Russia in the second half of the 17th century. Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the 17th century In the second half of the 17th century in

The collection of Russian lands by Moscow (14th century), their acquisition of political independence (15th century), and the formation of a centralized state had a significant impact on the development of entrepreneurial activity.

In the second half of the 15th century. the number of merchants increased significantly, and the field of their activity expanded markedly. Traders appeared, constantly connected with various lands of the country, or with foreign states. It is to this period that most of all references are made to cloth workers, surozhans, guests of Moscow, Novgorod, Pskov. These names still reflected the affiliation of merchants to separate territories or the main direction of trade operations. However, the guest was already more sharply opposed to the merchant, clothier and surrogate, and the chroniclers did not confuse the former with other traffickers.

With the unification of the Russian lands, Moscow became not only the royal residence, but also the concentration of the country's trade. Higher metropolitan merchants acquired more and more influence on political events. It is also characteristic that merchants began to actively subsidize the tsarist government. With the help of guests and clothiers, Prince Yuri Galitsky at the beginning of the 15th century. managed to pay off his numerous creditors. Appanage princes often became debtors of merchants and usurers. Wealthy guests from Moscow (V. Khovrin, A. Shikhov, G. Bobynya) repeatedly supplied the grand dukes with money. They also participated in the stone construction of the 15th century. So, in the years 1425-1427. At the expense of the Moscow guest Ermola (the ancestor of the Ermolin dynasty), the Savior Cathedral of the Andronikov Monastery in Moscow was built.

In foreign policy, guests increasingly traveled abroad with ambassadors, acting as translators and consultants on political and commercial affairs. This placed them in a specific relationship with the apparatus of state power and set them apart from other merchants in Moscow.

In turn, the merchant elite was used in the interests of the unifying policy of the Moscow princes. Officially assigning certain responsibilities to the Moscow guests, the government turned them into the conductors of the grand-princely policy of the Moscow princes. Officially assigning certain responsibilities to the Moscow guests, the government turned them into loyal guides of the grand ducal policy both inside the state and outside it.

In the 16th century. trade began to take on ever greater proportions. The center of business activity in Russian cities in the 15-17 centuries. there were seating yards. Merchants stayed here, their goods were stored and trade operations were carried out. The Gostiny Dvor was a rectangular square surrounded by a stone or wooden wall of a fortress type with towers at the corners and above the gates. On the inner sides of the walls, two- and three-storey trade and warehouse premises were installed. To pay customs duties, traders built a customs hut. The courtyard area gradually began to be built up with shops facing the inner and outer sides.

The government policy towards commercial and industrial circles during the reign of Ivan the Terrible was notable for its contradictions. On the one hand, the tsar showed signs of attention to those representatives of the merchant class who constantly emphasized their loyalty and provided him not only material, but also political support. The most famous was the Stroganov family, known for its power since the 16th century. The founder of the gigantic economy Anika Fedorovich Stroganov (1497-1570), who settled in his ancestral nest, (Solvychegodsk), was able to crush competitors and subjugate the country's largest salt fields to his control. In addition, the Stroganovs had iron and blacksmiths, fair trade, hunting for furs, trade in fish, icons and other various goods.

The most famous role of the Stroganovs in the colonization activities on the outskirts of Russia. The children of the founder of the trading house, Yakov, Grigory and Semyon, formed a kind of border state on the routes to Siberia, concentrating economic and political rights on its territory, taking advantage of the fact that the government, weakened by the Livonian War, could not adequately control the new territories.

In 1579, in the possession of the Stroganovs, there were one town, 39 villages, repairs with 203 courtyards and one monastery founded by them. The significance of the activity of representatives of this genus lies in the assertion of Russia's influence on the Siberian lands. Let us also note the other side of their business activity. Taking profits from usurious bonded loan operations with peasants, townspeople and merchants, guests, the Stroganovs built craft enterprises with manual specialized labor.

The other side of Ivan the Terrible's policy in relation to the merchants was based on harsh terror against his part in the oprichnina conditions. This was most clearly manifested in the defeat of Novgorod (1570). Researchers drew attention to the purpose of the action: first, to replenish the empty tsarist treasury by robbing the wealthy commercial and industrial elite of Novgorod; secondly, to terrorize the townspeople, especially the lower strata of the urban population, to suppress elements of discontent in them.

One way or another, but among the killed guests of Novgorod were representatives of wealthy families, merchant elders. A blow to the economy of the northwestern lands was the forcible transfer of 250 families of the top of the trading world to Moscow. In an effort to subjugate wealthy merchants, Ivan the Terrible united them with artisans and small town merchants into one estate of townspeople. All this testified to the fact that the pressure of the state made it impossible to expand the independence of not only the merchants, but also the country's elite. A situation arose in which the autocracy subordinated the activities of the merchants to the goals of the feudal state.

The 17th century can be called a boundary that marked the beginning of a gradual undermining of the positions of feudalism and, at the same time, the growth of market relations. However, the events of the late 16th and early 17th centuries. did not leave much hope for success for enterprising people. The dashing times of the Time of Troubles did not create much-needed stability. Nevertheless, by the middle of the 17th century. managed to overcome the consequences of a nationwide catastrophe.

The emerging all-Russian market determined the characteristic features of the Russian merchants, who more and more often acted as a buyer. It was the buyers who won the dominant position in the market, displacing the direct producers.

During this period, two forms of capital accumulation were clearly manifested. Wholesale trade, which was of a constant nature, became the leading one. It was accompanied by the purchase of goods by the merchants from direct producers, their repurchase from other traders. The merchants used state and private loans more and more actively. The goods in the wholesale trade were mainly food (bread, salt, fish, meat) and raw materials (hemp, leather).

The second form of capital accumulation was government contracts, their profitability was due to the fact that the treasury paid in advance part of the amount due for the contract. The merchant-contractor could invest this money in any enterprise at his discretion.

