz curve.
2. Determine the concentration ratio of income (Gini index).
Solution
The Lorenz curve is a curve that shows how much of the country's total monetary income is received by each share of low-income and high-income families, that is, it reflects, as a percentage, the distribution of income between families with different incomes.
Figure 5 - Lorentz Curve
The Gini index is calculated using the following formula:
, (14)
where: is the share of the population i-th social group in the total population;
Share of income concentrated in i-th social group of the population;
Cumulative share of income (share of income on an accrual basis);
n- the number of social groups.
To calculate these indicators and build a curve, we use a worksheet.
Table 16 - Distribution of population by size and total income
| Social group | Population share, d x | Share of cash income in total, d y | Estimated indicators | ||
| cumulative share of income, d y H | |||||
| The first | 0,2 | 0,072 | 0,072 | 0,0144 | 0,0144 |
| The second | 0,2 | 0,121 | 0,193 | 0,0242 | 0,0386 |
| Third | 0,2 | 0,167 | 0,360 | 0,0334 | 0,072 |
| Fourth | 0,2 | 0,231 | 0,591 | 0,0462 | 0,1182 |
| Fifth | 0,2 | 0,409 | 1,00 | 0,0818 | 0,2000 |
| Total | 1,0 | 1,000 | NS | 0,2000 | 0,4432 |
The Gini index is calculated using the formula (14):
The income concentration index is 0.3136, i.e. a slight stratification between the incomes of the region's population.
Problem 6
According to the data on the income and expenditures of the population, calculate:
1. the increase in money in the hands of the population (the excess of monetary incomes over expenditures);
2. disposable cash income of the population;
3. real cash income;
4. specific weight (share) of expenses for payment of compulsory payments and contributions in the monetary income of the population;
5. real disposable money income of the population;
6. inflation rate by years in comparison with 1995.
Table 17 - Cash income and expenses of the population of the Arkhangelsk region
The increase in money in the hands of the population is defined as the difference between money income ( DD) and cash costs ( DR).
Let's calculate the increase in money in the hands of the population:
12195.7 - 8817.7 = 3378 billion rubles.
Disposable income ( DOC) are determined by subtracting the amount of mandatory payments and contributions from the nominal amount of income ( OPiV).
RsDD = DD - OPiV
Let's define the disposable cash income of the population:
RAPD = 12195.7 - 764.3 = 11431.4 billion rubles.
The calculation of indicators in real terms is carried out by dividing the corresponding indicators of the current period by the consumer price index (CPI), expressed in coefficients.
RealDD = 12195.7 / 1.179 = 10344.10 billion rubles.
We calculate real cash income:
RealDR = 8817.7 / 1.179 = 7478.96 billion rubles.
The share of expenses for the payment of compulsory payments and contributions (UOPiV) in the monetary income of the population:
UdOPiV = OPiV / DD
UDOPiV = 764.3 / 12195.7 * 100% = 6.27%.
Real disposable household income ( RealRaspDD) reflects the maximum cost of goods and services that could be purchased by households using their current income based on the prices of the reference period, without resorting to the sale of accumulated financial or non-financial assets and without increasing their financial liabilities.
We determine the real disposable cash income of the population:
RealRaspDD = 11431.4 / 1.179 = 9695.84 billion rubles.
The inflation rate (Y inf) for a period is defined as the rate of increase in prices for this period, i.e. Inf = CPI - 100%.
Then the inflation rate will be 117.9 - 100 = 17.9%.
Thus, in 1996 the increase in money in the hands of the population amounted to 3378 billion rubles. Disposable cash income in the analyzed period amounted to 11,431.4 billion rubles. Real cash income in 1996 amounted to 10344.1 billion rubles, and expenses - 7478.96 billion rubles. Moreover, the costs of paying mandatory payments and contributions amount to 6.72% of the monetary income of the population. The maximum cost of goods and services that could be purchased by households using their current income based on 1995 prices, without resorting to the sale of accumulated financial or non-financial assets and without increasing their financial liabilities, is 9695.84 billion rubles. (this is the real disposable cash income of the population). The inflation rate in 1996 compared to 1995 was 17.9%.
Methodological provisions on statistics. Issue 1, Goskomstat of Russia. - M., 1996.
Wrong figure / Elizaveta Surnacheva // Political.ru. - 01.02.2009. - http://www.polit.ru/analytics/2008/03/27/rosstat.html
Http://rosprofsouz.ru/interest/58248/58255/index.html
Resolution of the Goskomstat of the Russian Federation of 04.08.2003 No. 72 "On approval of the procedure for filling in information on the number of employees and the use of working time in the forms of federal state statistical observation"
Basic industrial and production assets / A.S. Palamarchuk // Economist's Handbook. - 2007. - No. 8.
Economic Dictionary. Ed. A.I. Arkhipova. - M .: TK "Welby", publishing house "Prospect", 2004
The concept of "standard of living of the population"The standard of living is one of the most important social categories. The standard of living is understood as the level of well-being of the population, consumption of material goods and services, and the degree of satisfaction of expedient vital needs. The standard of living of the population is determined by the level of income in comparison with the subsistence minimum and with the consumer budget, the level of wages, the development of social infrastructure, the state policy on income regulation, the influence of trade unions, the level of scientific and technical progress and other factors.
The cost of living is a monetary value of goods and services actually consumed by an average household over a certain period of time and corresponding to a specified level of satisfaction. In a general sense, the term "standard of living of the population" is the concept of "quality of life". Hence the quality of life also includes the satisfaction of spiritual needs, living conditions, work and employment, everyday life and leisure, health, life expectancy, education, natural habitat, etc.
There are four living standards of the population:
1) wealth (consumption of goods that ensure the full formation of a person);
2) normal level (reasonable consumption according to scientifically proven standards, which makes it possible for a person to restore his physical and intellectual strength);
3) poverty (extremely insufficient consumption of goods for normal life);
4) poverty (minimal consumption of goods, which does not allow satisfying the most elementary physiological and social needs and makes it possible only to support human vitality).
As a result of the transition to a market economy, there was a sharp decline in the standard of living of the population, and the differentiation of the population by income level increased. Raising the standard of living is a priority area of social development.
The well-being of the people is the main criterion for progress. Since in a market economy the main condition is universal consumption, the consumer is the central figure around whom everything revolves. Therefore, you cannot produce what will not be consumed.
The most important elements of the standard of living are the incomes of the population and their social security, their consumption of material goods and services, living conditions, and free time.
