Types of economic systems by criterion: a mechanism for coordinating the activities of economic entities. Market coordination mechanism and institutions. The mechanism for coordinating the interests of the producer and the consumer in a command and market economy Help is needed to study

As the number of parties involved in transactions grows, the complexity of transactions increases. In fact, the initial buyer and seller very rarely see each other in direct negotiations. Items are often produced before purchase with a price already set, before the buyer even knows the product exists. What ensures the coordination of these thousands of people working to contribute, perhaps years before the final product is consumed? How do they know what to do? How can they be sure they are making the right product?

PRACTICAL EXAMPLE

Let's take a look at the example of a loaf of bread. Before it, the consumer will see bread in the store, someone has to bring it to the store, bake it, order flour, which, in turn, has to be ground by someone, and before that grain has to be grown. Consequently, hundreds of individual decisions had been made long before that to produce that particular loaf of bread.

Neoclassical economics assumes that price (the "invisible hand") is able to provide all the information in order to act according to the demands of consumers for the optimal allocation of resources.

The invisible hand of the market is an economic instrument developed by A. Smith that controls buyers and sellers in the market within the framework of market self-regulation without government intervention.

However, in reality, the allocation of resources is not random, but not at all "optimal". All parties involved in the decision-making explore their own parts of the system, considering individual possibilities. That is why the parties have different needs regarding the system. These needs can sometimes be in conflict with each other.

FROM THE PRACTICE OF MODERN RUSSIA

There are four types of associations (institutions) that represent professional and sectoral interest groups and differ in the individual characteristics of their members, the maturity of the organizational structure, access to resources and functions performed and are the result of the process of institutionalizing the interests of economic entities that are part of them.

The first type is the most famous and influential business associations - RSPP, CCI, OPORA of Russia and FNPR, which in their activities rely on a vast and highly diversified set of business entities and are in constant, active interaction with state authorities.

The second type is the so-called "appendage associations", their main characteristics are a wide, but rather heterogeneous set of subjects-participants and insufficient resource availability.

The third type - "industry representatives" - numerous and dynamic associations, including representatives of large and medium-sized businesses, to a greater extent than all others, focused on the implementation of the interests of their constituent entities (ATOP-Association of Russian Tour Operators, NP Russoft-Association software development companies, etc.).

The fourth type - self-regulatory organizations - is the smallest group of associations that unites fairly homogeneous business entities, closely interacting with state authorities of different levels, but having certain restrictions on lobbying activities.

Today in Russia there are 174 chambers of commerce and industry, including 81 chambers of the constituent entities of the Federation and 93 chambers of municipalities. Members of the RF CCI are 207 unions, associations and other business associations of the federal level, 500 business associations at the regional level. As of June 2014, there are 356 organizations in the Register of RSPP members. Among Russian business associations, 41% are public organizations, 32% are associations and unions, and 27% are non-profit partnerships.

R. Marion (1976) defines coordination as a process within which the harmony of various functions of the vertical added value of the system is established. The following questions are important for the coordination process.

1. What is produced and sold (quantity and quality)?
2. When was it produced and sold?
3. Where is it manufactured and sold?
4. How is it produced and sold? (That is efficient use of resources?)
5. What regulators and adaptive mechanisms are needed to respond to rapid changes in demand, new technology, or other changes in profit incentives?

Shaffer and Staz (1985) define four levels of coordination.

1. Coordination in firms (micro-coordination).
2. Coordination between individual firms (micro-coordination).
3. Coordination of complete supply with full demand for commodities or industries at every step of the production and distribution process (macro-coordination).
4. Coordination of aggregate demand with aggregate supply for the economy as a whole (macrocoordination).

The coordination analysis should include all of these levels. Coordination problems and mechanisms are interlinked between these levels, and thus management structures at all levels must be addressed to the expertise of coordination problems.

When commodities are physically transferred in an economic system, economists usually talk about exchange and transaction.

A transaction is a legalized transfer of property from one business entity to another.

PRACTICAL EXAMPLE

If I own an apple, then I can either eat it, or save it for the future, sell it or give it away. By selling or giving it away, I release from ownership and transfer it to someone else, who in turn gets the opportunity to eat it or, for example, sell it, etc. The apple can be intact and lie on the table during this process, only the ownership relationship changes.

Deal is central to institutional economics. Changes in property rights are constantly occurring between people or groups of people. The phases of the transaction in the theory of the firm are shown in Fig. 7.1.

Rice. 7.1.

The most common type of transaction is bargaining transaction in the market.

A barter transaction is a shortage transaction in which the buyer and seller have equal legal status with respect to the transaction.

The reason for trade is scarcity. Both parties - the buyer and the seller - have equal legal status in relation to the transaction.

An organizer deal is a deal within an organization, not because of scarcity, but in order to achieve efficiency.

An organizational deal takes place in a hierarchy, for example, when a benefit is moved from one department to another in an organization. The reason for the managerial deal is not scarcity, but efficiency driven by the division of labor.

Regulatory deals differ from bargaining and managerial deals in the following way: it is an integral part of negotiations to reach an agreement among several participants with the power to distribute advantages and disadvantages to the members of the joint venture.

A normative deal is one in which negotiation is an integral part of reaching an agreement among several participants with the authority to distribute advantages and disadvantages to the members of the joint venture.

This is the type of deal that dominates political decision making, where citizens and their representatives try to reach a political agreement.

A grant or status deal is a one-way deal where the owner of the item loses title with no compensation.

This type of deal can be based on friendship or status, habit or altruism. Such transactions are common between friends and relatives, such as family members. Most transactions in tribal societies base their transactions on statuses and grants (Table 7.1).

Organized societies build formal institutions through legislation and other ways of creating rules. However, even in the most "organized" societies, most of the rules are not formal and are based on cultural habits and behavioral norms.

Table 7.1. Comparative analysis of various types of transactions

Institutions are the rules of the game in society or, more formally, the elaborate constraints that shape human interaction.

Rules help predict the behavior of others in different situations. If the set of rules that one individual uses is significantly different from the set of rules for another, it may impede their interaction and prevent them from making a deal. “Recognizing” a person means learning something about the rules that the person uses in certain situations. This knowledge of the expected behavior makes the interaction easier. In other words, it reduces uncertainty and thus transaction costs.

Institutional societies create their own rules based on common law and laws for special purposes. Organizations have their own rules for managing interdependencies. Organizational rules may be less explicit, such as a general trade culture or proactive adaptations such as commercial marketing. The internal rules of the organization can be explicit, such as the organizational description of the structure, or implicit, such as the prevailing organizational culture. People form their own rules for interaction.