During the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676), a slow growth of manufacturing began. Initially, large-scale industry was formed mainly in the depths of the patrimonial economy. The transition to the construction of factories with partial use of hired labor was complicated by the process of strengthening serf relations. Government events in the second half of the 17th century prepared the foundation for subsequent reforms: in 1649 the Cathedral Code granted the posad communities the exclusive right to engage in trade and industry, taking it away from the settlements. In the 1650-1660s. the tax duty was unified in the interests of domestic merchants.

The Customs Charter of 1653 and the New Trade Charter of 1667 became acts of Russian statehood that were clearly protectionist in nature and meant positive changes in the policy of Alexei Mikhailovich.

Foreign merchants were subject to a higher tax on the sale of goods on the domestic market. The abolition of small fees levied on Russian traders contributed to the development of the geography of trade ties.

Thus, Russia was not spared the impact of the policy of mercantilism. First of all, it is characterized by following the formula: the wealth of a country is expressed in money capital. Mercantilists focused on foreign trade, the profit from which was expressed in a profitable trade balance. At the same time, they understood that the basis of trade is the mass of commodities entering the market, therefore, the need to encourage agriculture, mining and manufacturing industries was also defended.

In the second half of the 17th century. future centers of entrepreneurship were laid in the country: metallurgy and metalworking (enterprises of the Tula-Serpukhov, Moscow regions); production of wood products (Tver, Kaluga); jewelry business (Verkhniy Ustyug, Novgorod, Tikhvin, Nizhny Novgorod). However, it was still a long way from the formalization of the class of entrepreneurs.

The final formation of serfdom led to a constant increase in payments from peasants to the treasury and feudal lords. This, in turn, led to an extremely slow demand of the serf village for manufactured goods and a slowdown in the growth of the manufacturing industry. The percentage of merchant peasants in the total mass of the rural population was not so great. The domination of feudal relations made it difficult to accumulate funds so necessary for trade, fettered the initiative of the peasants.

Nevertheless, the peasant merchants influenced the formation of the all-Russian market. This manifested itself in the participation in the auction. The characteristic features of peasant trade were the presence of a small amount of free money, a constant need for credit, the lack of specialization in a certain type of activity and stability in the position of a number of groups of merchants. A double control was exercised over the merchant peasants: on the one hand, as over the peasants, on the other, as over a group of commercial and industrial population.

As for the merchant factories, they remained a typical feudal phenomenon, since their purpose was to facilitate the merchant's turnover by producing goods that did not require large expenses. The entrepreneurial activity of the merchant peasants on the whole differed little from the functioning of the capital of the posad merchants, which was due to the level of development of Russia at the end of the 17th century.

Thus, the sprouts of entrepreneurship broke through with great difficulty the soil of feudalism. Although transformative sentiments were in the air until the accession of Peter I, however, the implementation of the most difficult task of strengthening the economic, military and political might of Russia; in the new realities was associated with a new stage in the development of the country.

In art, there is a process of regulation, complete submission and control by the royal power. The Academy of Painting and Sculpture, created back in 1648, is now under the official jurisdiction of the first minister of the king. In 1671 the Academy of Architecture was founded. Control is established over all types of artistic life. The leading style of all art is officially classicism.

In classicism of the second half of the 17th century. there is no sincerity and depth of Lorrain's paintings, Poussin's high moral ideal. This is an official direction, adapted to the requirements of the court and, above all, of the king himself, the art is regulated, unified, painted according to a set of rules, what and how to depict, which is what Lebrun's special treatise is devoted to.

Architecture.

Large structures are being built in the country to glorify the king.

Louis Leveaux Palace of Vaux-le-Vicomte. Versailles.

Jules Adruen Mansart. Supervised the expansion of the palace at Versailles. Vendome square. Cathedral of the Invalides

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Claude Perrault... Louvre.

Francois Blondel... Triumphal Arch

Ticket 17

Art of Byzantium (5-7 c) Byzantine art is a historical-regional type of art that is part of the historical type of medieval art.

658 BC The city of the Greek colonists of Byzantium was founded on an island between the Golden Horn Bay and the Sea of ​​Marmara. The leader Byzantium is the city of Byzantium. Due to its good geographical position, Byzantium began to occupy one of the most prominent and main places among the Greek city-states.

Periodization

early Christian period(the so-called pre-Byzantine culture, I-III centuries); Church of San Appolinare

early Byzantine period, the "golden age" of Emperor Justinian I (527-565), the architecture of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (architects Anfimy from Traal and Isidore from Miletus, the peak of the development of arched-vaulted structures 527) and Ravenna mosaics (VI-VII centuries), sculptures ( good donkey) + illustrations of books (including church ones); Church of San Vitale 526-547, octagon plan, encaustic icon painting (Christ Pantokrator).

Early Byzantine period construction of various monastic ensembles and temples. The most characteristic are such types of temples as longitudinally basilica and cross-domed.

Basilica- a type of rectangular structure, which consists of an odd number (1, 3 or 5) of different heights of naves.

In the multi-nave basilica, the naves are separated by longitudinal rows of columns or pillars, with independent roofs. Central nave - usually wider and higher in height, illuminated by second-tier windows

iconoclastic period(VIII-early IX century). Emperor Leo III the Isaurian (717-741), founder of the Isaurian dynasty, issued an Edict banning icons. This period was called the "dark time" - in many respects by analogy with a similar stage in the development of Western Europe; (St. Irene's church 4c, istanbul) the first mosaics destroyed

period of the Macedonian Renaissance(867-1056) It is considered to be the classical period of Byzantine art. XI century was the highest point of prosperity. Information about the world was drawn from the Bible and from the works of ancient authors. The harmony of art was achieved through strict regulation; Restoration of icons.

period of conservatism under the emperors of the Comnenian dynasty (1081-1185), Hellenistic traditions (1261-1453). The canonicity of icon painting.

The term Byzantine art denotes not only the art of the eastern part of the Roman Empire, but also a specific style, since this style grew out of certain tendencies, the emergence of which can be attributed to the reign of Constantine and even earlier.

