Queen Isabella's reign

Young Isabella, proclaimed monarch of Spain in 1833, received full rights at the age of 13. In 1843 she was declared an adult. The Queen did not strive for state power, she was fond of music and riding in open carriages. Instead, the generals ruled the country:

• first General Ramon Narvaez,
• later General Leopoldo O * Donnell.

Therefore, the period from 1843 to 1868 went down in the history of Spain as a general's regime.

Under Isabella, Spain was guided by a rapprochement with England and France. Together with Portugal, the monarchies formed the Quadruple Alliance as opposed to the restoration of the Holy Alliance. In domestic politics, the queen gave preference to moderados, with little regard for progressives. The 1845 Constitution provided the monarch with additional leverage over the Cortes. But the instability of the government was expressed in its frequent change; in total, during the reign of Isabella, the government changed 33 times.

"Isabelline era" brought some recovery to the Spanish economy. The mining and metallurgical industries developed, the textile industry progressed, and a boom in railway construction began. By the end of the Queen's reign, 3,600 kilometers of railroad tracks had been built. But the country was still agrarian. The social structure of the population has undergone changes. The financial-industrial and military aristocracy is coming to the fore, pushing back the clergy and nobility. The Queen everywhere demonstrated support for capitalist transformations and the modernization of the country.

Remark 1

The low level of well-being of the common people led to the fall of Isabella's authority and her flight to France. There she was received by Napoleon III. Isabella II lived in this political asylum until her death in 1904.

Spain during the reign of the kings of the Savoy dynasty

From 1868 to 1874, Spain is called the "democratic sixth year". After the queen's flight, the Constituent Cortes were convened and drafted a new Constitution of 1869. She provided electoral rights to citizens from the age of 25, legalized the principle of separation of powers. The Cortes were to choose a new monarch. Three main candidates were rejected by the head of the Cabinet of Ministers, General Prim:

1. son of Isabella II Alphonse;
2. grandson of Don Carlos the Elder, Carlos the Younger;
3. Duke of Montpensier of Orleans.

The three-party bloc of liberals elected Amadeus of Savoy as king. The reign of the new king began on November 16, 1870 and lasted a little over two years. In February 1873 he abdicated and Spain became a republic. The first republic brought chaos to Spain: a civil war, an intensification of the Carlists, an economic crisis, an exacerbation of Spanish-Cuban relations, an epidemic of plague and famine. It was decided to restore the Bourbons on the Spanish throne, and Alphonse XII, the son of Isabella II, became king.

Restored Bourbon rule

Alphonse XII (reigned from 184 to 1885) began his reign with the defeat of the Carlist rebellion. Following the end of the civil war, the colonial war with Cuba ended. Alphonse was nicknamed the Peacemaker. Alphonse XII, together with A. Canovas del Castillo, tried to build a constitutional monarchy in Spain on the model of the English one. Kanolvas founded and headed the Conservative Party, the publicist Sagasta - the opposition Liberal Party. During these years, Kasikism became widespread.

Definition 1

Kasikism is an electoral system that covers the arbitrariness of local leaders. Kasiki ensured the passage of the necessary deputies to the Cortes through falsification of elections, bribery and intimidation of voters.

The death of the king led to a new dynastic crisis. Six months after the death of Alphonse XII, his son and heir Alphonse XIII was born. Until he came of age in 1902, the country was ruled by his mother, Maria-Christina. By the end of the 19th century, Spain came up with negative results: all overseas colonies were rejected as a result of defeat in the Spanish-American War of 1898.

In the post-reform period, the system of law was preserved, which was formed in the first half of the 19th century as a result of codification carried out under the leadership of M.M. Speransky. The main sources of law were the Complete Collection of Laws (PSZ) and the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. However, the development of bourgeois relations in the economy and government reforms necessitated the introduction of significant innovations in the legislation. This was the reason for the publication of the second and then the third revised editions of the PSZ. The code of laws was supplemented by the XVI volume, which included the judicial statutes of 1864. Drafts of new codes and statutes were being prepared. Some of them were approved and included in revised editions of the PSZ, but others remained drafts.