Rules are the cumulative product from past transactions. They form a hierarchy.

Rules evolve over time; at the top of the hierarchy (individual behavior), rules develop more rapidly, and at the bottom (culture and custom), more slowly. Rules for these kinds of interdependencies can appear in different cultures at different levels of the hierarchy.

Culture and traditions act as the basis for human interaction. Throughout the life of a person or organization, experience from the past is added to aggregate knowledge, often resulting in gradual changes in shared traditions. Past deals affect the behavioral patterns of the people making those deals, which in turn increase the pressure to change the way organizations operate.

If the pressure is strong and widespread enough, it often affects legislation and gradually becomes part of culture, custom and history. Another way to form a rule is to actively acquire knowledge from other cultures. Thus, exploring and interacting with other cultures can play an important role in developing ways to reduce the transaction costs of society over time.

If the conditions that create interdependence remained constant, then the established settlement would evolve to adapt as much as possible to the existing conditions of interdependence. This development would ultimately keep transaction costs to a minimum. Planning deals would be easy because the behavior of people and organizations could be perfectly predictable.

However, the interdependency conditions are constantly changing, rendering existing rules obsolete. New products must be adapted to the environment that is the result of past transactions. These new products (for example, biotechnology products) may require rules that do not exist in the framework containing the outdated rules.

The hierarchy of rules is the result of a process of interaction between various actors that can influence the implementation of the rules.

Given a certain distribution of power, the hierarchy of rules reflects the process of saving transaction costs in society. A specialty transaction may need special rules, or the rules may need to be determined in court, often after the transaction has taken place and a dispute has arisen. The key question for society is what level of rule creation (and enforcement) is the least expensive for a given type of transaction (Figure 7.2).

Rice. 7.2.

Due to the interdependence of different rules, they all do not correspond exclusively to categories. Cultural heritage can directly affect individual behavior, which in turn can affect the formation of laws. Another way to clarify the hierarchy of rule formation is that, starting with the founding of culture and tradition, higher levels take care of maintaining the necessary rules. Organizational rules provide the basis for individual behavior.

PRACTICAL EXAMPLE

In different cultures, the connection of monetary and non-monetary transactions can occur according to rules created at different levels of the hierarchy. For example, many conflicts in Japan are resolved by the parties in confidence. In the United States, the same types of conflicts are resolved in court. California has 20 times more litigation per capita than Japan.

In most developed countries, the manufacturer is responsible for unsatisfactory products or services through consumer legislation. Without this legislation, the responsibility for the transaction would lie primarily with the consumer, and only secondarily with the manufacturer.

Understanding rule structures important for creating new rules. If the proposed rules differ too much from the existing ones, the transaction costs of adopting the new rules can be so high that they are not accepted. In some developing countries, one can observe double rule structures.

PRACTICAL EXAMPLE

For example, during the colonial era, rule structures based on foreign cultures were built in the colonies. An original set of rules based on tradition and history prevailed among the people, especially in rural areas, and a new culture spread among the new institution. The situation was similar after the collapse of the USSR.

The dynamics of the rule formation process creates an institutional environment for each transaction. Since each trade occurs within a specific set of rules, trades can also shape the structure of the rules.

Zudin A.Yu. Associations - Business - State. "Classic" and modern forms of relations in Western countries. M.: GU HSE, 2009. P. 8.

Analysis of the problem of distribution of goods brings us to the problem of interaction of economic agents. After each economic entity has assessed its benefits and costs and made a choice, society is faced with the need to coordinate the economic activities of individual entities, which includes the need to:

Coordinate the decisions of manufacturers;

Agree on consumer decisions;

Agree on decisions about production and consumption in general. This need is generated by many reasons, including the specialization of economic agents in certain types of economic activity.

Depending on how the problem of distribution of goods is solved, and, consequently, the coordination of economic activity, certain economic systems are distinguished. Obviously, the differences characterizing the features of a given economic system in the ways of allocating goods and coordinating economic activity are determined by differences in the institutions and institutional structures that regulate economic behavior, which were mentioned above.

The planned economic system of the command economy (on the example of the USSR)

In countries with an administrative-command system, the solution of general economic problems had its own specific features. In accordance with the prevailing ideological guidelines, the task of determining the volume and structure of products was considered too serious and responsible to transfer its solution to the direct producers themselves - industrial enterprises, state farms and collective farms.

The centralized distribution of material goods, labor and financial resources was carried out without the participation of direct producers and consumers, in accordance with pre-selected public goals and criteria, on the basis of central planning. A significant part of the resources, in accordance with the prevailing ideological guidelines, was directed to the development of the military-industrial complex.

The distribution of the created products between the participants in the production was strictly regulated by the central authorities by means of the universally applied tariff system, as well as the centrally approved standards of funds for the payroll. This led to the predominance of an equalizing approach to wages. Main features:

State ownership of practically all economic resources;

Strong monopolization and bureaucratization of the economy;

Centralized, directive economic planning as the basis of the economic mechanism.

The main features of the economic mechanism:

Direct management of all enterprises from a single center;

The state fully controls the production and distribution of products;

The state apparatus manages economic activities with the help of predominantly administrative-command methods.

This type of economic system is typical for Cuba, North Korea, Albania, etc.

Separately, it should be said about the mechanism for the adoption of economic plans in the command-administrative system. The plan is adopted at the highest forum of the ruling political party and in the highest legislative body of the country, which sanctifies the fusion of political, executive and legislative structures of society and is one of the main signs of totalitarianism. After that, control over the execution of the plan, which has taken the form of a law, can be carried out on the basis of administrative-criminal and party responsibility.

The directive task of the plan is accompanied by the allocation of resources and wage funds, free for the production unit, determined by the administrative center of the country. The common center determines not only the volume of allocated resources and wage funds, but also the range of goods. Elementary analysis shows that it is impossible to do this even approximately, even for a small group of manufacturers. And if a country has a large production potential, then the very idea of directive planning makes one think about the absurdity of such plans.

The governing center is undivided, i.e. the absolute monopoly owner of any products manufactured at the enterprises. Such economic practice in the absence of competition leads to only one result - manufacturers can work regardless of product quality.

Producers and wholesale consumers of industrial products are linked economically and administratively with each other. Consumers are deprived of the right to choose, they receive, but do not buy (although they pay money), only what is allocated to them by the producer at the behest of the center. The principle of correspondence between supply and demand has been replaced by the will of the center, which materializes the adopted political and ideological decisions.