Generally, living conditions can be divided into working, living and leisure conditions. Working conditions include factors of the working environment and the labor process (sanitary and hygienic, psychophysiological, aesthetic and socio-psychological) that affect the performance and health of the employee. Living conditions are the provision of housing to the population, its livability, the development of a network of consumer services (baths, laundries, photo studios, hairdressing salons, repair shops, funeral service enterprises, rental points, etc.), the state of catering and trade, public transport, medical service. Leisure conditions are directly related to the use of people's free time. Free time is a part of non-working time, used completely at its own discretion, that is, for the development of the personality, for a fuller satisfaction of its social, spiritual and intellectual needs.
Three aspects of the study of living standards are likely:
1) in relation to the entire population;
2) to his social groups;
3) to households with different incomes.
Social norms and needsA significant role in the study of the standard of living of the population is played by social standards as scientifically grounded directions of social processes in society. There are social standards as follows: development of the material base of the social sphere, income and expenditures of the population, social security and services, consumption of material goods and paid services by the population, living conditions, consumer budget, etc. These standards can be equal, representing the absolute or relative value of the norm. Accordingly, these norms are expressed in physical terms or percentages (acceptable options for standards: moment, interval, minimum, maximum), as well as incremental ones, presented in the form of a ratio of gains of two indicators.
The consumer budget is directly related to the standard of living, which summarizes the standards (norms) of consumption of material goods and services by the population, divided by social and gender and age groups of the population, conditions and severity of work, climatic zones, place of residence, etc. The consumer budget is minimal and rational. In addition, the main social standards include: temporary disability benefits and minimum wages, unemployment benefits, minimum labor and social pensions for elderly and disabled citizens, disabled people, scholarships for students, regular or one-time targeted benefits for the most vulnerable groups of the population (large and low-income families, single mothers, etc.).
Together they create a system of minimum social guarantees as the state's duty to provide the population with the minimum wages and retirement pensions, the possibility of receiving benefits within the framework of state social insurance (including unemployment, sickness, pregnancy and childbirth, childcare until they reach the age of one and a half years, for burial, etc.), a minimum set of public and free services in the field of education, health care and culture. Living wage- it is the center of social policy, which is the cost estimate of the consumer basket, as well as mandatory payments and fees; and all other social standards and guarantees must be linked to it.
The existing standards reflect modern scientific ideas about the needs of people in products, goods, services, things - personal needs. Services are always volatile, so it is difficult to quantify them. Personal needs show an objective need for a specific set and amount of material goods and services and social conditions that a person needs, that he wants, seeks to have and consume, use. These goods and services provide the all-round activity of a particular person. Personal needs are divided into: physiological (physical), intellectual (spiritual) and social.
Physiological (physical) needs are basic, as they express the needs of a person as a biological being. In their composition, natural, primary, are the needs for food, water, air, clothing, shoes, warmth, housing, rest, sleep, physical activity, as well as other needs of the body associated with maintaining life and prolonging the genus. These needs constitute the foundation of the entire need area of a person. Satisfaction of these needs is necessary to maintain normal life.
To satisfy the most important physiological needs, a person must be provided with normal working conditions and wages that allow satisfying the needs for food, clothing, and housing at an acceptable level (for different people and for different countries or for different regions of the same country, this level can be significant differ).
Intellectual (spiritual) needs affect education, professional development, creative activity generated by the internal state of a person.
Social needs connected with the functioning of a person in society - these are social and political activities, belonging to a group, friendship, self-expression, communication with people, love, affection, approval, ensuring social rights, etc.
Since intellectual and social needs are not the main needs and their satisfaction occurs after a certain level of satisfaction of basic needs occurs, they have only an indirect assessment. The setting for meeting these needs depends on the time budget of the population. According to the values of working, non-working and free time, the effectiveness of working time and the possibility of satisfying the intellectual and social needs of a person is assessed.
Needs are also divided into: rational (reasonable) and irrational.
Rational needs – it is the consumption of those goods and services that are necessary to maintain a healthy lifestyle of a person and harmonious development of the individual. These are socially useful needs that are difficult to quantify, determined conditionally with the help of rational norms and standards (except for rational norms of food consumption, established on the basis of nutritional science data). Irrational needs – these are harmful needs that go beyond reasonable norms, taking hypertrophied, sometimes perverted forms, in particular in relation to nutrition.
The external form of revealing personal needs is the demand of the population, reflecting its ability to pay.
Living Standards Study TasksThe most important task of living standards statistics is to discover patterns of transformation of the well-being of the population. For this, studies are carried out that cover both the entire country and its regions, socio-demographic groups of the population and various types of households. Accordingly, this will make it possible to trace the differences in the standard of living depending on economic, climatic, national and other characteristics, as well as on the income of the population. The fruits of research can be either general in nature or private, combined, for example, with an assessment of the consumption of certain goods by the population and the provision of various services to it.
The tasks of studying the standard of living also include:
1) a comprehensive consideration of the structure, dynamics and rate of change of its indicators;
2) differentiation of different groups of the population by income and consumption and analysis of the influence of various socio-economic factors on this change;
3) an assessment of the degree of satisfaction of the population's needs for material goods and various services in comparison with the rational norms of their consumption and the development on this basis of generalized indicators of the standard of living.
Sources of information for solving the tasks are: current accounting and reporting of organizations, enterprises and institutions that serve the population; data from labor statistics, population censuses, employment, employment and wages, household budgets, all sorts of logical and other surveys of social conditions of life and activities of people.
A special place in the analysis of the standard of living of the population is occupied by statistics of household budgets, which is based on daily records of income and expenses of 49 thousand households. For the study by the state statistics bodies, assessments of the level and dynamics of material security of households with different incomes are generalized and used. In general, approximately 3 thousand indicators are determined here, including those characterizing: the composition of the household by age, sex, type of activity; household income by source of enrollment; costs of certain types of services; purchase and consumption of food and non-food products; personal subsidiary farm; housing conditions, etc.
The information in the territorial and federal divisions is determined: for some categories of the studied farms; by the size of the household, by the size of the average per capita aggregate income; the existence of children, etc. Thanks to these data, it is possible to determine the income of the population, the composition of its monetary income and expenses, the consumption of food products, non-food goods and services, the elasticity of consumption, indicators of the differentiation of income and expenses, etc.
A number of challenges arise in improving budget surveys. Mainly, we are talking about improving the sample of households, on which the representativeness of the sample (representativeness) of the data depends; the sample must be presented by both households focused on entrepreneurial income, and households of students, disabled people, households with the head of the family - unemployed.
It is essential that households in all areas of activity are represented, including trade, science, culture, art, government at all levels, defense, security and public order.