Since 1863, under the control of the Senate, the Collection of Legalizations and Government Orders began to be published. It included decrees of ministries, senate practice, charters of joint-stock and credit companies.

The interpretation of laws and the resolution of legal conflicts was the responsibility of the Senate. His clarifications for legal practice have become mandatory. Certain resolutions of the Senate, approved by the emperor, acquired the status of laws.

Along with normative acts, customary law was also used as sources of law, especially in the practice of rural municipality and commercial courts. The application of custom in cases not regulated by law became the rule, but which should not have contradicted the law. In cases considered in ecclesiastical courts (diocesan consistories) - divorce and some others - the source was canon (ecclesiastical) law.

Despite the fact that the general Russian law was considered valid throughout the entire territory of the empire, along with it, in some foreign regions, their own legal systems were also applied within certain limits. This applied to the autonomous Finland, as well as the Baltic provinces and the Transcaucasus. In Central Asia and the North Caucasus, in addition to local customary law - adats, Sharia (Muslim law) was used as a source of law in resolving conflicts among the indigenous population.

Despite the preservation of the pre-reform legal system, bourgeois principles of law, including the principle of the equality of subjects before the law, made their way. In the historical and legal literature, it is rightly interpreted as the most important principle of bourgeois law, since it is directed against class and other privileges and restrictions on human rights characteristic of feudalism.

The use of another principle of bourgeois law - freedom of contract - provided ample opportunities for industrialists to establish enslaving working conditions for workers. Working hours were up to 12-14 hours. Fines for violations of labor and technological discipline were not limited. The contracts usually did not contain any obligation on the part of the employers to provide welfare for the workers. There was also no pension legislation for workers in private enterprises, since pensions were provided only for officials of the state apparatus, military personnel, police and gendarmerie.

The growth of the labor movement contributed to the adoption of a number of legislative acts regulating issues of labor and wages. These acts formed a special branch of the law of the Russian Empire - factory law, which was later transformed into labor law. The night work of women and children was limited (1882), and then all workers. Salaries were paid every two weeks. The 1886 law on fines limited it to no more than 1/3 of the monthly salary and required that the amount of fines be used to improve working conditions. At the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. the working hours were legislatively set at no more than 11.5 hours per day and mandatory rest days on weekends and holidays. The work was supervised by the factory inspection as part of the provincial administration. To monitor the implementation of factory legislation, as early as 1886, provincial factory presences were created.

Commercial legislation developed rapidly. The Charter on factory and factory industry was issued, which regulated the activities of state, private and private possessory enterprises, as well as a new Handicraft Charter, a new edition of the Trade Charter, the Exchange Charter, the Bill of Exchange Charter and the Charter of Commercial Insolvency.

Civil procedural law is being formed into a separate branch, which was largely facilitated by the judicial reform and the adoption in 1864 of the Charter of Civil Procedure.

In the magistrates' court, the consideration of civil cases was simplified. After filing a statement of claim with the court, the defendant was summoned to the court office and got acquainted with the content of the claim. If the defendant failed to appear, the judge could try the case without him, but the plaintiff's failure to appear entailed the termination of the case. The judge performed all procedural actions personally, recording them. The court decisions could be appealed on appeal.

The consideration of civil cases in general courts took place on the basis of the principles of orality, publicity, competition. The case began with the filing of a statement of claim. In the order of preliminary preparation for the hearing of the case, the defendant got acquainted with the content of the application, who could write an objection. The plaintiff, in turn, wrote a rebuttal to the objection. Representatives (guardians), lawyers could participate in the court, reconciliation of the parties was allowed. The trial itself, as a rule, was a contest between the parties, with the burden of proof resting on the party who asserted or demanded something. At the end of the hearing, the court read out the resolution on the case, and the final decision was communicated within two weeks. The appeal against the decisions of the general courts was allowed on appeal to the judicial chamber within four months.