In the administrative system, the inertia of a patriarchal society is partly overcome by breaking the unambiguous connection between the economic subject and the norms of his behavior, although the role of ideological pressure is still very large. The rules and parameters of economic behavior, and the corresponding distribution of benefits are determined by the influence of the commanding (controlling) subsystem, which is, first of all, the state, no matter what different forms it may take. The conformity of the behavior of an economic subject to control influences is ensured primarily by non-economic means, in addition to ideology, including the apparatus of coercion. Such coordination of economic activity provides opportunities for significant development due to a corresponding change in the norms of economic behavior, as well as the concentration of resources under the control of the control subsystem. Its weak point is the lack of internal incentives for economic activity among those who obey external commands and the economic agents limited by them in their actions. Therefore, periods of rapid, but short-lived development alternate in such systems with states of stagnation and decline.

In a command economy, an enterprise operates under a soft budget constraint. First, a socialist enterprise can shift some of its resources to consumers - after all, in such a system monopoly firms dominate, or, as they say, the supplier dictates prices. Secondly, businesses regularly receive tax breaks and tax deferrals. Thirdly, gratuitous state aid is widely practiced (subsidies, subsidies, debt cancellation, etc.). Fourthly, loans are issued even when there are no guarantees of their return. Fifth, external financial investments are often made not for the development of production, but to cover the emerging financial difficulties, and all this is at the expense of the state treasury. It is impossible to use borrowed funds with the help of the securities market due to its absence under socialism.

command market economy consumer

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Economic systems- This is a set of interrelated economic elements that form a certain integrity, the economic structure of society, the unity of relations that develop regarding the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods.

As a result, 4 types of economic systems are distinguished:

1. traditional economy;

2. administrative command economy;

3. market economy;

4. mixed economy.

Traditional economics- a closed system of subsistence economy, characterized by manual labor, routine technologies, a multi-structured economy, a low level of development of productive forces, an active role of the state in the economy, etc.

Administrative-command economy- an economy with dominant state ownership, state monopoly, where commodity-money relations are formal, the movement of resources is carried out by the administrative center, the rigid centralism of the entire economy.

Market economy- an economy with a predominance of private property, limited government intervention in business processes and a market coordination mechanism.

Mixed economy- has several lines of shaping, that is, a combination of the private and public sectors, a combination of the market and state regulation, a combination of capitalism and the socialization of life. In addition, in a mixed economy, there are various elements, for example: joint stock company, social partnership, contractual relations, etc.

Economic theory considers two different modes of coordination: spontaneous (spontaneous) and hierarchical (centralized).

In spontaneous orders the information needed by producers and consumers is communicated through price signals. An increase or decrease in the price of resources and benefits produced with their help prompts economic entities in which direction to act, i.e. what, how and for whom to produce. In any economic system, the producer must calculate his costs and benefits. But the ratio of benefits and costs can only be calculated using price mechanism... This mechanism coordinates the economic choice of people. Such a mechanism or order is called spontaneous (spontaneous). Spontaneous order emerged naturally during the development of human civilization. The market is a spontaneous order.

There is another way to get information about what, how, and for whom to produce. This is a system of orders and instructions, going from top to bottom, from a certain center to the direct producer. Such a system is called hierarchy... An example of a hierarchy is a primitive community, where the leader determines everything and everyone. Hierarchy is also a command-administrative system (the state with the help of the State Planning Commission). In the form of a hierarchy, the enterprise carries out its activities. The hierarchy is not based on price signals, but on the power of a leader or central government agency.

In reality, spontaneous orders and hierarchies coexist.

| | 3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

Coordinate the decisions of manufacturers;

Agree on consumer decisions;

Agree on decisions about production and consumption in general. This need is generated by many reasons, including the specialization of economic agents in certain types of economic activity.

The planned economic system of the command economy (on the example of the USSR)

State ownership of practically all economic resources;

Strong monopolization and bureaucratization of the economy;

Centralized, directive economic planning as the basis of the economic mechanism.

The main features of the economic mechanism:

Direct management of all enterprises from a single center;

The state fully controls the production and distribution of products;

The state apparatus manages economic activities with the help of predominantly administrative-command methods.

This type of economic system is typical for Cuba, North Korea, Albania, etc.

command market economy consumer

Mechanisms and methods of regulation in the context of overcoming the crisis Author unknown

4.1. Organization of economic coordination in the global economy

Today, competition, as the principle of economic coordination in the industrial era, has been replaced by a system of economic coordination designed to ensure the coordination of the interests of economic entities. Since the market sector is not able to regulate the social and environmental spheres, these “failures” of the market are coordinated by the state in accordance with the established laws and regulations. But, in turn, the state with its policy to correct the "failures" of the market can cause new adverse consequences and problems, which leads to policy "failures". The measures taken by individual states to overcome the financial and economic crises showed the world these "failures". One of these measures was to increase the liquidity of the banking sector of the economies, which caused a negative reaction from all other sectors.

There are no independent spheres cut off from a single whole in the economy. This single whole in the subsistence economy is realized by the mind of the leader, and in the large industrial world it is embodied by the economic order (in the terminology of V. Oiken) or the rules of the game, principles in modern terms. For this reason, any measure of economic policy turns out to be rational only within the framework of the aggregate economic order in which the economic process takes place. In order for this economic order to be sufficient and to rationally regulate the aggregate economic process, it is necessary that all individual forms of order complement each other, regardless of whether this is about the forms established by the state, namely those related to trade, price and credit policy, or about the forms that have already become familiar. Therefore, each private order, or economic environment, must be considered as a link in the overall economic order or a structural element of the economic (market) environment. This state of affairs reflected the stage of development of countries in the 1950s. Currently, all national economies are intertwined with various cooperative (corporate) relationships, forming a global economic system.

The principle of economic coordination of competition in a market environment causes scientific disputes to this day, determined by various scientific schools. But all scientists agree on one thing - there is no economic development without competition. That the mechanism of competition contains the forces of self-destruction, like J. Schumpeter, was confirmed by A. Rich, who considered competition as the principle of coordination of activities put forward by the real market economy of the 1980s: the result of an active entrepreneurial activity that takes into account the interests of all, but which effectively prevents the extraction of incomes due not to entrepreneurial activity, but to the power of fashion, the market, objectively aimed at curbing competition or even at its complete exclusion from economic activity. " His findings are consistent with the Pareto optimum: no one’s welfare can be improved without the welfare of someone else being impaired. Pareto's proposed welfare criterion means a situation where some people win, but no one loses.