Planned rotation is also necessary (alternate replacement of managers in order to update the management level and create growth opportunities for other members) of the observed households, which makes it possible to exclude a long stay in the survey of their constant circle and thereby ensure greater adequacy of the socio-demographic characteristics of households to similar indicators for the population. generally.
ScorecardsA comprehensive study of the standard of living of the population is possible only with the help of a system of statistical indicators. According to the general agreement of December 29, 2004 between the all-Russian associations of trade unions, the all-Russian associations of employers and the Government of the Russian Federation for 2005-2007. the system “Basic socio-economic indicators for monitoring the quality and standard of living of the population” has been developed.
It presents 35 indicators:
1) gross domestic product;
2) investments in fixed assets;
3) expenditures of the consolidated budget of the Russian Federation for social and cultural events;
4) the number of resident population;
5) life expectancy at birth;
6) the general fertility rate;
7) the general mortality rate;
8) natural increase (decrease) of the population;
9) monetary incomes on average per capita;
10) real disposable cash income;
11) accrued average monthly wages (nominal, in the economy as a whole, by sectors of the economy, real);
12) arrears of wages;
13) the share of wages of employees in the gross domestic product;
14) the average monthly amount of assigned pensions (nominal, real);
15) the average subsistence level per capita, including by socio-demographic groups of the population (able-bodied population, pensioners, children);
16) the ratio of the average per capita income to the subsistence level, the average monthly wage, the average amount of assigned monthly pensions;
17) the size of the population with monetary incomes below the subsistence level;
18) the ratio of incomes of 10% of the most and 10% of the poorest population;
20) the share of expenditures on food in consumer expenditures of households;
21) the number of economically active population (at the end of the period);
22) the number of people employed in the economy;
23) distribution of the employed population by status, by sectors of the economy;
24) the total number of unemployed;
25) the number of registered unemployed;
26) the number of unemployed per one vacancy declared by organizations to the bodies of the state employment service (at the end of the period);
27) the number of citizens employed with the assistance of state employment service bodies (for the period from the beginning of the year);
29) the number of regions with a tense situation on the labor market;
30) the proportion of workers employed in harmful and hazardous working conditions, including women;
31) industrial injuries, including fatalities;
32) the main types of occupational diseases;
33) the volume of industrial products;
34) the minimum wage;
35) tariff rate of the 1st category of the Unified tariff scale.
There is a change in the system of social indicators along with the transformation of social relations. Consequently, the development of the housing market activates the need for the emergence of such an indicator as "the number of apartments that are intended for sale (in newly built houses, in houses after major repairs)"; the development of paid education also needs to be reflected by a special indicator “share of students for a fee,” etc.
Generalized assessment of the standard of livingOne of the main tasks of social statistics is the development of a generalizing (integral) indicator of the life of the population, the need for which is beyond doubt. For all parameters, any system of indicators must be completed with a generalizing indicator, which ensures the methodological unity of all individual indicators of the system and an unambiguous assessment of the level and dynamics of the process under study.
Statistics have not yet found a rational way to combine the established indicators of the standard of living, to obtain an unambiguous comprehensive indicator.
Nevertheless, there have always been attempts to propose a generalized indicator of the standard of living of the population, and they are constantly continuing. Specialists of the United Nations Development Program on social statistics suggested using as indicators the share of food costs in total household expenditures, national income per capita, mortality rate, found as the ratio of the number of deaths of persons aged 50 years and older to the total number of deaths, average life expectancy population.
The use of enlarged (aggregated) economic indicators for this purpose suggests that the countries that are most economically developed have a higher level of social development. Comparisons between countries are often based on gross domestic product or national income per capita, which is expressed in the currency of one of the countries, or in US dollars, or in purchasing power parities.
It is not easy to compare national income in different countries, since there are different principles for constructing methods for calculating it and differences in the structure of income, especially in terms of its distribution for consumption and accumulation. Moreover, the accumulation fund is not directly related to the standard of living of the population, and the consumption fund contains not very much related to the standard of living expenses on science and management.
The index of countries in terms of living standards published in 2004 by UN experts ranked Russia 57th out of 177 countries. Russia is in the ranking between Bulgaria and Libya, and the first 3 places were taken by Norway, Sweden and Australia; The USA is in 8th place, the UK is in 12th.
The next two proposed indicators - the share of expenditures on food and the relative mortality rate - undoubtedly characterize the difference in living standards, but they are unlikely to be integral. Surely they represent separate indicators and their place in the corresponding groups. In addition, the average life expectancy is often ambiguous about the overall improvement in living standards. In countries with developing economies, an increase in this indicator may be associated with improved sanitary conditions, the use of modern medicines, etc., which may not be accompanied by an improvement in nutrition, housing services, etc.
Often in the statistics of our country, any of the indicators acts as a generalizing assessment of the standard of living of the population, for example, it can be an indicator of national income per capita, but with the proviso that its material composition (the ratio of consumption and accumulation funds) corresponds composition of public needs. But in addition to this, the use of the indicator of the total fund for the use of material goods and services by the population, and also per capita, can be proposed. This indicator, of course, is better than the indicators of the national income and especially the social product, but it does not show many components of the standard of living and, above all, living conditions. In addition, the dimension (rubles, rubles / person) of this indicator is not suitable for the aggregate indicator, despite the fact that the prices and tariffs used in the calculations correspond to the consumer properties of goods and services.
The indicator of free time does not have a similar disadvantage, but modern statistics do not provide constant monitoring of this indicator, its study is possible with the help of periodic, specially organized random checks. Consequently, the indicator of free time is not suitable for international comparisons of the standard of living of the population.
In the scientific literature, there are various proposals for the collection of a generalized indicator of the standard of living on the basis of particular indicators.
A proposal was put forward to settle the aggregate indicator in a variety of weighted average from individual indicators of the standard of living (groups of indicators). V In this case, the weights are expert assessments of their share importance (weight), therefore, the sum of the weights is equal to one. In addition, it is important to reduce in advance all particular indicators of the standard of living to a single dimension (a single scale), and this task is performed using the relative values of their dynamics.
An example of such an indicator can be tension indicator.
Its components are:
1) the degree of provision with consumer goods;
2) the level of crime;
3) the degree of public dissatisfaction with a complex of unresolved socio-political, economic and environmental problems.
Based on these data, an index was found in more than 100 cities and in all regions of the country. The value of the index from 0 to 0.4 indicates social stability; from 0.4 to 0.8 - for social tension; from 0.8 to 1.4 - for local conflicts; from 1.4 to 2.0 - for social explosions in the region; over 2.0 - for massive social explosions.