Administrative (police) law. The abolition of serfdom, the introduction of all-estate judicial institutions and other reforms of the 60s - 80s. XIX century led to the abolition of many class and other restrictions on the rights of Russian subjects. However, even after these reforms, restrictions on the rights of certain categories of the population remained on the basis of class, religion and gender. Legal inequality was especially pronounced in administrative or, as it was then called, police law.

An example was such an important institution of administrative law as the passport regime, which was regulated by the Charter on Passports and Fugitives, adopted back in the 1830s and having a pronounced class character. Having established a strict passport regime, mandatory passports and their registration as a means of administrative and police supervision of the population, the Charter provided for special types of passports for each class, with the exception of peasants, who, in case of absence from their place of permanent residence, received temporary residence permits with the permission of the landowner.

In connection with the abolition of serfdom and other reforms, the question of the need to update passport legislation arose. The preparation of the draft of the new law lasted more than 30 years, and only in 1895 the emperor approved the new Regulation on residence permits.

Under the new Regulation, noblemen, officials, clergy, honorary citizens, merchants and commoners were issued unlimited passports. Bourgeois, artisans and rural inhabitants could be issued passports only for a period of not more than 5 years for a fee or free tickets for a short-term absence in the absence of tax arrears, and artisans and peasants - with the consent of the craft council or rural society.

The right to obtain a passport, and, consequently, to travel around the country and to choose a place of residence, was restricted for persons of the Roman Catholic and Jewish faiths and members of some religious sects. It was forbidden to issue passports and residence permits to stray foreigners and gypsies.

Restrictions on the rights of women were significant. The names of married women fit into their husbands' passports. A separate residence permit could be issued to them only with the consent of the husband and for a period agreed with him. If the husband revokes his consent, then the police were obliged to install the wife in the husband's house. To issue passports or residence permits to inseparable members of peasant families and unmarried daughters, the consent of the head of the family was required.

The rights of subjects of the Russian Empire could be limited by the Regulation on measures to protect state order and public peace, adopted on August 14, 1881. It provided that certain areas of the Russian Empire could be declared to be not only in martial law, but also in an "exceptional" position in the form of "enhanced" or "emergency" protection.

The authority to declare a particular area on increased security belonged to the Minister of Internal Affairs and Governor-Generals in case of "criminal encroachments" on the existing state system or the security of individuals and their property, when the measures provided for by permanent laws turned out to be ineffective.

The right to impose an emergency protection regime was granted to the Cabinet of Ministers, which made a decision approved by the emperor. The grounds for this were also encroachments on the existing state system or the security of private individuals, which created more serious consequences in the form of an “alarming mood” of the population, necessitating the adoption of exceptional and urgent measures.

Within the framework of the enhanced and emergency protection regimes, governors-general, governors and mayors were given the right to issue resolutions on various issues of maintaining public order: bringing perpetrators to administrative responsibility, sequestering real estate and seizing movable property and income from them, introducing a ban on holding rallies, the establishment of special military-police teams, the removal from office of officials of all departments, the closure of educational institutions and other issues.

The enhanced security regime was established for up to 1 year, and the emergency security regime - up to 6 months. But this rule did not exhaust the possibility of extending the operation of emergency laws in a certain territory, since it provided for an unlimited number of times to extend the duration of the regimes established by the Committee of Ministers on the proposal of the Ministry of Internal Affairs.

Both forms of the state of exception were widely used by the tsarist government. In some Russian regions, regimes of enhanced or emergency protection have been in effect for a long time.

Civil law. To a much greater extent than in administrative law, bourgeois legal principles were reflected in civil law. The main source of civil law was still the X volume of the Code of Laws of the Russian Empire. In addition, the needs of the development of the capitalist economy made it necessary to issue a trade charter, railway regulations, and a number of factory laws. The transformation of former serfs into "free rural inhabitants" made them equal subjects of civil law relations and significantly expanded the scope of civil law.

Every natural person was considered to have legal capacity from the moment of birth. However, the scope of legal capacity was determined in the laws of states. Full legal capacity began at the age of 21. Legal capacity could be limited by the court due to mental disorder, as well as when recognized as a wasteful. The rural society could send peasants - hard-core tax defaulters to forced public works. There were also other restrictions on legal capacity based on nationality, religion and gender.