The social market economy is a liberal concept that differs from classical liberalism in the principle of economic competition, according to Ordoliberalism of V. Oiken, when an economic order with a framework planning guarantees competition that brings the market economy closer to the model of perfect competition, excluding the possibility of establishing power over the market by monopolies and cartels. But its social orientation should be ensured by purposeful outside intervention, which is in the nature of regulation by the state economic policy, which corrects the "failures" of the market.

Human economic activity is determined by various goals and interests. If the goal of a profit-oriented economy is income for the sake of personal or collective enrichment, then this motive becomes the dominant structural principle. Factors of objective necessity and coercion arise, the source of which lies not in the rational structure of economic activity as such, but in the dominance of the motive of enrichment and in the corresponding economic mechanism: , unrestrained competition, the decisive factor of which is not ability and perseverance, but, above all, economic dominance in the market, favorable to the formation of blocs. This is how a system of coercion arises, to avoid which, without exposing themselves to the risk of economic damage or even catastrophe, individual subjects of the economy are not able to ”.

Very often this system of coercion is perceived as an objective law, although, in most cases, it is nothing more than the sum of habits, rules, agreements that can be changed. Business coercion can be determined by certain values that underlie the economic structure and policy, when changed, economic coercion is weakened or eliminated. In fact, such coercion reflects internal contradictions that serve as a source of progressive development of society and reflect a systematic approach on a dialectical basis. A. Rich believes that: “the system of coordination of the market economy meets the requirements of full competition only to a small extent; the likelihood of its actual existence under the current technical and economic conditions is just as small. This does not mean, as is often argued, that competition has completely exhausted itself as a principle of economic coordination. Indeed, even in the extreme case, in the presence of an absolute monopoly, when there are no direct competitors, competition remains, at least within the limits of the consumer's limited budget. "

Modern competition is, first of all, the struggle for technical leadership, for priority in opening new markets and in transforming old ones, the desire, as accurately as possible, to guess the direction of changes in consumer tastes and preferences and to translate them as much as possible into our products. This is a special type of competition - “innovative” competition, the main task of which is not to oust the opponent from the positions he has already taken, but to try to get ahead of him in something new, more promising. Therefore, F. Hayek proposed such a definition of competition as a process by which people receive and transmit knowledge. It only leads to a better use of the abilities and knowledge of other procedures, how best to use specialized knowledge scattered among millions.

The value of competition, in his opinion, lies precisely in the fact that, being a discovery procedure, it is unpredictable. Otherwise, there would be no need for it. The further development of these views of F. Hayek was carried out by T. Sakaya, who drew attention to the fact that competitors give their products a new form of value created by knowledge and made the following conclusion: containment of costs associated with their development. Such an intense competition is likely to create conditions under which the “boom” in the sale of a particular popular product or technical innovation will become shorter and shorter ”. Based on this assumption, it can be concluded that the life cycle of a consumer product is shortened.

In fact, the expansion of goods from China showed the development of the opposite trend - the imposition of counterfeit goods from the world's leading manufacturers on the whole world. An institutional mechanism for smoothing this trend has not yet been worked out for the same reason as for the implementation of V. Oyken's plan - because of the infringement of the interests of the world and sectoral elites. Since a fight is impossible in this case, it is necessary to conduct scientific research to harmonize interests and prevent economic power in the developing industries of information technology, communications, astronautics and some others.

P. Drucker back in 1964 also wrote about the meaning of knowledge, when neither results nor resources exist within the business itself: "Business can be defined as a process that turns external resources, namely knowledge, into external results - economic values." The following pattern can be traced in the modern economy. The more diverse a certain product is on the market, the more difficult it is to replace it with a competing product, and thus, therefore, the greater the power of their producer over the market. A so-called supply economy arises, when only insignificant details can be modified, and generally homogeneous goods presented on the market create the impression of their heterogeneity. This competition has come to be known as substitution competition.

The fact that competition, as a principle of economic coordination, has not exhausted itself is confirmed from the point of view of a post-industrial society, when the service sector makes up more than half of economic activity, where monopolization is extremely difficult. The development of the market economy of Russia on a competitive basis consists in the creation of institutional conditions for the achievement of competitiveness by market entities. The starting point for theoretical studies on institutional conditions are the works of M. Porter, who in the 1980s characterized the competitive advantages of countries and the context of enterprise activity (institutional conditions).

In his research, he proved that the emergence of a national environment in which companies emerge and learn to compete is due to four components of a country's competitive advantages (the “diamond” rule): the presence of factors of production in the country that are necessary to compete in a given industry; the state of demand in the domestic market; the presence in the country of supplying industries or other related industries that are internationally competitive; the level of competition and the conditions for creating an organization and managing companies that are specific to a given country.

According to Porter, the context of enterprise activity (institutional conditions) is a social, political and institutional infrastructure that includes many elements, such as laws, rules, codes and procedures for resolving conflicts, defining responsibilities, defining ownership, delineating the boundaries of property rights. It is also necessary to develop a widespread belief that these rules are indeed the rules governing economic life. For this to happen, a functioning state administration is needed. The market is not a substitute for the state, it is an addition, without the state or other mechanism of centralized coordination, the market cannot work.

In Russia, the formation of a competitive market environment began in the mid-1990s through the creation of institutions and institutional conditions. Analyzing the context (institutional conditions) of the activities of Russian enterprises, it is necessary to highlight the industries in which it is possible to produce competitive products. These are the so-called points of growth of the domestic economy, which include high-tech industries - power engineering, aircraft and space systems, the military-industrial complex, heavy special machine-tool construction, telecommunications, computer industry, software. It is also necessary to take into account the development of the modern technological revolution, which includes five main components of a new technological order - information technology, synthetic materials, biotechnology, new energy sources and nanotechnology.

I.M. Kirzner, because it does not replace the entrepreneurial role. He focused not on the analysis of equilibrium, but on the understanding of the functioning of the market as a process. He recognizes the entrepreneur as the driving force of the whole market process, noting that the exclusion of the entrepreneurial element is common to all models of competition. In our opinion, the entrepreneurial element is the managerial aspect of the system of competitive relations. Back in 1921, F. Knight identified the differences in the managerial function - to make decisions and the entrepreneurial function - to be responsible. Based on this, we can talk about a managerial economy, in which management tasks related to the implementation of an entrepreneurial goal are implemented. The tasks of such management include the creation of institutional conditions.

Some monopolies are inevitable, as duplication of facilities such as a pipeline, power line, or research clinic would lead to unnecessary costs. The cost of additional resources attracted would exceed the potential benefit from the presence of competition. In such situations, the regulator plays a central role in ensuring that the property is available to everyone at a reasonable cost. However, regulators are not omnipresent or omniscient. Their own monopoly of power is not always used honestly anyway. In addition to market “failures”, policy “failures” appear.