Cross-domed temple- the architectural type of a Christian temple, formed in Byzantium and in the countries of the Christian East in the V-VIII centuries. Became dominant in the architecture of Byzantium from the 9th century and was adopted by Christian countries of the Orthodox confession as the main form of the temple. In the classic version, it is a rectangular volume, the center of which is divided by 4 pillars into 9 cells. Crosswise cylindrical vaults serve as an overlap, and a drum with a dome rises above the central cell, on supporting arches.

Mosaic of Justinian with his retinue.

18) QUESTION 1

Italian art developed within the framework of local schools. In architecture, the Tuscan, Lombard, and Venetian schools developed, in the style of which new trends were often combined with local traditions. In the visual arts, primarily in painting, several schools were also formed - Florentine, Umbrian, North Italian, Venetian - with their own unique stylistic features. Brunelleschi, Donatello, Masaccio - three Florentine geniuses - opened a new era in architecture and fine arts. Having created the original design of the dome of the Florentine Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, the Orphanage for Foundlings (Ospedale degli Innocenti), the Church of San Lorenzo
Philippe Brunelleschi (1377-1446) gave a powerful impetus to the innovative development of Italian architecture. The octahedral dome, 42 m in diameter, soared majestically over the Gothic cathedral, becoming a symbol of the city's power and the strength of the human mind. In the buildings of Brunelleschi in Florence - the Pazzi Chapel,

In contrast to the building's aspiration upward, characteristic of the Gothic, Brunelleschi first created the lower floor of the facade in the form of a light portico, unfolding horizontally across its entire width and adjacent to the square. Innovation marks the projects of Leon Battista Alberti: in the Rucellai palazzo

in Florence, he first applied the division of the three tiers of the facade with pilasters of different orders,
The Venetian architecture of the Renaissance was distinguished by its originality. It took shape later than in Tuscany, in the last decades of the 15th century. Local Gothic traditions were combined in it with Renaissance features. The Venetians appreciated the elegance and colorfulness of buildings. The palaces of the patrician nobility standing on piles were decorated with loggias, fine stone carvings, multicolored inlays, bricks were faced with imported marble. The features of the new architecture were manifested not only in secular buildings, but also in church architecture, most clearly in the Church of San Zaccaria.
The outstanding Florentine sculptor Donatello (c. 1386-1466) became a true reformer of the art of sculpting. He was the first to create a free-standing statue not related to architecture, was the author of the first equestrian monument - the monument to the condottier Gattamelata in Padua,
embodied in stone and bronze the beauty of the naked human body (relief of the singing pulpit of the Florence Cathedral, the statue of David). Spiritualized images of his "Annunciation" relief

The formation and development of Renaissance painting was a complex process. Even in the first third of the XIV century. the great artist Giotto in his frescoes in the Chapel del Arena in Padua
he places figures taking on volume in a three-dimensional, albeit shallow, space.
The birth of a new, actually Renaissance painting is associated, however, with the name of another outstanding Florentine - Masaccio (1401-1428 / 29). His murals in the Brancacci Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria del Carmine in Florence
have become a school for many generations of artists. In the frescoes by Masaccio, depicting the expulsion from paradise of Adam and Eve and scenes from the life of the Apostle Peter, by Beato Angelico. In his work, influenced by Masaccio, along with the Renaissance features, the traditions of medieval art were still preserved. Creating his fresco "Procession of the Magi" in Palazzo Medici

The subtle, soulful images of the Madonnas were created by Sandro Botticelli (1445-1510). In his work, they approach with their tender and fragile beauty with the images of the ancient goddess of love Venus. In the painting "Spring"
the artist depicts Venus against the background of a fairy-tale garden, together with the goddess of fertility Flora, strewn with flowers, three dancing graces and other characters of ancient mythology. In "The Birth of Venus"
In the last decades of the 15th century. along with the Florentine school of painting, schools and trends with their own special style were formed in Central (Umbria) and Northern (Lombardy, Venice) Italy. The beginning of the Umbrian school of painting was laid by the work of one of the greatest masters of Central Italy, Piero della Francesca (c. 1420-1492). He was the author of a treatise on perspective, an outstanding muralist who created the frescoes "The Arrival of the Queen of Sheba to King Solomon"

,

and others in the church of San Francesco in Arezzo, and the greatest colorist, who knew how to convey the beauty of color harmonies in a light-airy environment. His images are heroized, they are imbued with majesty, epic calmness. The artist's humanistic ideas about a person found expression in portraits of the Duke of Urbino Federigo da Montefeltro and his wife Battista Sforza, written around 1465. The Umbrian school also included Pietro Perugino, famous for the soft poetry of his works, including the lyrical type of Madonnas, Pinturicchio, who created soulful landscape images, images of interiors and multi-figured compositions in the murals of the library of the Cathedral of Siena, Luca Signorelli, whose severe graphic creativity was characteristic beginning, the skill of transferring the naked human body.

1. The main trends in art of the 20th century.

Modernism artistic trends, in the second half of the 19th century in the form of new forms of creativity, where the free view of the master prevailed, free to change the visible world at his own discretion, following a personal impression, an inner idea or a mystical dream.

In Russian aesthetics, "modern" means the artistic style of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, which historically preceded modernism, so it is necessary to distinguish between these two concepts in order to avoid confusion.

Abstractionism- an artistic direction that formed in the art of the first half of the 20th century, which completely abandoned the reproduction of forms of the real visible world. V. Kandinsky, P. Mondrian and K. Malevich are considered to be the founders of abstractionism. In abstractionism, two clear directions can be distinguished: geometric abstraction, based mainly on clearly defined configurations (Malevich, Mondrian), and lyrical abstraction, in which the composition is organized from freely flowing forms (Kandinsky). Abstract expressionism- the school of those who draw quickly and on large canvases, strokes of brushes dripping with paints onto the canvas.