The concept of a legal entity was fully recognized in the law, which was directly related to the development of capitalist relations. It was applied to the state and its organs, monasteries, educational institutions, merchants, industrial associations, partnerships, joint stock companies. Legal entities were divided into public, private, connections of persons and institutions. Legal entities had the right to own property and enter into transactions. However, the law established state control over their activities, and if this activity deviated from the goals declared in the charter of a legal entity, transactions concluded in violation of the charter could be invalidated.

In civil law, such a bourgeois principle as the unrestrictedness of the right of property and the freedom to dispose of it received its embodiment. In the X volume of the Code of Laws, the right to property was defined as the power "exclusive and independent of the person of an outsider to own, use and dispose of property eternally and hereditarily." The property right was protected by a statute of limitations, the period of which was set at 10 years. Termination of property rights was associated with decrees of the legislature, acts of expropriation or confiscation.

Things (property) were subdivided into: movable (money, securities, capital, jewelry) and immovable (land, houses, factories, factories, mines, railways, etc.); main and accessories; separate and inseparable; consumable and non-consumable; replaceable and irreplaceable; perishable and imperishable; withdrawn from circulation and not withdrawn from it.

In addition, the previously formed division of property into acquired property - acquired not by inheritance (bought, donated, etc.) and generic - received by clan, by inheritance, was preserved. If the freedom to dispose of movable and immovable acquired property was almost unlimited, then the freedom to dispose of family and primate estates, as well as reserved property was seriously limited. Family estates could be alienated only in favor of someone from a narrow circle of heirs by law. If the family estate still went to the side, then the closest relatives within 3 years had the right to redeem it. Priority estates could only be inherited by the eldest son.

In contrast to ancestral and prerogative estates, not only land ownership, but also movable property could be reserved. Any kind of transactions with the reserved property were prohibited, it was not subject to judicial penalties. It was forbidden to split the reserved property, so it could be inherited only in its entirety, and not in parts-shares.

There were restrictions on the acquisition of land property on the basis of nationality and religion. Thus, it was forbidden to acquire land property for persons of the Jewish religion outside their Pale of Settlement.

Restrictions on the disposal of land ownership also applied to peasant land ownership. Relatively freely, the peasants could dispose of only household plots and field land in the form of household land use. But, although the ownership of the land here belonged to the peasant household, it could only be alienated in favor of other members of the rural community.

Under the communal form of land use, the ownership of field land belonged to the community. Within the community, land was distributed among the peasant households according to the number of male members of the community. No land plots were allocated to women. Redistribution of land allotments took place periodically. The practice of redistribution was in line with the peasant's notions of justice, since the quality of the land inherited by the members of the community was different. However, redistribution of land, undermining the stability of land use, did not create an incentive for peasants to invest labor and funds in improving soil fertility. For the purpose of at least some stability of land use in 1893 it was forbidden to carry out redistributions more often than after 12 years.

The rural community could sell land only with the permission of the provincial presence on peasant affairs, and on a large scale - with the permission of the Minister of Internal Affairs. Such restrictions were supposed to prevent the landlessness of the peasants and hinder their migration to cities, so as not to create the danger of social explosions.

There was also state property, which included state lands, forests, rivers, lakes, buildings, railways, military factories, etc. The law defined state property as "not owned by anyone in particular." It was managed and disposed of by specially authorized ministries and departments. There was also palace and appanage property, the proceeds from which went to the maintenance of the royal court and members of the imperial family.

The state retained the right of compulsory redemption for reward of property, and above all - land, both from individuals and legal entities.

The principle of freedom of contract was also reflected in the civil law of post-reform Russia. This principle was contrasted with the class, religious and guild restrictions inherent in feudalism.

Russian legislation contained norms that governed all types of contracts characteristic of developed commodity-money relations. There were such types of contracts as a commission contract, insurance, publishing. The use of treasury contracts, property leases, loans, loans, and partnerships has expanded.