Since there are many private indicators of the level and quality of life and they have different dimensions, the construction of an integral indicator presupposes the need for a transition to some unified characteristics, which can be, for example, the ranks of countries for each indicator. Countries in this case are distributed for each of the analyzed indicators from 1 to and (and is the number of countries) for stimulating indicators (for example, average life expectancy at birth, etc.); for the indicators-destimulant, the distribution system is reversed, therefore, in the first place is the country for which the indicator-destimulant has the lowest value (for example, the destimulant is the infant mortality rate, the number of accidents, etc.).
Having distributed the ranks according to individual indicators, they find average rank of the country for all indicators:
According to the characteristics under consideration, the smaller the value Rj, the more developed the country (region).
The disadvantages of this method include:
1) mechanical connection of the initial indicators;
2) the obtained average ranks that do not reflect the actual distance between the research objects. Therefore, it is better to distribute countries according to the values of the main components or main factors.
A generalizing indicator of the standard of living can also be synthetic index built on the basis of standardized values of the initial indicators:
But with this approach, difficulties arise, since the values can be both positive and negative.
In the statistics of the quality and standard of living, expert assessments can be applied, and there is also a proposal to build a generalizing indicator of the standard of living of the population using the method of principal components or its generalization - factor analysis. According to the principal components method, the generalized indicator of the standard of living F t acts as a linear combination of the initial indicators reduced to a comparable form:
Basically, either only the first factor, or two factors, the first and the second, which make the greatest contribution to the total variance, are taken as a generalizing indicator of the standard of living. A rich interpretation of the selected factors is found by the values of factor loadings a ij., which measure the correlation of the selected factor F i with initial indicators x j .
Most preferred assessment of the achieved living standard of the population by comparing its actual indicators with the normative ones, respectively, according to the degree of satisfaction of the population's needs in life benefits and various services.
When using this approach to the general assessment of the standard of living, many difficulties and shortcomings that prevail in other assessments are eliminated.
It is best to end the specified study with a graph, on the abscissa axis of which time is displayed, in addition, on the ordinate axis, the values? , fixing the degree of approximation of the actual indicators to the normative ones and the equalized values of these approximations.
When using this approach to assessing the standard of living, the task of statistics does not include the discussion of the norms themselves - they are taken as rational, although they will be constantly revised and improved, and the norms are perceived not only as a goal, but also as conditions for the all-round development of the individual.
Generalized indicators of human developmentFor a long time, mainly demographic (life expectancy of the population, infant mortality rate) and economic (gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, consumer price index) indicators were used as generalizing characteristics.
Nevertheless, the development of the world community has proved that economic growth is not always accompanied by positive social consequences. These consequences are manifested in the creation of favorable conditions for raising the level of education of the population, the development of physical culture and sports, the availability of health services, the reduction of the risk of unemployment, etc. As a result, a system of indicators of the population's standard of living has gradually formed, which contains demographic and socio-economic indicators. These indicators reflected various significant aspects of human development. There was an improvement in the methodology for their calculation, international classifications were developed.
In 1978, the UN developed the Living Standards Indicators System, which includes 12 groups of indicators. At the same time, it became necessary to build a single integral indicator of the standard of living, which unites various aspects of socio-economic development.
For a comparative assessment of trends and opportunities for human development in different countries of the world, proposals were made to use synthetic indices of the "quality of life" of the population, which include demographic, cultural and socio-economic components. For example, the American Council for Overseas Development has developed the Physical Quality of Life Index (PQLI), which combines indicators of socio-demographic development (life expectancy, infant mortality and literacy). This indicator was used to classify countries by development level.
In addition, other indicators of human development have been developed. For example, within the boundaries of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), an index of "quality of life" was developed, which combines socio-economic and demographic indicators (employment, level of development of health care and education, purchasing power, access to political life, life expectancy, etc.). ).
The basis of the methodology for constructing indices is in a combination of monetary indicators of well-being and indicators that directly reflect the qualitative characteristics and social conditions of the population. In recent years, the integral indicator that summarizes the level of development and is used in international and regional comparisons is the most famous development index human potential– HDI (The Human Development Index - HDI). This index is proposed as the main indicator on the basis of which the countries of the world community are ranked and the rating of each country is determined.
Human potential is increasingly being used to form and implement a system of competitive advantages and generate significantly more income through the use of non-standard approaches and solutions.
A comprehensive assessment of human potential requires the use, along with cost indicators, of qualitative parameters that characterize the conditions of human life and development. A step in this direction was the developed in the 1980s. experts from the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and a system of indices for comparative assessment of trends and opportunities for human development in different countries of the world. This new approach is more personalized.
The Human Development Index is based on displaying three aspects of human life support:
1) longevity, which is calculated by the life expectancy at birth on a specific date;
2) education - according to the share of the literate adult population, children and adolescents studying in various educational institutions in the corresponding age group;
3) income - by gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, taking into account the purchasing power parity of the national currency, converted into US dollars. It is used to carry out a comparative analysis of the socio-economic development of countries.
In the Russian Federation, the human development index for the years of reforms has not yet reached the 1990 level (0.817), and in 2005 its value was only 0.766. If from 2001 the material well-being index began to grow steadily (but at a slow pace), then the longevity index has been gradually decreasing since 2003, which confirms the low efficiency of Russian reforms in improving the conditions and quality of life of the population.
Focusing on the person in the early 1990s. began to "compete" with the direction of research on income growth. The GDP does not assess the aspects of human development, because they are not always reflected in the System of National Accounts (SNA).
In accordance with the theory of UNDP experts, human development is a process of increasing opportunities for personal choice and achieving an increase in the level of human well-being. The increase in the choice that the population has, or the possibility of using it, is quite large (almost limitless). Due to this, within the framework of this approach, maximum attention is paid to the main opportunities, in the absence of which people lose many life prospects: to lead a long and healthy life, to gain knowledge, access to the resources required to maintain a decent standard of living.
Created on four main elements conceptual diagram of human development.
1. Productivity. People are obliged to be able to use their knowledge and skills to improve the result of performing their functions (activities), fully participate in the generation of income and receive remuneration for their work.
Consequently, the formation of a person requires economic growth and dynamics of employment and income.
2. Equality. In general, all people should be given the same initial opportunities.
3. Stability. The probability of self-realization must be ensured not only for today's, but also for future generations. It provides for the correct distribution of opportunities for formation between generations and within each generation.
4. Empowerment. This means an increase in people's responsibility for the fate of their family, state and people as a whole.