Pete Mondrian

"Windmill in the Sunlight" 1908 Gray Wood 191 Evolution 1911

In the second half of the 18th century. the feudal-serf system in Russia began to be undermined by the growth of capitalist relations. The penetration of commodity production into agriculture accelerated the property stratification of the peasantry, especially in quitrent regions. Hundreds of thousands of ruined peasants broke their ties with the land and looked for work in non-agricultural industries. This created the labor market and other conditions for the development of capitalist manufacture for large-scale industry.

A striking indicator of the beginning of the decomposition of the serf system was the desire of some landowners to introduce agricultural improvements, as well as to engage in commercial and industrial activities. This indicated that the traditional methods of organizing the economy and exploitation of labor required significant changes.

1. Agriculture

Agriculture during this period, as before, remained the basis of the country's economy, and rural residents predominated in the population (by the end of the century, about 4% lived in cities).

The development of agricultural production was mainly extensive and was achieved due to the following factors:

1.Population growth, which was ensured both by the annexation of new territories and by the growth of the population in the central regions of Russia. If in 1721 15.5 million people lived in the Russian Empire, then in 1747 - 18 million people, and in 1796 - 36 million people.

2. Development of new territories. After the annexation of Novorossia (Northern Black Sea and Azov), Crimea, some regions of the Northern Caucasus, Ukrainian, Belarusian and Lithuanian lands belonging to Poland, the country's territory increased significantly. At the same time, the increase occurred, first of all, due to fertile black earth lands, which were provided not only to landlords for the withdrawal of serfs (1.5-12 thousand dessiatines each), but also to state peasants (60 dessiatines each), retired soldiers , foreign colonists (Germans, Greeks, Armenians, Jews, Swiss, etc.).

In addition, the agricultural development of Siberia and the Urals continued, where, in addition to migration from the central regions, there was a gradual transition of the local population - Bashkirs, Buryats, from nomadic cattle breeding to settled arable farming.

3. An important role in the growth of agrarian, primarily grain production was played by the preservation and strengthening of serfdom, as well as the expansion of the zone of serfdom to the Left-Bank Ukraine and the Trans-Volga region.

At the same time, progressive factors in the development of agricultural production began to operate. Some of them contributed to a slight intensification of production in certain regions and farms.

Regional specialization of agricultural production has increased.

New crops were introduced. If potatoes were still a vegetable garden crop, then sunflower became widespread in Ukraine and in Novorossia. Sugar beet began to be cultivated.

The marketability of agriculture increased. On the one hand, landowners needed more and more money to purchase luxury goods. On the other hand, the purchases of grain for the army, industrial crops for the growing industry increased, and the export of grain to Western Europe increased several times. In addition, with the development of industry and cities, an increasing part of the population moved away from self-sufficiency in agricultural products and needed to purchase them.

In connection with the increase in demand, prices for agricultural products increased.

By the end of 18, on the basis of the growth of marketability, the strengthening of trade ties between various regions of the country, the transformation of such ties into regular ones, a single all-Russian grain market was formed.

As a result of these processes, commodity-money relations developed in the country.

During this period, the first attempts to apply new methods and technologies, scientific achievements for the development of agricultural production began. For this purpose, in 1765, on the initiative of Catherine II, the Free Economic Society was created. But his activities under the conditions of the serfdom did not lead to significant results, only in a few small estates landowners bought some agricultural machinery and tried to introduce a multi-field crop rotation.

2. Development of industry

The growth in industrial production was more significant than in agriculture, which was ensured by the growing needs of the Russian army and navy, the increased demand on the world market for iron and sail cloth, as well as the growth of the non-agricultural population in Russia.

Heavy industry. Ferrous metallurgy developed especially rapidly (primarily in the Urals), which increased production by 5 times. Russian iron not only became one of the important factors in strengthening the army and navy, but was also exported to Western Europe - at the end of the century, most of the pig iron transported to England was of Russian origin. Gold mining began in Siberia.

Light industry also grew rapidly. Textile production developed rapidly, accounting for more than 80% of the value of all products in large, medium and light industries. New enterprises arose in the center of the country, and especially actively in Ukraine (cloth factories), in Estonia and Latvia.

Various forms of industrial organization developed in Russia. The main ones were handicraft, small-scale commodity production, as well as medium and large-scale commodity production in the form of manufactories.

Handicraft production was widespread both in the city and in the countryside. In a number of areas of the Center and the Volga region, a leather, textile peasant industry developed, which was such a serious competition for city craft and merchant enterprises that in the 1760-1770s. complaints from merchants in many provinces about peasant plants without designation became commonplace. In some large villages of the Center, peasants abandoned agriculture altogether.

Manufacturing (medium and large-scale commodity production based on the division of labor and manual labor) dominated ferrous metallurgy, the production of linen, cloth, silk, and a number of other industries. The number of manufactories grew rapidly - from 600 in the era of Elizabeth to 1200 by the end of the reign of Catherine II.

The main types of manufactories

State-owned - belonged to the state, were provided with state orders and were based on serf labor. Their products were intended primarily for the army and navy. These manufactures developed slowly.

Possessional private manufactories were provided by workers attached to enterprises from whom they could not alienate. The labor of possessional workers, who had their own plots of land, was paid for in money, they could not be used in agricultural work, given to recruits, were under the jurisdiction of the Berg and Manufacturing Collegia. But otherwise their position did not differ from that of a serf.

Such enterprises were especially widespread in the Urals (mining and metallurgy) and in the Central regions (linen and cloth production), their products were also mainly bought by the state.

Patrimony - belonged to the landowners. Serfs worked on them corvée. Such enterprises (primarily distilleries and textiles), despite their very low productivity, were profitable thanks to the free labor of serfs, but they developed more and more slowly. The position of the serf workers in these factories was extremely difficult. According to the memoirs of a contemporary, the peasants used to say - there is a factory in this village - with such an expression as if they said: There is a plague in this village.