In a socially oriented model of the economy, the state establishes the formal rules and norms necessary to ensure the fulfillment of the goals set on the basis of increasing the efficiency of production and the competitiveness of goods and services. Although such rules and regulations exist in all models of the state. In the Keynesian model, government intervention is considered necessary in crisis situations. But the allocation of the coordination aspect of institutions as fundamental, in comparison with the distribution aspect, serves as the methodological basis for the system of economic coordination of interfirm relations developed by us.

We are interested in the mechanism of coordination of economic activity as a governance structure in the concept of O. Williamson, which he identifies with the concepts of “economic institutions”. This mechanism reflects, in our opinion, the dominance of organizational and managerial relations.

Exaggerating the logic of the market, as an absolute principle of coordination in society, means limiting the logic of human coexistence (the ethical idea of rationality) to the economic logic of a mutually beneficial exchange of goods. In this case, the research methodology used is based on two assumptions: economic determinism and reductionism. The first is based on the exclusivity of economic rationality due to the conditions of market competition. Reductionism in economics proceeds from the definition of a market that works for the benefit of all, caring for the common good. The same systemic rationality, but with normative content.

For example, in Russia, instead of adapting the market to social relations, these relations themselves are radically adjusted to the requirements of the market. Relations between people are reduced to relations of exchange, which leads to the development of the idea of the efficiency of a market economy into the ideology of a total market society.

The current economic crisis has shown the work of the mechanism of our system of economic coordination at the global level. The essence of the mechanism of the system of economic coordination, in our opinion, is based on the three identified types of economic coordination (centralized, decentralized and global). We concluded that the mechanism of competition (self-regulating market) was replaced by a system of economic coordination of the activities of market entities. All elements of this system are interconnected, and each type of economic coordination separately from the general system cannot exist at the present time, which has been demonstrated by the modern crisis.

Centralized government coordination provides a competitive environment (the so-called “rules of the game”). Market entities operate in a certain environment that allows them to achieve competitiveness, taking into account the existing norms and rules established by the state, depending on the development goal (centralized coordination). It should be noted that when A. Marshall analyzed the impact of the external environment on the organization of production, he spoke about the role of competition and cooperation in the development of the economy. Our understanding of cooperation lies in the fact that it allows us to harmonize the interests of business and the goals of development of society. The system that implements the role of cooperation in a competitive environment is the studied system of economic coordination. W. Euken proposed two constitutive principles for post-war Germany in the transition from a command to a market economy: the policy of the state is aimed at dissolving or limiting economic power groups; the political and economic activity of the state is aimed at creating forms of the economic environment, and not at regulating the economic process.

Oiken complained that if economic and social power groups in the state have already taken firm positions and acquired state privileges, it is difficult to achieve their weakening or dissolution. But at the same time, he makes an optimistic conclusion: "However, history provides a lot of examples showing that this can be achieved within the framework of the confrontation between power groups and decisive state leadership."

Decentralized coordination in the existing competitive environment ensures competitiveness. The history of economic development has shown that insufficient coordination is manifested in a market economy due to the formation of power over the market by monopolies, oligopolies and groups with their own interests. As development trends show, monopolies and oligopolies, other formal and informal integrated structures call into question the use of competition as a principle of self-organization, decentralized coordination in the market.

The mechanism of decentralized coordination of the activities of market actors (microeconomics) cannot replace macroeconomics and create conditions for development. Therefore, decentralized and centralized coordination is a system. The basis for identifying the mechanism of decentralized coordination is the study of the concept of “internal (internal) organization” by F. Knight, which helps to emphasize the specifics of the company's tasks as a non-market (administrative) mechanism of economic coordination. The mechanism of decentralized coordination includes corporate planning (including cooperation in integrated structures), management, control, effective management of state property.

We represent these mechanisms in Fig. 4.1.

Rice. 4.1. Decentralized and centralized coordination mechanism

Global coordination through the inclusiveness (involvement) of economic agents ensures the formation of world norms and rules of business. The main condition for perfect competition (the ideal of reforming the Russian economy) is that the market price develops under the influence of the aggregate supply and demand of all participants. The structure of the connection between the subjects of the market - the structure of the market, is such that no one individually can influence the price. But since the competitive market since the time of A. Smith has lost the ability to self-regulate due to the increasing concentration of production and capital in new forms, the mechanism of competition is being replaced by other systems.

Global strategy requires a choice because of the many ways to compete: where to locate activities and how to coordinate them. M. Porter highlighted the principles of global coordination that allow companies to gain competitive advantages through a global strategy. The mechanism of global economic coordination is presented in table. 4.1.

Table 4.1. Global Economic Coordination Mechanism

The market and its infrastructure are manifested through institutions: the credit-monetary system, commodity exchanges, currency convertibility, etc. At present, these institutions have acquired mainly a global character. The table shows that the mechanism of global economic coordination is associated with obtaining competitive advantages. Global coordination ensures the formation of world norms and rules of management through the inclusiveness (inclusion) of economic agents, which are manifested in the modern world as the relationship between the center and the periphery in network spatial structures. This conclusion was made on the basis of the substantiation of the network society by M. Castells (1996), who, using numerous examples, proved that the dominant processes and functions in our societies are determined by the configuration of relations in networks and between networks.

In our opinion, a new era has begun, characterized by the fourth stage in the evolution of the principle of coordination in the economy. The first stage represented the so-called "invisible hand" of Smith's market coordination and was expressed in the reduction of the costs of mass production in vertically specialized industrial enterprises coordinated by the market. The second phase is called the visible hand of hierarchical coordination by Alfred Chandler (1977), using the organizational innovation of the US management team. The third stage is solving the problem by improving the internal organization of the firm, not productivity (reducing costs). This position contradicts the notion of the economy as an object of the central government's demand management policy, which developed in the United States and Great Britain in the 1990s.

The fourth stage we propose is based not on gaining competitive advantages by reducing costs (first and second stages), or gaining strategic advantages through continuous improvement of the production process and product (third stage), but through the use of a system of economic coordination, which implements a mechanism for harmonizing business interests and development goals of society. Based on the identified principles and mechanisms of economic coordination (centralized, decentralized and global), we concluded that the mechanism of competition (self-regulating market) has been replaced by a system of economic coordination. Centralized government coordination provides a competitive environment (the so-called “rules of the game”). Decentralized coordination in the existing competitive environment ensures competitiveness. Global coordination ensures the formation of world norms and rules of business.