When displaying certain indices together with the value of the actual level of indicators, set minimum and maximum values are applied, which are called reference points.
For each arbitrary component of the aggregate HDI, certain indices are found (the index of the achieved level of education, the index of life expectancy at birth, the index of GDP per capita) according to the corresponding formula:
where fact, min and max are the actual, minimum and maximum values of the indicator.
When calculating the life expectancy index, the maximum value is determined by the age of 85 years, the minimum - 25 years, for the per capita real GDP index - USD 100, in purchasing power parity (PPP) - USD 40,000 per year PPP, for the level index education of the population, respectively - 0 and 100%. The indicators, which are components of the HDI, are converging on the basis of this formula to relative levels (normalized before averaging), which results in a single measurement scale.
Consequently, the HDI includes three components and is calculated using the formula of a simple arithmetic mean of three indices, which confirms the equality of the components for characterizing human development.
The value of the index varies from 0 to 1, moreover, the closer it is to 1, the higher the development of human potential and the less the path that a given country needs to travel to achieve socially significant areas. Countries with an HDI value of 0.8 or more are a group of countries with a high level of development. If the HDI value varies from 0.5 to 0.8, then these countries belong to the group with an average level, and the countries with an HDI of less than 0.5 belong to the category with a low level of development.
UNDP is steadily improving the methodology for calculating the HDI and categorizes countries with different levels of development.
This indicator was determined for Russia as a whole, but due to the variety of regional differences and the improvement of regional statistics, it became possible to use this methodology to find the integral indicator of the standard of living for the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.
The weaknesses of the most popular integral human development index (HDI) are extensively discussed in domestic and foreign works. Basically, they point to the inaccuracy of assessing the degree of material capabilities of people on the basis of produced GDP. The considered factors of human potential development do not reveal the full completeness, depth and quality of this significant indicator, but represent the first attempts to measure and compare the possibilities for realizing the potential of an individual.
The most important flaw in the methodology for calculating the HDI follows from its reliance on averages. Further development of the system of indicators should be carried out in the direction of a more complete accounting of the structural elements of the national human potential, which characterize the possibilities of realizing and developing human potential. They include the distribution of the potential of education and health among all kinds of population categories, the proportion of people with incomes below the subsistence level, the forced unemployed and other vulnerable categories.
The HDI makes it possible to rank not only countries, but also regions by the level of socio-economic development, assess its dynamics, and compare achievements. The HDI can be used to find the desired level of funding for human development programs at the national and regional levels.
Comparison of the individual components that make up the HDI allows, all other things being equal, to identify the priority of the corresponding areas in social development programs. The dynamics of the HDI and its components in Russia as a whole is presented in Table 3.
The data in the table confirm a slight decrease in the HDI due to a decrease in the GDP per capita index.
The way the HDI is calculated is improving all the time. For example, the formulas for determining the indices by elements are being improved, and work is being carried out to increase the range of indicators. An essential direction for improving the HDI is its disaggregation. Since 1993, for a number of countries, HDI values have been determined for different population groups, for example, taking into account gender differences.
The value of the HDI in general across the country levels out differences (for example, gender) in the level of development for certain groups of the population. Since the differences between the sexes in different states are reflected in different ways in the ranking (in states where women have income along with men, formation indicators will be higher compared to states where there are differences in the division of income between men and women, etc.) .), there was a need to develop a special indicator that characterizes the formation of a person in certain countries, taking into account the gender factor (GDF). This indicator was first mentioned in the 1995 Human Development Report.
This index consists of the same elements as the HDI, with the only difference that the average indicators of life expectancy, educational level attained and income of each state are adjusted (adjusted) in accordance with the value of the gap between women and men. Thus, with this index, it is possible to establish the same perspectives as with the HDI, applying the same variables in order to convey disparities in position among women and men. The greater the degree of gender inequalities in the area of human potential formation in the state, the lower the value of the GDI index when comparing it with the HDI.
Studies carried out in 163 countries have shown that women's achievement in human development is significantly lower than that of men in any country, and a decrease in the HDI for the HDI shows this difference.
The Women's Empowerment Indicator (EAP) is a different indicator that measures the lack of equal probabilities for women's participation in economic and political life. This indicator is used to find the degree of participation of women in the process of making judgments in professional economic and political fields. The PRVL consists of three indices: representativeness in administrative and managerial positions, in positions of specialists and technical staff; the representation of women in legislative bodies; share of earned income. The Women's Empowerment Index (WED) is a simple arithmetic average of the three indices listed.
Thanks to Spearman's rank correlation coefficients (?) it can be seen that even for states with a high level of socio-economic development, the aggregate indicators of human potential do not repeat each other. The ultimate consistency of ranks is observed in terms of the GDI and HDI (p = 0.6), the maximum variance - according to the indicators of the IRGF and PRVZh ( ? = 0,26) .
Consequently, the display of generalizing integral indicators that reproduce the level of socio-economic formation makes it possible to carry out intercountry and regional comparisons, to give a comparative assessment of all kinds of prospects for social progress. At the same time, the issues of reflecting topical trends in social development, determining social tension in the social field and developing the best scenarios for the embodiment and further increase of the likelihood of improving the personality and fulfilling its creative potential remain poorly developed.
The gender approach needs to be used in several ways:
1) as a research in the field of personnel management to identify the main problems;
2) to develop the optimal age and gender structure of the personnel of universities, ensuring the maximum efficiency of the process of teaching, upbringing and introducing young people to scientific work and the reproduction of highly qualified scientific and pedagogical personnel, which are necessary in modern conditions of reforming the system of higher education;
3) in the areas of improving the motivation system, establishing the most favorable climate in primary labor collectives to increase labor efficiency.
INTRODUCTION
The modern stage of radical economic reforms is accompanied by coordinated transformations of the social structure of Russian society. The rates of socio-economic transformations differ sharply in the regions of the Russian Federation. Against the background of the all-embracing Russian crisis in society, there has been a deep drop in the standard of living of the bulk of the population of Russians.
In the system of macroparameters, “population income” is one of the most generalizing indicators of the country's economic development and the growth of people's well-being. The basis of the law - the tendency of continuous growth of the people's well-being - is that the improvement of life is an urgent need for economic development itself. The income of the population is the basis for raising the standard of living, and at the same time acts as a source of improvement and development of production for the further growth of the living standard of people.