Merchant and peasant manufactories were based on hired labor. The number of such manufactories grew very rapidly, and their size increased. Such enterprises formed the backbone of the cotton industry, where at the turn of the 18-19 centuries. over 80% of the workers worked on free hiring.

In terms of some quantitative indicators of large-scale industrial production, Russia was ahead of all continental Europe, including France, Holland, Prussia; Russian metallurgy continued to be a supplier of iron to European countries. But while England entered the era of the industrial revolution, Russia's industrial technology remained old. Backward forms were also worn by industrial relations in such industries as metallurgy and cloth. The mining industry of the Urals and the woolen industry of European Russia were, according to V.I. , p. 411.).

By 1767, there were 385 manufactories (cloth, linen, silk, glass, etc.) and 182 iron and copper foundries in Russia, that is, a total of 567 industrial enterprises. The number of large enterprises by the end of the XVIH century doubled.

The presence of large reserves of their own raw materials (flax, hemp, leather, wool, grain, etc.) and free labor, the possibility of profitable sales of products pushed the landowners to establish patrimonial manufactories. On the estates of Russian, Ukrainian, Baltic landowners, cloth, linen, leather, glass, distilleries and other enterprises were created. The work of serfs at these enterprises was the most difficult form of corvee.

But, despite the absolute growth in the number of noble manufactories, by the end of the century their share was falling due to the increase in the number of merchant and peasant manufactories, which were the immediate predecessors of the capitalist factory.

Capitalist manufacture most often grew out of peasant industries, primarily in light industry. So, in the emerged by the end of the 40s of the XVIII century. Ivanovo textile region, with rare exceptions, at the manufactories, the labor was no longer used by possessive peasants, but by hired workers.

Manufactures in the light industry of Russia were distinguished by their large size. Among them there were those that employed up to 2 thousand people and even more, and enterprises served by 300-400 workers were considered average. At the sailing manufactory of the Goncharovs at the end of the 18th century. there were 1,624 workers, in the cloth factory of the Khovansky princes - up to 2,600 workers.

3.Trading

Domestic market development

The granary of Russia in the middle of the 18th century. there were central black earth regions, especially the Belgorod and Voronezh provinces, and by the end of the century - and the Middle Volga region. From here the bread was exported to Moscow and St. Petersburg, to Yaroslavl, Kostroma. Both landowners and peasants acted as sellers of grain. The landlords sold bread and other agricultural products in order to increase their monetary income. Most of the peasants sold the grain they needed for their own consumption, because they needed money to pay the quitrent and the poll tax, to buy salt and industrial products.

The separation of the peasants from agriculture and domestic crafts contributed to the expansion of the capacity of the domestic market for industrial goods. In the peasant and landlord economy, displacing the products of household crafts, the products of large metallurgical plants and manufactories that produced linen gradually penetrate. Both of these industries, which for a long time supplied most of their products abroad, in connection with the expansion of the domestic market, began to produce consumer goods.

The development of domestic trade prompted the government to make major changes in its economic policy. They were determined both by the interests of the merchant nobility, who sought the elimination of trade monopolies and restrictions, and by the interests of the merchants.

In the middle of the 18th century. 17 different types of internal customs duties were levied. The existence of internal customs hindered the development of the all-Russian market. By decree on December 20, 1753, internal customs duties were canceled.

Equally important for the growth of trade and industry were the abolition of industrial monopolies by the decree of 1767 and the manifesto of 1775 and the proclamation of freedom of industry and trade. The peasants were given the opportunity to freely engage in "needlework" and the sale of industrial products, which contributed to the more rapid development of small-scale commodity production into capitalist manufacture.

International trade

If in 1749 the export of goods from Russia amounted to about 7 million rubles, then 35 years later, in 1781-1785, it reached almost 24 million rubles annually, and the export significantly exceeded the import.

In the first place in the Russian export, as in the previous time, were raw materials and semi-finished products - flax, hemp and tow, which accounted for 20 to 40% of all exports. They were followed by leather, fabrics, timber, ropes, bristles, potash, fat, furs.

In export, manufactured goods were becoming increasingly important. For example, iron accounted for 6% of Russia's exports in 1749, and in 1796 - 13%. The maximum export of Russian iron was in 1794, when it reached almost 3.9 million poods; in subsequent years, the export of iron abroad steadily declined. The export of grain fluctuated depending on the harvest and grain prices in the domestic market, on the prohibitions imposed on the export of grain. In 1749, for example, the export of grain was expressed in an insignificant figure - 2 thousand rubles (0.03% of the total export). Since the 60s, the export of grain began to grow rapidly, reaching 2.9 million rubles in the early 90s.

Among the goods imported into Russia, items of noble consumption still prevailed: sugar, cloth, silk, wine, fruits, spices, perfumes, etc.

4.Position of the main estates

The main socio-economic tasks of the state during this period were: the adaptation of the ruling class - the nobility to the developing commodity-money relations, the adaptation of the serf estate to the new economic system, and, ultimately - the strengthening of the renewed noble feudal state.

On the other hand, it was necessary to contribute to the economic strengthening of the country in order to facilitate its further transformation into a great power, to ensure the fulfillment of foreign policy tasks, as well as to relieve social tension that resulted in actions and even uprisings of various segments of the population. Catherine II, a supporter of free trade and industrial activity, considered it her task to free entrepreneurship from oppression.

These two tasks, objectively contradicting each other, at this stage were relatively successfully combined in the economic policy of the state.

Peter III provided new privileges to entrepreneurs from the nobility - in 1762, manufactures of non-noble origin were forbidden to buy serfs for their enterprises, the nobles were exempted from compulsory public service, which was supposed to direct their efforts to the national economy.

These benefits were confirmed and expanded by the Charter to the Nobility, issued by Catherine II century. 1785 In 1782, mountain freedom was abolished - the landowners were declared the owners of not only the land, but also its subsoil. But the nobles were reluctant to go into business due to the lack of sufficient funds and class survivals in their worldview.