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Coordination mechanism is a system of relations that allows producers and consumers to make decisions in the production, distribution, exchange, consumption of goods. The coordination mechanism poses five fundamental questions for producers and consumers and provides information on how to solve them: (a) To what extent should the available resources be used? b) what goods and services can be produced? c) how to produce them? d) among whom should these products be distributed? f) Is the system able to adapt to changes in consumer tastes, in the structure of available resources and in production technology?

A competitive market system is capable of communicating changes in consumer tastes to resource providers and entrepreneurs and thereby facilitating appropriate changes in the allocation of resources in the economy. Prices, driven by supply and demand, consumer sovereignty and producer earnings force firms to adopt the most efficient technology. The main control mechanism in a market economy is competition - freedom of exchange and access to exchange. It favors the emergence of the identity of personal and public interests, forming the "invisible hand" incentives for the effective use of rare resources

The main economic advantage of a market system lies in its ability to continuously stimulate production efficiency improvements.

Competition leads to efficiency because in deciding how much of a particular good to buy, people equate the marginal (additional) utility they get from consuming an additional unit of production with the marginal (additional) cost of buying an additional unit of the good, which is the price at which they pay, and firms, when deciding how much to sell, equate the price they receive to their marginal (additional) cost of producing each additional unit of goods. Thus, the marginal utility of consuming an additional unit equates to the marginal cost.

The failures of the market coordination mechanism lie in the impossibility, through the price system, to provide information about the investment market in a country, region, industry, firm, about collective needs, external benefits and costs, and environmental needs. The market coordination mechanism leads to unequal distribution of income and instability, it does not guarantee full employment and a stable price level.

14.3. Functions of the state in a market economy

State is a group of persons that has two characteristic features. They are elected by the population and have some exclusive rights (to make decisions on tax collection, criminal punishment, border protection, etc.).

The state plays a threefold role in a market economy. Firstly, it protects the property rights and interests of the partners of the transaction, as recorded in the purchase and sale agreement or other agreements. Secondly, it itself acts as an entrepreneur - it sells, buys in order to make a profit. Third, it compensates for market failures.

Market failure includes insolvency of competition, lack of market response to public goods, ineffectiveness of the competitive mechanism in the event of external effects, incompleteness of individual markets, imperfect information, periodic cases of high unemployment and equipment downtime, income inequality, divergence of consumer decisions from optimal ones regarding the use of the so-called mandatory goods.

Inconsistency of competition manifests itself in cases of a small volume of market transactions, growth of the company due to economies of scale, monopoly pricing.

Public goods- these are goods that have the properties of accessibility, free of charge, indivisibility, impossibility to restrict access to use. For example, national defense. The market does not represent a public good either at all or in a sufficient society.

Ineffectiveness of the competitive mechanism when externalities arise, it manifests itself in the inability of the market to respond to losses or benefits from a transaction from third parties. For example, another fisherman who starts fishing in a pond may reduce the amount of fish that other fishermen might catch.

Incomplete markets are cases where private markets cannot provide goods and services to society even when individuals are willing to pay a sufficient price. These are cases of insurance and loans on a very large scale.

Imperfection of information- a common phenomenon of the market system. Efficiency requires that information be disseminated free of charge, or, more precisely, the only payment is one that covers the real costs of communicating the information. The private market often reduces the supply of information.

Markets failed to provide full employment. And this is the strongest and most impressive evidence of market imperfections.

In a market economy, the rich have much more money than the poor. Therefore, the market economy devotes resources to the production of exquisite luxury goods for the rich at the expense of resources to the production of exquisite necessities for the poor.

Divergence of consumer decisions from optimal regarding the use of so-called compulsory goods, it manifests itself when consumers make “bad decisions”, for example, buy tobacco, a lot of sweets, do not use seat belts.

The view that state decision-making is preferable because the state knows that it best represents the interests of people, even better than they understand themselves, is called paternalism. Goods whose use is regulated by the government are called compulsory goods.

Compensation for market failure is the main motive for the state's activity in a market economy. The state and its administration are a public good. We all benefit from a better, more efficient, more responsive government. And it is difficult and undesirable to exclude someone from enjoying the benefits that come from a better state.

The failure of the state consists in insufficient information, in limited control over the response of the private sector, natural consequences of the functioning of political institutions in democratic communities 30

According to the two types of organizations, there are two main mechanisms for providing information and coordinating decisions: the plan and the market. The centralized organization is associated with the plan, the decentralized with the market. However, in reality, in a number of countries their combination is taking shape, for example, the indicative system in France. In a planned economy, which is based on a centralized organization, economic activity is carried out according to instructions and directives developed by the highest planning bodies (the Planning Committee, the State Planning Committee, and other unified planning center). They are brought to the subordinate organizations, which are obliged to ensure the implementation of the plan. Consumer preferences are taken into account, but to a small extent. In this regard, a certain system of incentives and sanctions is being developed to encourage the implementation of directives or condemn participants for refusing to comply with them. Other mechanisms in a centralized organization are excluded. This process is called directive planning.
In a market economy based on a decentralized organization, preference is given to the market. In accordance with this, decisions on the allocation of resources are made under the influence of supply and demand. Moreover, the "supreme consumer power" belongs to the buyers. If the market is dominated by consumer sovereignty, then it is the buyers who decide what to produce. However, consumer priority does not exist in its pure form, since both government regulation measures at the government level and large companies have an impact on decision-making.
In an indicative system, the market is the main decision-making tool. Along with this, an indicative plan is also used, which determines the general and sectoral trends in the development of the economy. The indicative plan does not provide instructions and directives for business units. They are free to make decisions to the extent that they deem necessary.

Section 7. Main directions and urgent problems
modern economic theory

At the end of the twentieth century. there are clearly three main streams in modern economic theory: institutional, neoliberal or non-classical, and Keynesian with the prefix "monetary." But such a division can be accepted only with a certain degree of convention, since, in general, the development of economic science in the twentieth century. went on very rapidly and it is very difficult to offer an absolutely unambiguous classification. In any case, there remains a certain part of theories and concepts that did not fall under the "roof" of the indicated directions.

In the 50s and 70s. institutionalism experienced rapid development. Called late institutionalism, it went beyond the United States and spread to Europe, giving a wide variety of theories that can be divided into two types: transformation theories (diffusion of property, revolution of managers, diffusion of benefits, consumer society, mixed economy, electronic cottage, deproletarization of the worker class, information society, etc.) and the theory of convergence (the theory of stages of economic growth, the theory of industrial society, post-industrial, super-industrial society, etc.). The undisputed leader of this period is the American J.K. Galbraith.