It is necessary to monitor the social and labor sphere, which is a state system of continuous monitoring of the actual state of affairs in the social and labor sphere for the timely identification and system analysis of changes occurring in it, prevention of negative trends leading to the formation and development of various hotbeds of social tension, as well as for short-term forecasting of the development of the most important processes in this area. One of the main directions of monitoring the social and labor sphere is the monitoring of incomes and living standards of the population. It is intended to become an important tool for the development of state social policy.
Our well-being directly depends on the correct social policy of the state, which, in turn, depends on whether there is enough information and to what extent it fully reveals the problems in modern Russian society.
In this work, the concepts will be considered:
Standards of living;
The quality of life of the population;
The role of the state in determining the quality of life of the population.
The object of the research is the population of the Russian Federation, and the subject is the direction of the state in the country's social policy.
The purpose of the work is to characterize the state policy in relation to the level and quality of life of the population.
To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:
Disclosure of the concepts of the level and quality of life of the population;
Analyze the policy of the state.
LIVING STANDARD: ESSENCE, MINIMUM SOCIAL STANDARDS
The goal of social development is to improve the living standards of the population.
The standard of living is an economic category and social standard that characterizes the degree of satisfaction of the physical and social needs of people. The main components of the standard of living are: health, food and income of the population, housing conditions, household property, paid services, the cultural level of the population, working and recreation conditions, as well as social guarantees and social protection of the most vulnerable citizens.
Social guarantees - a system of obligations of society to its members to meet the most important needs. The state, giving guarantees, announces that the society undertakes to create conditions for each member of the society for the implementation of his economic activity and income.
Social protection is a system of measures taken by society to ensure the necessary material and social status of citizens.
These components are characterized by quantitative indicators, indicators and indices and are formed into a system of living standards indicator.
In the process of reproduction, mutual economic and social factors such as health, education, housing, nutrition, social security and others. A decisive role for the population is the standard of living, and for production - the efficiency of labor.
GDP and national income per capita, as well as the productivity of social labor, are indicators of general economic, and the standard of living is an indicator of social development.
The prevailing understanding of the essence of the "standard of living" focuses on the fact that the standard of living is important not in itself, but in relation to the needs of the population.
Specifically, the analysis of the standard of living is determined by the content of such quantities as: the consumer basket and the cost of living. In general terms, the standard of living of a country or region in terms of the average life expectancy of the population, the amount of unemployment, structural personal consumption expenditures and consumption of basic food products in calories. The level of qualifications of employees, the number of students and pupils per 1000 people, as well as the level of development of social infrastructure (for example, the number of hospital beds per 1000 people, the presence of schools, cultural and sports facilities, housing) are taken into account.
The standard of living must be considered in relation to general economic indicators, as well as indicators linking general economic and living standards - incomes of the population, consumer demand, trade, prices, the state budget, and loans. So, for example, incomes of the population are the key factors that determine the standard of living.
It is necessary to single out the components of the standard of living - certain types of human needs, the satisfaction of which is the main part of the standard of living in general (for example, nutrition, health, education). The set of components covers the entire area of human needs.
A system of indicators of the standard of living is formed from them. According to the UN recommendation, the standard of living is measured by a system of indicators characterizing health, consumption level, employment, education, housing, social security and others.
The productivity of workers, the price of labor, as well as its implementation in labor, that is, the production of consumer goods, depends on the standard of living. Development takes place in the direction of the central general productivity. An increase or decrease in the standard of living of the population and in labor productivity inevitably drives the economy forward or backward.
In many countries, to assess the standard of living, the indicator of "well-being of society" is used, which symbolizes the minimum level of consumption and is an indicator of the poverty line.
The subsistence minimum is a cost estimate of the total consumption of a person or family, determined on the basis of the minimum consumer basket. The “basket” gives the structure of consumption, the expenditures of low-income strata, contains the set (minimum norms) necessary for physiological survival. This set and the subsistence minimum itself depends on the level of socio - economic development of the country and is adopted by the principle of distribution. Currently, this economic category does not make sense, since more than 40 million Russian citizens (30) are far below the poverty line.
At the current level of production, not only can it not raise the poverty line, but also make up for the difference between the “bottom” and the minimum consumer budget.
The consumer budget is the balance of income and expenses of the average family, which characterizes the standard of living of various groups of working families.
The minimum consumer budget is formed on the basis of the traditions of consumption, the conjuncture of the consumer goods market and represents the subsistence minimum calculated from the average per capita income. Therefore, this is a comparatively higher standard of living.
The content of the food basket is used to calculate the minimum subsistence level.
The food basket (a set of food items per person per month) is based on minimum food consumption rates that are consistent with physical needs, calories and traditional basic eating habits.
The cost of the minimum consumer basket, that is, its content in monetary terms represents the minimum consumer budget.
The minimum consumer budget, or the budget of the subsistence level, is calculated per capita and for its main socio-demographic groups as a whole in the Russian Federation and in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.
The subsistence minimum budget is an indicator of the consumption of the most important material goods and services at the minimum level, calculated based on the minimum consumption rates of the most important food products, goods and services. The most rational minimum consumer budget should maintain approximately the following proportions: food should be 41.1, non-food products - 39, services - 13.2, taxes and fees - 2.7.
QUALITY OF LIFE INDICATORS
There are integral and private approaches to the knowledge of the quality of life. The integral approach assumes the behavior of two types of assessments: objective (based on official statistics, without using generalized information based on various kinds of public opinion polls) and subjective (based on the opinion of the population).
IV Bestuzhev - Lada orients the category "quality of life" towards such an assessment of the degree of satisfaction of material needs, which does not lend itself to direct quantitative measurement, but requires complex methods of indirect qualification according to various scales. Therefore, an assessment of the content of work and leisure and satisfaction with them, the level of comfort in work and life, the quality and fashion of clothing, the quality of food, housing, living and environment, the functioning of social institutions, the quality of the level of satisfaction of the need for communication, knowledge, creativity and other needs aimed not only at self-preservation, but also at self-satisfaction and self-organization of the individual.
The health of the population, as a rule, can be one of the main criteria for the effective functioning of the economy, because its role is enhanced in connection with:
An increase in the role of the human factor in the economy of the national economy, where health acts as the main property of labor resources, which characterizes the quality of the labor force used by society for the reproduction of material and spiritual benefits;
The increase in direct and indirect costs of society in production, where the health of the population is the subject and product of labor in many sectors of the national economy;
The need for a quantitative measurement of the well-being of the population, in the assessment of which health is manifested as a consumer good and as its main component.
D. Pringle uses a system of indicators of the quality of life based on the use of a number of statistical assessments characterizing the level of employment, the state of health of the population, and the level of crime. At the same time, the author points out that many of the constituent elements of the quality of life are not quantitatively measurable (for example, satisfaction).