The main liberal measure of Catherine was the Manifesto of 1775, which greatly facilitated the development of entrepreneurship. Representatives of all estates, including serfs, received the right to start camps and handicrafts without asking for any permits and without any registration (therefore, usually in the literature, the manifesto of 1775 is called the manifesto on freedom of enterprise). This contributed to the rapid growth of peasant trades and handicraft industries.

Strengthening of serfdom in the second half of the 18th century. reached its climax. This was due to: the expansion of the zone of use of serf labor to the Left Bank and Slobodskaya Ukraine (in 1783 the peasants were forbidden here to move from landlord to landowner), the regions of the Kursk-Belgorod and Voronezh zasechnaya lines, to the Don, Trans-Volga and Ural regions. In addition, the state lands and lands confiscated from the church were actively distributed to the nobility: in this way, under Catherine II, more than 800 thousand peasants became serfs; strengthening the power of the landowners over the peasants: by decrees of Peter III and Catherine II, the right of the landowner to send peasants into exile to Siberia (1760), to hard labor (1765), was proclaimed by decrees of Peter III and Catherine II, the peasants were forbidden to complain to the monarch about their landowner (1767), etc. Moreover, the exiled serfs were counted as recruits to the landowner and, as a result, he did not bear any losses. For 5 years, about 20 thousand serfs were exiled and sent to hard labor. The sale and resale of serfs without land flourished, and auctions were held.

As a result, serfdom at the end of the enlightened 18th century differed from slavery only in that the peasants ran their own household, while serfs in the yard were practically equated with slaves.

The possibilities for the development of the economy on the basis of feudalism were seriously reduced. Serfdom became a brake on economic progress.

Extensive economic development prevailed. The level of development of the Russian economy and the rate of its growth lagged behind the advanced countries of the West.

At the same time, progressive trends developed in the country's economy. Industry, including manufacturing, and trade grew rapidly. Commodity-money relations developed, including in agriculture. Elements of economic liberalism were practiced in public policy under the influence of the ideas of the European Enlightenment.

The development of commodity-money relations, the formation of an all-Russian market, the emergence of the capitalist system led to a deformation of the main signs of serfdom. The process of disintegration of the feudal-serf system gradually began.

At the same time, in the second half of the 18th century. the economy, primarily industry and trade in Russia, developed at a relatively high rate. During this period, the combination of a pro-nobility policy and elements of economic liberalism was still bearing fruit and ensured by the end of the reign of Catherine II the creation of a powerful army and navy, the solution of foreign policy tasks and socio-political stabilization in the country.

Ticket 19.

Russia at the turn of the 17th-18th centuries

Russia at the turn of the XVII-XVIII was a state, the politics and social life of which was characterized by sheer confusion. The society understood that the old foundations of life were beginning to gradually recede into the past, but it was not ready to accept innovations.

Russia at the early stage of the Emperor's reign

After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, the contenders for the throne began to wage an intensified struggle among themselves, which further complicated the already unstable economic state of the country. In August 1689, supporters of the son of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, 17-year-old Peter, were able to put their protege on the kingdom.

At the beginning of his reign, Peter showed absolute indifference to state affairs. He was satisfied with the fact that in fact the country was ruled by his closest relatives, in whose hands he was just a puppet who carried out their will.

Instead of being interested in the problems of society and gradually solving them, Peter indulged in various amusements, which consisted of making models of ships and organizing competitions in which the efficiency of the tsar's handicrafts was tested.

As history will show us, over time, Peter, thanks to his hobby, will be able to create the strongest fleet in Europe. But this will be later, but for now the young tsar indolently indulged in amusements and completely ignored his direct duties.

Peter was incredibly lucky with the environment, which was very capable and wise, and was able to maintain the prestige of the king in the eyes of the people. Those close to the tsar - J. Bruce, F. Lefort, P. Gordon, gradually managed to convince the tsar of the need to change priorities and take up state administration. Thanks to their influence, the first state activity of the king, as the sole ruler, began.

Peter's first achievements

The military fun of Peter was gradually transformed into the military strategy of the state. The king began to realize the need to open new trade routes that would make it possible to improve the economy of the state.

Peter logically understood that this requires a strong flotilla. However, it was impossible to open access to strategically important seas due to the unpreparedness of the army. The tsar did not have the opportunity to reform it at the early stage of his reign, therefore, special attention began to be paid to the construction of river ports on the Volga, which contributed to the development of internal trade.

But the idea of ​​getting access to the seas did not leave Peter, for this he had to find out the political situation in Europe in order to find future allies for himself in the war with the Ottoman Empire.

The king initiated the creation of the Grand Embassy in 1689, the main function of which was to visit European countries and renew diplomatic relations with them. Incognito Peter himself was among the Russian delegations.

The activities of the Grand Embassy played a tremendous role in the history of Russia and became a turning point in its further course. Peter was not only able to find allies for his state, he realized the depth of that large-scale abyss that divided progressive Europe and boyar Russia.

It was from this moment that a new stage in the Tsar's policy began - the reform of Peter, who was able to further not only strengthen the Russian state, but make it a powerful European empire.