Like the founders of institutionalism, later institutionalists accused rival theories of ignoring the real socioeconomic structure and problems of social development.

However, the real course of economic development, directed towards strengthening the forces of the market (actualization of monetarism in theory and practice), and not towards expanding planning and convergence of socialism and capitalism, could not fail to be noted by modern institutionalists of the late twentieth century, who paid main attention to contradictions within the institutional stream itself. Some began to view their work as an addition to neoclassicism (a new institutional theory that comes from the microeconomic understanding of the institution), while others began to look for contradictions between the old and new institutionalism (the methodology of holism and individualism).

The founder of the first direction is R. Coase, his followers - O. Williamson, J. Buchanan, S. Pejovich, A. Alchian, etc. where the main research method is not a comparison of imperfect institutions with perfect, ideal with real ones, but a comparative institutional analysis of existing institutions and alternatives that exist in practice. The subject of economic research is the impact of individuals or organizations on each other within the framework of a single economic system, the ideal should be the minimum negative impact of economic agents on each other, in real life this is achieved through a variety of forms of basic economic institutions (organizations): the market and the firm.

The second direction is presented by J. Hodgson, E. Screptani, W. Samuels and others. They consider the methodology of both holism and individualism to be unsatisfactory. The challenge is to formulate the relationship between action and structure in such a way as to preserve the structural nature of action and the reality of choice and action itself. The concept of the subject matter of economic theory should not exclude any predetermined methods or prerequisites.

Economic theory is the science of the processes and social relationships that govern the production, distribution and exchange of wealth and income. (The authors point out that in this case the term "political economy" is preferable, but for tactical reasons it should not be used, so that the "enemy" does not interpret this as a retreat from the field of theoretical battles). However, no matter how fair the reproaches are, by themselves they do not represent a positive economic theory and in this sense the representatives of this direction have nothing to brag about yet.

The approach advocating the necessity and effectiveness of state intervention in modern conditions, started by R. Klazer, A. Lejonhufeud, S. Whitraub, H. Minsky - the authors of the renewed Keynesianism, is now continued by J. Taylor, J. Stiglitz, J. Ackerlot and others. economists build new equilibrium models, but without their main prerequisite - automatic "clearing" of markets, that is, without automatic adjustment of supply and demand by means of rapid price changes. The impossibility of "clearing" is associated with the lack of complete and reliable information, various institutional constraints (the concept of imperfect information), which are an organic component of the monetary economy.

The monetary economy is an economy of uncertainty, which is proposed to be overcome by means of the model of a "representative individual" (one for all), this "one" is the state. It can maintain equilibrium through monetary regulation, setting the interest rate at the "natural rate", counteracting any temporary changes in economic conditions and employment, and thus becoming the basis of stability. This concept is also called monetary Keynesianism.

Regarding the neoliberal or neoclassical direction, it should be noted that in the last decade of the outgoing century, the theory of the "extreme right" was gaining momentum. This is the theory (school) of rational expectations, represented by J. Muth, R. Lucas, T. Sargent, N. Wallace, E. Perscott, R. Barrow and others.

The essence of the theory of rational expectations is that for making decisions in the present and forecasting the future, economic actors use all possible information about the economy, and not only the experience of the past and therefore do not make systematic errors in their forecasts; in this sense, their predictions are rational.

From the point of view of rational expectations, a wide range of economic problems were analyzed, in particular, investing under conditions of uncertainty, money neutrality, the natural rate of unemployment and the effectiveness of government intervention in the economy, as well as the Keynesian model of government regulation.

The initial conclusion of the economists of this school was that the Keynesian doctrine of state regulation is ineffective, and then the Friedman model of regulation, since money is not just neutral, but super-neutral to the economy. Consequently, the state has virtually no leverage over the economy. The School of Rational Expectations argues that, under a certain set of circumstances, it is possible to have a one-time short-term impact on some economic indicators, and it does not matter which orientation the government belongs to - Keynesian or monetarist. Macroeconomic policy is essentially capable of only imitating the purposefulness of actions at the cost of introducing additional confusion into economic life.

This interpretation of the role of the state is an illusion and is opposed not only to supporters of state regulation, but also to those who traditionally opposed this action, i.e., A. Smith and M. Friedman. On this basis, representatives of the school of rational expectations called themselves the new classics.

In addition to the main directions, you can pay attention to a number of problems that are of particular relevance in modern economic analysis. These are various theories of the world economy, including economic comparative studies and theories devoted to trends in globalization and problems of the future.

Learning objectives

1. Determine the main directions of development of economic theory at the present stage.

2. Describe traditional institutional theories or theories of late institutionalism.

3. Describe the theory of new institutionalism.

4. Show the peculiarities of the views of the theorists of the new classics.

5. To reveal the specifics of the views of the representatives of the renewed Keynesianism.

6. Find out the conceptual approaches of modern theories of the world economy.

7. Show the specifics of comparative analysis.

Tests

I. A ... Establish the correspondence of a term or concept and its definition

A) convergence theory;

B) transformation theory;

C) institution as an expression of the principle of holism;

D) institution as an expression of the principle of individualism;

E) the concept of rational expectations;

f) the concept of imperfect information;

G) economic comparative studies.

1) Explanation of institutions through their compliance with the interests of individuals who seek to form a framework that structures interaction in various spheres;

2) understanding that different economic agents have unequal opportunities for obtaining and using information, that is, the study of decision-making in conditions of information asymmetry;

3) theories that emphasize the main changes (from the point of view of the author of the theory) in modern society and determine its modern specifics;

4) explanation of the behavior and interests of individuals, which determine the interaction between them, through the existing stereotype of thought;

5) theories that see in the social development of the modern era (50-70 years of the twentieth century) a predominant tendency towards the convergence of two social systems - capitalism and socialism, with their subsequent synthesis in a "mixed society", combining the features and properties of each of them;

6) one of the sections of the theory of international economic relations dealing with the comparative analysis of economic systems;

7) interpretation of the way of making decisions by economic agents, which proceed not only from the prevailing stereotypes of economic behavior (information about the past), but take into account the current state of the economic environment and therefore do not make mistakes in making decisions aimed at achieving personal gain.

I. B ... Establish the correspondence of the characteristic features of economic systems from a) to d) and from 1 to 8 statements

A) property relations in a market economy;

B) property relations in a centrally controlled economy;

C) a coordination mechanism in a market economy;

D) a coordination mechanism in a centrally controlled economy.