Other authors also refer to the number of such “non-measurable elements” as individual attachments and preferences, the satisfaction of a person in his ability to control any situation. These and similar elements, combined together, make it possible to paint a picture of the subjective face of a person's perceived quality of life.
Having analyzed the available approaches to understanding the essence of the concept of “quality of life” of the population, the authors came to the conclusion that a holistic picture of the quality of life can be created on the basis of combining two groups of criteria into a whole.
The first group is made up of estimates based on statistical information. With a certain degree of convention, these criteria can be called objective.
The second group consists entirely of assessments based on sociological surveys of the population, in which respondents are asked to express their attitude to certain aspects of their life, therefore, it seems quite reasonable to classify them as subjective.
In general, it is necessary to be careful when measuring the quality of life in terms of subjective indicators. The main reason for this approach is, as M. Adamitz and K. Pornalk correctly believe, that freedom and the ability to avoid hoaxes are among the conditions that give people's judgments sufficient credibility. Consequently, in order to avoid a mystified idea of the surrounding reality, it is possible, in society, to achieve a certain level of development. This level assumes the presence of a number of conditions, among which are the following:
The basic material needs of consumption are satisfied to the extent that the stage of satisfaction of "refined, modified personal needs" begins. Spiritual and aesthetic needs should come to the fore;
A middle class of sufficient size has developed in the country, concentrating in itself a significant part of the nation's intellect, the well-being of which is beyond doubt;
A person evaluating the quality of life has a certain practice of using alternative options. It is known from research that the smaller a family or an individual has alternatives to compare. The less they value the quality of life;
Stability of the social and political situation in the country, sustainable economic growth.
Contemporary Russian reality does not yet satisfy any of the listed conditions. Therefore, when studying the quality of life of the population of our country at the present stage, an approach should prevail, which, with a certain degree of convention, can be called objective. Criteria and assessments of the quality of life should be based on a system of indicators that objectively reflect the socio - economic situation.
QUALITY OF LIFE CRITERIA
The study of the quality of life of the population involves the addition of criterion assessments with a system of scientific substantiation and systematic, organized observation. Collection and analysis of data.
The differently planned nature of the concept of "quality" of life is due to the variety of indicators. The latter can characterize a separate element of the quality of life or the whole set. Relevant indicators include:
Health
The ability to lead a healthy lifestyle at all stages of the life cycle;
Impact of health impairment on individuals;
Individual development through learning
The assimilation of basic knowledge and skills by children, as well as the values necessary for their individual development and successful activity as a member of society;
The ability to continue self-education and the ability to use these skills;
The use and development by individuals of their knowledge, skills and mobility, required for the realization of their economic potential and, if desired, enabling them to integrate with the economic process;
The preservation and development of the cultural development of the individual in order to contribute to the well-being of members of various social groups;
Employment and quality of working life
Availability of profitable work for those who seek to get it;
The nature of work;
Individual satisfaction with their working life
Time and leisure
Possibility to choose your pastime
Possibility to purchase goods and use services
Personal opportunity to purchase goods and use services;
The number of people experiencing material deprivation;
The degree of equity in the distribution of goods and services;
The quality, choice and availability of goods and services produced in the private and public sectors;
Protection of individuals and their families in the event of economic hardship;
Personal safety and legal authorities
Violence, harassment, and harassment inflicted on an individual;
Fairness and humanity of legal bodies;
The degree to which an individual has confidence in legal authorities;
Social opportunities and social activity.
The degree of possible participation in public life, in certain public institutions and decision-making. The statistical assessment of the population's standard of living provides for the use of a system of indicators that can measure the level and degree of satisfaction of people's needs for material benefits (food, clothing, shoes, cultural and household items, housing), consumer services in a broad sense (including transport services , communications, consumer services, as well as medical services) and cultural services (including those provided by cultural and art institutions).
Therefore, the indicators used to characterize the standard of living can, with some degree of convention, be divided into three types:
Synthetic value indicators (GNP, consumption fund, total income of the population);
Natural indicators that measure the volume of consumption of specific material goods (provision of personal property, food consumption, the number of passengers transported).
Indicators showing the proportions and structure of the distribution of wealth (distribution of the population by income groups, indicators of concentration and differentiation of consumption income).
The All-Russian center of living standards of the population of the Russian Federation and its regions refers to them as:
Average per capita cash income (including average per capita income, average monthly salary, average pension);
Subsistence minimum (including for food products, non-food products, paid services to the population, purchasing power, per capita income of the population);
consumer spending of the population for the year.
The most important elements of life are housing, social and consumer services, characterized by the following basic indicators: the average provision of housing per inhabitant, the degree of provision of the housing stock with modern amenities, the structure of the housing stock by forms of ownership (state, municipal, cooperative, private), water supply by the communal water supply system to the population for communal and household needs per one inhabitant, the number of passengers - kilometers of public transport per one inhabitant. This should also include the main indicators of the development of education, health care, culture, and recreation.
POLICY OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION ON ENSURING THE QUALITY OF LIFE OF THE POPULATION
The Government has set clear objectives in all areas of the economy and social sphere, which began to be implemented in 1999-2001 and will remain the most important areas of the Government's activities both in the short and medium term.
The most important priority of government policy in the social sphere is to increase investment in human capital, primarily education and healthcare. Since 2000, the amount of funds allocated to these areas has been increasing every year within the framework of the federal budget. In this regard, in education, one of the most important measures will be to increase the efficiency of the use of funds allocated for education from the budgets of all levels, to continue the experiment to introduce a unified state exam, in health care - to dismantle the compulsory medical and social insurance program.
Important priorities of the Government's policy in the field of labor relations, employment and migration are the creation of modern labor legislation that meets the requirements of a dynamically developing market economy, the harmonization of the interests of workers and employers, and the creation of a civilized system for resolving labor disputes. The main step in this has already been taken - the Labor Code has been adopted. The important tasks are to implement it in practice and encourage employers to improve labor protection.
In the context of the prevailing negative demographic trends (aging of the population, a decrease in the share of the able-bodied population in the near future), the most important priority of the government's policy is to ensure a stable pension system for the population with an increase in the real income of pensioners.
In the field of social support, among the most important priorities of the Government's activities were and remain the reduction of poverty, strengthening the targeting of social support, ensuring effective protection of socially vulnerable families who do not have the ability to independently solve social problems, increasing the efficiency of social services for the population, and solving the problems of homelessness. In 2000 and 2001, the Government's policy in this area was aimed at increasing real incomes, supporting low-income families - the wages of state employees and pensions of pensioners were indexed many times.