In 1555 Charles V relinquished power and handed Spain along with the Netherlands, colonies and Italian possessions to his son Philip II (1555-1598). Philip was not any significant person. Leaving the old residences of the Spanish kings of Toledo and Valha Dolid, Philip II established his capital in the small town of Madrid. Harsh measures were taken against the Moriscos, many of whom continued to profess the faith of their fathers in secret. Driven to despair, the Moriscos revolted in 1568 under the slogan of preserving the Caliphate. With great difficulty, "the government managed to suppress the uprising. The brutal oppression of the peasants and the general deterioration of the economic situation of the country caused repeated peasant uprisings. One of the most powerful was the uprising in Aragon in 1585. from the 16th century to the Dutch uprising, which grew into a bourgeois revolution and a war of liberation against Spain.Starting from the middle of the 16th century and in the 17th century, Spain experienced a prolonged economic decline, which swept first agriculture, then industry and trade. the decline of agriculture and the ruin of the peasants (the beginning

the decline of agriculture dates back to the middle of the 16th century), sources emphasize three of them: the severity of taxes, the existence of maximum prices for bread and the abuse of places. Fixed rates of rent for pastures were established. The peasant communities could not terminate the previously concluded lease agreements, since there was a law according to which the lands rented by a member of the Mesta were assigned to him forever and could only be transferred from one member of the Mesta to another. A number of decrees prohibited plowing. The rights of traveling court officials in Mesta have significantly increased. In the second half of the XVI century. in Spain, the concentration of land ownership in the hands of the largest feudal lords continued to increase. Almost all of Extremadura fell into the hands of the two largest feudal lords. Andalusia became the possession of the four largest magnates. All noble possessions enjoyed the right

entitlement, i.e. were inherited only by the eldest "son," huge spaces of inalienable lands belonged to the "church." It was very difficult to buy land. Imported from the New World

precious metals fell into the hands of the nobles, in connection with which the latter's interest in the economic development of their country completely disappeared. This determined not only the decline of rural

economy, but also production, fabrics. Already at the beginning of the XVI century. in Spain there was a destruction of crafts and a massive ruin of artisans. The largest manufacturing center was Segovia. Already in 1573, the Cortes complained about the decline in the production of woolen fabrics in Toledo, Segovia,

Cuenca and other cities. Such complaints are understandable, since, despite the growing demand on the American market, fabrics made abroad from Spanish wool were cheaper than Spanish ones. Spanish industry was losing markets in Europe, in the colonies and even in their own country. The commercial and industrial Netherlands were considered by the Spanish monarchy as part of the Spanish state.

Only colonial trade continued to flourish, the monopoly of which still belonged to

Seville. Its highest rise belongs to the last decade of the 16th century and the first decade of the 17th century. However, since Spanish merchants traded mainly in foreign-made goods, gold and silver imported from America did not stay in Spain, it flowed to other countries to

payment for goods supplied by Spain itself and its colonies.

Philip II declared state bankruptcy several times. One of the features

Spain XVI century. was the weakness of the bourgeoisie, which in the XVII century. not only did it not get stronger, but it was completely ruined. The Spanish nobility, on the other hand, was very strong. The nobility lived exclusively by plundering the people of their country and the peoples of the peoples dependent on Spain.

Ext. Politics. Even before accession to the Spanish throne, Philip II was married to the English queen Mary Tudor. Charles V, who arranged this marriage, dreamed not only to restore Catholicism in England, but also, by joining the forces of Spain and England, to continue the policy of creating a worldwide Catholic monarchy. In 1558, Mary died, and Philip's marriage proposal to the new Queen Elizabeth was rejected for political reasons. England not without reason saw Spain as its most dangerous rival at sea. Taking advantage of the Dutch Revolution and the War of Independence, England tried in every possible way to secure its interests in the Netherlands to the detriment of the Spanish, not stopping before open armed intervention. In 1581, Portugal was annexed to Spain. Together with Portugal, the Portuguese colonies in the East and West Indies came under Spanish rule. Supported by new resources, Philip II began to support Catholic circles in England, intriguing against Queen Elizabeth and nominating instead of her to the throne a Catholic woman - Queen Mary Stuart of Scotland. But in 1587 a conspiracy against Elizabeth was

exposed, and Mary was beheaded. Eng. Admiral Drake destroyed Spanish ships in port in 1587. armed conflict between spain and eng. The death of the invincible Spanish armada in 1588. The Spaniards also intervened in the civil war in France. In 1571, the combined Spanish-Venetian fleet, commanded by the bastard son of Charles V, don Juan of Austria, inflicted a decisive defeat on the Turkish fleet in the Lepanto Bay. However, the winners failed to reap the benefits of their success; even Tunisia, captured by don Juan, again passed to the Turks.

With accession to the throne Philip III (1598-1621) the long agony of Spain begins. In 1609, at the request of the Archbishop of Valencia, in the interests of Catholicism, an edict was issued, according to which the Moriscos were to be expelled from the country. Within three days, under pain of death, they "had to board ships and go to Berberia, having only what they could carry on their hands. In total, about 500 thousand people were expelled, not counting the victims of the Inquisition and those killed during Thus, Spain and its productive forces were dealt another blow, which only accelerated and deepened its further economic decline.When Philip III came to the throne, the war in Europe was still ongoing.England acted in alliance with Holland against the Habsburgs.Holland defended arms in hand, their independence from the Spanish monarchy.The Spanish governors in the Southern Netherlands - Archduke Albert and his wife Isabella (the eldest daughter of Philip II) - did not have sufficient military forces and tried to make peace with England and Holland, but this attempt was thwarted, because the Spanish government made exorbitant claims to the other side.

17-18 - the system of colonialism is taking shape. Spain / Portugal - old colonial powers, England / France / Holland - new ones, there is a struggle between them in all corners of the globe. According to Ado's textbook, the colonial policy of this time was associated with the process of "initial accumulation of capital" and the development of manufacturing capitalism in Western Europe. The formation of the world capitalist market, the accumulation of wealth in the colonies, the development of manufacturing production there, the merciless exploitation of the colonies, the colonies are considered as a factor that helped the development of European countries and the industrial revolution, etc. All this is not entirely true. The attitude towards colonies in European countries is still far from economic, but mixed - the medieval principle “the state is strong if it has colonies” is preserved. So far, the colonies (except for North America, but here the question of the colony) is treated only as with the territories of the state, and a particularly developed colonial-exploitative system has not been observed. The first war, as a result of which provisions on colonies appeared in the peace treaty, was the War of the Spanish Succession, the first major colonial war was the Spanish-Portuguese War of 1735-37. The main international events are taking place in Europe - in some colonies there are still no serious settlements, especially in Asia. Why are colonies not thought of as an economic category? This is proved by the texts of international treaties. Even as a result of the War of the Spanish Succession, the colonies were given little status. And after the Seven Years' War - the same thing (despite the extensive conquests in the colonial sphere of England). To some extent, Napoleon's Egyptian campaign can be considered the first attempt at colonial war - but, again, conditionally.