1) The variety of economic activities is agreed in advance (ex ante);

2) individual members of the economic community realize their goals through the market, that is, taking into account the needs of others;

3) every individual has the right to engage in production activities, consume, use their income and transfer property;

4) private ownership of the means of production is replaced by public ownership;

5) all planning powers have been transferred to households and enterprises;

6) enterprises are passive recipients of instructions that are called upon to fulfill planned production targets;

7) the flow of information about production orders is from top to bottom;

8) sanctions are taken mainly by order of the authorities.

II. Choose the correct answer

A) traffic rules;

B) everyday purchase of cigarettes at the nearest kiosk;

C) regular morning meeting with a neighbor at the entrance.

2. Select from the above range those judgments (institutional framework) that fall within the definition of an agreement:

A) during a thunderstorm, do not be near tall trees;

B) at the table, the fork should be held in the right hand, and the knife in the left;

C) getting lost in the forest, you should orient yourself on the terrain by the sun, stars or by signs (for example, the location of moss on a tree trunk);

D) do not smoke in public places, do not disturb public peace.

3. Which of the following is an illustration of a model of incomplete rationality of action?

A) the behavior of the average student when preparing for the exam;

B) the behavior of an excellent student;

C) Robinson's behavior.

4. Representatives of which direction of institutional theory would agree with the expression: "Tell me who your friend is, and I will tell you who you are."?

B) "new" institutional economics;

5. Representatives of which direction of institutional theory would agree with the expression: "Every people has the government it deserves":

A) "old" institutionalism;

C) new political economy.

6. Representatives of which direction of institutional theory will not be interested in the following argument of a student who was not prepared for the seminar: "The university library was closed, in the district library there is no necessary book, and, in general, this week there are two tests and one independent work on other subjects, for which need to prepare "?

A) "old" institutionalism;

B) "new" institutionalism;

C) new political economy.

7. The centrally controlled economy model is characterized by:

A) lack of a system of sanctions;

B) individual planning;

C) the principle of economic subordination;

D) lack of information system.

8. :

A) there are no economic plans;

B) there is no sanction mechanism;

B) prices serve as an indicator of scarcity;

D) the state coordinates economic activities.

9. Market Mechanism:

A) makes the plans of individual economic units unnecessary;

B) serves to agree on a single state plan;

C) coordinates the plans of households and enterprises;

D) does not have a system of information and sanctions.

10. Which of the following principles best characterizes a centrally administered economy??

A) coverage of costs;

B) implementation of the plan;

C) the pursuit of profit;

D) profitability.

11. In a market economy model:

A) maximum welfare is guaranteed for every citizen;

B) the state determines the content of economic activity;

C) the desire of a person to acquire is encouraged in a special way;

D) there is an even distribution of income.

III. Determine who is superfluous in the proposed list of names, where three out of four should be united by one school or one concept

1. a) Coase; b) Williamson; c) Mut; d) Buchanan.

2. a) Galbraith; b) Williamson; c) Rostow; d) Aron.

3. a) Friedman; b) Lucas; c) Sargent; d) Mut.

4. a) Friedman; b) Lucas; c) Laffer; d) Veblen.

5. a) Robinson; b) Taylor: c) Stiglitz; d) Akerlot.

IV. Establish correspondence between authors (sources) and ideas, theories, concepts

A) 1. Coase. 2. Buchanan. 3. Williamson. 4. Pejovich.

A) theory of social contract (contract);

B) the economic theory of property rights;

C) the theory of transaction costs;

D) the theory of economic organization.

B) 1. Veblen. 2. Coase. 3. Hodgson. 4. Galbraith.

A) new institutional theory;

B) new political economy;

C) late institutionalism;

D) early institutionalism.

C) 1. Mut. 2. Stiglitz. 3. Williamson. 4. Friedman.

A) monetarism;

B) new institutional economics;

C) new classical macroeconomics;

D) updated Keynesianism.

D) 1. "Old" institutionalism. 2. New institutional theory. 3. New classics. 4. Monetary Keynesianism

A) the concept of rational expectations;

B) the concept of imperfect information;

C) the concept of bounded rationality;

D) the concept of holism.

Situations, problems

1. The norms and laws that characterize the way of life of society determine, first of all, the integration of each individual person into society..

A) Based on this point of view, show the difference between the principles of individuality and collectivism.

B) What role do plans play in a market and centrally planned economy?

C) From the principle of order in effect in a particular case, it is concluded to what extent the state is endowed with the right to make economic decisions. Explain the differences between both economies.

2. The social system, which determines the joint existence of people, includes, along with the political, legal and economic, also the social system. In the nineteenth century. there was a widespread misconception that the purposeful regulation of economic activity naturally creates a reasonable social order.

A) Show the differences in the responsibility of each person for the conditions of their existence in accordance with the guiding principles of the welfare state or society of effective competition, and also critically substantiate your position.

B) Explain why social legislation should ensure a balance between the principles of "complementarity" and "solidarity".

C) Explain the importance of tariff autonomy for maintaining social compromise in society.

D) Highlight the features of private property and a stable monetary exchange rate in a social market economy.

Answers and comments

I. A) a-5; b-3; at 4; g-1; D 7; e-2; f-6.

B) a-3; b-4; in-2.5; d-1,6,7,8.

II. 1-a; 2-b, d; 3-a; 4-a; 5 B; 6-b; 7-c; 8-in; 9-in; 10-b; 11-a.

III. 1-in; 2-b; 3-a; 4-d; 5-a.

IV. A) 1-c; 2-a; 3d; 4-b.

B) 1-d; 2-a; 3-b; 4-c.

B) 1-c; 2-d; 3-b; 4-a.

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As a result, 4 types of economic systems are distinguished:

1. traditional economy;

2. administrative command economy;

3. market economy;

4. mixed economy.

Market economy- an economy with a predominance of private property, limited government intervention in business processes and a market coordination mechanism.

Economic theory considers two different modes of coordination: spontaneous (spontaneous) and hierarchical (centralized).

In reality, spontaneous orders and hierarchies coexist.

| | 3 | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

Types of economic systems by criterion: a mechanism for coordinating the activities of economic entities. Market coordination mechanism and institutions. The mechanism for coordinating the interests of the producer and the consumer in a command and market economy Help is needed to study

The planned economic system of the command economy (on the example of the USSR)

The planned economic system of the command economy (on the example of the USSR)

14.3. Functions of the state in a market economy

More on the topic Mechanisms for providing information and coordinating decisions: plan and market .:

Section 7. Main directions and urgent problems modern economic theory

Section 7. Main directions and urgent problems
modern economic theory