In the field of economic modernization, the priority areas are measures to increase the investment attractiveness of the Russian economy, the final solution of the land issue, the continuation of the reform of natural monopolies, the creation of conditions for the broad development of small business, and the implementation of banking reform. To stimulate the process of investment inflow, it is necessary to take a set of additional measures to improve the investment climate.
The adoption in 2001 of a number of amendments to corporate legislation, the drafting of bankruptcy and nationalization laws should strengthen the legislative framework for the protection of owners' rights.
In the coming years, the reform of corporate legislation is to be continued. Other important tasks are the adoption of measures to develop the stock and money markets, the insurance market. Their solution will allow attracting significant foreign financial resources to the economy, as well as the mostly unused savings of Russian citizens.
The continuation of the tax reform launched in 2000-2001, aimed at further simplifying the tax system and reducing the tax burden, eliminating tax incentives, will become a major factor in improving the investment climate. In the near future, a number of taxes will be reformed, including a simplified taxation system for small businesses and a tax on real estate.
The process directly affecting the investment climate is the de-bureaucratization of the economy. The adoption in 2001 of a package of laws to de-bureaucratize the economy was a real step towards stimulating the development of small business. For a breakthrough in this direction, the Government will implement programs to support small businesses and provide legal, information-technical and financial assistance.
In 2001, a major step was taken to resolve the land issue - the Land Code was developed and adopted, which regulates the turnover of non-agricultural land. One of the most important tasks in 2002 should be the adoption of a law on the turnover of agricultural land.
In addition, a number of regulations are to be adopted to ensure the implementation of these two basic laws.
To date, the Government and the Central Bank have agreed on a strategy for the development of the banking sector of the Russian Federation. Its implementation will become one of the priorities of the Government.
CONCLUSION
The problem of the quality of life is a priority for solving social and economic problems of any level.
The analysis showed that the concept of “quality of life” is a complex derivative of historical, geographical, economic, social and other factors that determine a person's position in society. In the practical application of the concept of quality of life, it is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of "quality of life", "lifestyle", "conditions" and "standard of living". The quality of life shows the effectiveness of people's lifestyle. The level and conditions of life are the structural components of the quality of life.
In accordance with the concept of the quality of life, the main socio-economic goals of the country's development are formulated - ensuring an appropriate level and quality of life of the population and the all-round development of the individual. The population is considered as a consumer of goods and services created in the country, and the quality of life is viewed as an indicator of its provision with infrastructure services and a measure of satisfaction of spiritual, intellectual and aesthetic needs.
The quality of life of the population is influenced by state policy, regulation of economic processes.
State regulation of the economy requires high professionalism. The years of reforms have shown that in the period of transition to the market, competent regulation is especially important, since the state is the primary cause of changes in the functioning of the economy. The decisions made by the government depend on the decisions made at the micro level.
The main task of the state is to keep the “golden mean” in the sphere of influence on the market economy, to enable small enterprises to develop, and to eliminate the increased taxation of citizens with low incomes.
In general, it is difficult to overestimate the role of the state in the economy. It creates conditions for economic activity, provides social protection for low-income strata of the population and contributes to the development of market relations, which positively affects the measurement of the quality of life of the population.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Labor Code of the Russian Federation. No. 206-FZ dated July 17, 2009 [Text].
Animtsa E.G., Elokhov A.N., Sukhikh V.A. The quality of life of the population of the largest city. Part 1- Yekaterinburg: Publishing house of the Ural State Economic University, 2000 - 262s.
Animitsa E.G., Elokhov A.N., Sukhikh V.A. The quality of life of the population of the largest city. Part 2 - Yekaterinburg: Publishing House of the Ural State Economic University, 2000. - 300s.
Bulletin of the Ministry of Economic Development and Trade of the Russian Federation and the Russian Information Agency "Novosti", The standard of living and employment of the population, the development of social sectors, Measures of the social and economic policy of the government of the Russian Federation in the near future // Bulletin of Economics - No. 14, July, 2002 - p. 7-11, 11-13, 49-51.
Lives and main socio-economic categories Coursework >> Economics
Components are included in this concept what indicators can be measured level life population etc. Concept "level life population " applies to everything ...
The standard of living is one of the most important social categories. The standard of living is understood as the level of well-being of the population, consumption of material goods and services, and the degree of satisfaction of expedient vital needs. The standard of living of the population is determined by the level of income in comparison with the subsistence minimum and with the consumer budget, the level of wages, the development of social infrastructure, the state policy on income regulation, the influence of trade unions, the level of scientific and technical progress and other factors.
The cost of living is a monetary value of goods and services actually consumed by an average household over a certain period of time and corresponding to a specified level of satisfaction. In a general sense, the term "standard of living of the population" is the concept of "quality of life". Hence the quality of life also includes the satisfaction of spiritual needs, living conditions, work and employment, everyday life and leisure, health, life expectancy, education, natural habitat, etc.
There are four living standards of the population:
1) wealth (consumption of goods that ensure the full formation of a person);
2) normal level (reasonable consumption according to scientifically proven standards, which makes it possible for a person to restore his physical and intellectual strength);
3) poverty (extremely insufficient consumption of goods for normal life);
4) poverty (minimal consumption of goods, which does not allow satisfying the most elementary physiological and social needs and makes it possible only to support human vitality).
As a result of the transition to a market economy, there was a sharp decline in the standard of living of the population, and the differentiation of the population by income level increased. Raising the standard of living is a priority area of social development.
The well-being of the people is the main criterion for progress. Since in a market economy the main condition is universal consumption, the consumer is the central figure around whom everything revolves. Therefore, you cannot produce what will not be consumed.
The most important elements of the standard of living are the incomes of the population and their social security, their consumption of material goods and services, living conditions, and free time.
Generally, living conditions can be divided into working, living and leisure conditions. Working conditions include factors of the working environment and the labor process (sanitary and hygienic, psychophysiological, aesthetic and socio-psychological) that affect the performance and health of the employee. Living conditions are the provision of housing to the population, its livability, the development of a network of consumer services (baths, laundries, photo studios, hairdressing salons, repair shops, funeral service enterprises, rental points, etc.), the state of catering and trade, public transport, medical service. Leisure conditions are directly related to the use of people's free time. Free time is a part of non-working time, used completely at its own discretion, that is, for the development of the personality, for a fuller satisfaction of its social, spiritual and intellectual needs.
Three aspects of the study of living standards are likely:
1) in relation to the entire population;
2) to his social groups;
3) to households with different incomes.
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