So what does Ado write? He writes about direct robbery of colonies, direct coercion (slavery and serfdom), the spread of the slave trade, sales markets and sources of raw materials, and the possibilities for unequal (in favor of the metropolises) trade. He considers the creation of monopoly campaigns a characteristic feature. Gradually, this policy became obsolete - as objectionable to the bourgeoisie. Colonial rivalry between the old and new colonial powers and within these groups is intensifying. Ado raises the idea of ​​a world capitalist market.

Spanish-Portuguese colonial system of the 17th and 18th centuries Ado speaks of the "feudal" nature of the appropriation of wealth - they were taken away and spent on conducting "great power politics." There were major differences between the Portuguese and Spanish systems. On the territory of Brazil at the time of Portuguese colonization (mid-16th century), there was almost no sedentary agricultural population. Indian tribes were quickly pushed inland or exterminated. The Portuguese began to use imported labor in the form of Negro slaves from Africa. Plus, there is a huge role for trade capital in Brazil.

The Spanish colonies - Mexico, Peru, Ecuador - are a different system. Agricultural societies (albeit at an early level) were here. Colonizing these spaces, the Spaniards adapted, for example, Indian agricultural communities in these regions for colonization. The labor service of the community members was used in favor of the state. Some taxes and duties were retained, the elders of the communities - the caciques - became the "conductors of colonial policy." Was introduced the Spanish "feudal system of tax collection", administrative management. The result is a synthesis of Spanish elements and elements of the local population. English / French colonization in America is a migratory character. Plantation economy, negro slaves. Spanish colonization - noble accumulation, which did not contribute to the accumulation of "initial capital" in Spain itself. Precious metals from the New World took an active part in the process of exchanging them for manufactured goods and "turned into capital" in England and Holland, leaving Spain. In those regions where the indigenous population was exterminated since the beginning of colonization, the system of exploitation of the Spaniards resembled the Portuguese system. - Cuba, north of South America. The organizer of production on plantations is "commercial capital", the use of slave labor.

Dutch colonial system. Its formation was determined by the needs of "initial accumulation" and the formation of capitalist relations in England, France and Holland. East India and West India Companies. Cape Colony (1652, West Africa), Sunda, Moluccas, Java, Malacca (1641), Ceylon (1658), New Amsterdam (now New York, 1622), 1634 - the island of Curacao. 1667 - Suriname Island. A system of harsh exploitation of the indigenous population. "Serf exploitation of the local peasantry", its control with the help of local feudal lords.

Anglo-Dutch rivalry. England began the systematic seizure of colonies in 1665 - it seized Jamaica from Spain. The beginning of the state colonial policy. 1696 - Administration to rule the West Indies. Using the slave labor system. 1652-54 - First Anglo-Dutch War, reason - Navigation Act of 1651 (directed against Dutch intermediary trade). Holland was defeated, the act recognized and paid the monetary costs. Second Anglo-Dutch War - 1664-67, Holland transferred New Amsterdam to England, the British abandoned naval bases in the Moluccas. Third Anglo-Dutch War - 1672-74, France entered it. 1688-97 - New Anglo-Dutch War. By the beginning of the 18th century, the Dutch colonial system was breaking down - Anglo-French rivalry came to the fore.

French colonial system and Anglo-French rivalry. Henry 4 and Richelieu laid the foundations for the French colonial system. The development of Canada - Quebec, 1608, Montreal, 1642.1682 - Louisiana, 1718 - New Orleans. Islands in the West Indies. Senegal. From 1701 - Pondicherry in India. After the War of the Spanish Succession, France ceded Acadia (Nova Scotia), Newfoundland and Aciento to England (see MO tickets - the right to import slaves to South America). Under the terms of the Paris Peace of 1763, England received Florida, part of Honduras, the islands of Tobago, San Vincent, Grenada, and Dominica. England was gradually winning. Anglo-Dutch War of 1780-84, Holland lost its position as a great colonial and naval power. Under the terms of the Paris Peace of 1783, England annexed part of the Dutch colonies in India, in 1795, captured Ceylon.

And at the same time - a very big progress in agronomic science, see Physiocrats and Cameralists

On the issue of capitalism and agriculture - in Braudel's "Games of Exchange" France also appears

An important point - absolute power is not the subject of the "classical" theory of absolutism! For this, see ticket number 9. Boden also did not speak of the absolute power of the monarch in the sense in which he is most often understood. Absolutism was a much more complex system.

Here it is necessary to understand that such a division is logical, but not entirely legitimate. The myth of absolutism was evidently in effect even then. According to Henshell, England and France were not fundamentally different in any serious way, and the "parliamentary feature of England" is, in fact, a myth.

But here is not a fact - see Henshell. He does not regard the monarchy of the last Bourbons as enlightened absolutist. And in general, this thesis itself refutes.

According to Henshall, this process was associated with the fact that the States General had stopped convening, they were considered cumbersome and ineffective, and consultations moved to a lower - provincial-state - level.

Than, according to a number of historians, he signed his own death warrant. The monarchy still did not succeed in reforms, and the opinion of society also became opposed to the powers of the monarch. An unresolved reform shook the foundations of royalty.

And here there is some inconsistency between the lectures and Henshell - Henshell, on the contrary, believes that the States General tried to solve the problems of the old order, and not break it.

In historiography, the point of view is now more and more popular that "exploitation" was not so difficult, and the plantation economy was far from unprofitable.

Ado here also mentions taxes as a significant source, but there is a certain issue with them - part of the US population generally wanted to remove them or significantly reduce them, since for the colonies in North America the issue of tax dependence on the metropolis was very painful.