The parties could conclude between themselves any agreement "not contrary to the laws" provided that its purpose "is not contrary to public order and decency." The choice of the form of the contract was also free, but for some types of transactions the law prescribed a written form, and in certain cases, for example, transactions with real estate, a fortress of sale. The security of obligations was carried out by means of a deposit, pledge, forfeit, surety.

At the same time, there were some restrictions on the freedom of a personal employment contract for peasants, who could not conclude it for a long time without the permission of the rural community, volost government, and since 1889, the zemstvo district chief, since it was on these instances that they depended on obtaining a permit for residence. A married woman could enter into a personal employment contract only with the written permission of her husband. Particularly strictly regulated were contracts for the personal employment of farm laborers who were hired for agricultural work and entered the service as domestic servants. In case of failure to show up for work or early departure from it, these categories of those who were hired could be returned to their place of work by the police.

Inheritance law. The influence of bourgeois legal principles also affected inheritance law. This was expressed in a significant expansion of the practice of transferring inherited property by will and more fully implementing the principle of freedom of testamentary dispositions in respect of movable property and acquired real estate.

In the absence of a will or when it was declared invalid by a court, the procedure for inheritance by law entered into force. The heirs of the first stage were children, then grandchildren. Adopted children could inherit only the acquired property, and illegitimate children were generally eliminated from the inheritance. The surviving spouse received the seventh part, the sisters, if there were brothers, the fourteenth part of the real estate and the eighth part of the movable property. Parents were eliminated from inheritance to their children.

The order of inheritance of the property of the peasant household was complicated. The testamentary form practically did not become widespread, but local customs were widely used. As a general rule, only family members could bequeath property, and only those who were members of the rural community inherited the land. At the same time, outsiders who became members of the peasant household were allowed to inherit in peasant families: adopted, adopted and illegitimate children. If the groom was part of the bride's family, the daughters were allowed to inherit on an equal basis with him.

Family law. Bourgeois legal principles had the least effect on family law. Only religious marriage was recognized as legal. Conclusion, divorce, and other personal relationships in the family were regulated by the norms of canon law. Parental consent was still required for marriage, and for some categories of persons, for example, officials and officers, permission from their superiors. For non-observance of these rules, children, upon a complaint from their parents, could be punished up to imprisonment, and officers and officials could be dismissed from service. Marriages between Christians and non-Christians were prohibited. For the Orthodox, only monogamous marriage was allowed, and the church was crowned only up to 3 times. It was impossible to marry or get married for the fourth time. For Muslims, polygamy was allowed - it was possible to have up to four wives. For the bride it was necessary to pay a ransom - kalym, which in practice meant buying a girl.

Divorce according to church rules for the Orthodox was possible only for established reasons. The most accessible was divorce due to violation of marital fidelity by one of the spouses. At the same time, the guilty party was often deprived by the church court of the right to remarry and the church penance was imposed on it, which could entail dismissal for officials and officers. For Muslims, divorce for men was facilitated to the limit: an oral statement from the husband ("talak") was enough.

The property of the spouses was recognized as separate, and they could independently dispose of it and even enter into transactions permitted by law with each other. However, the wife could issue promissory notes only with the permission of her husband. Likewise, the wife could not get a job and receive a salary without her husband's permission. She was obliged to honor her husband, to obey him, to follow him when he changed his place of residence.

The law did not regulate the limits of paternal authority over children. Children were obliged to obey their parents on pain of punishment. Illegitimate children did not have the right to the father's surname and were barred from inheritance. Only in 1891 were parents allowed to legalize such children.

Criminal law. In criminal law, as in some other branches of Russian law in the second half of the 19th century, both general and special laws were in force. The general included, first of all, the Code of Penalties and Correctional Punishments of 1845. Its new editions were published in 1857 and 1866, but the Code was most significantly revised in the 1885 edition. Special laws included such systematized acts as the Charter on Punishments Imposed by Justices of the Peace of 1864, the Military Charter on Punishments as amended in 1875 and the Naval Charter on Punishments of 1878.

In the Code of 1885, a crime was recognized as an unlawful act and failure to perform what is prescribed by law under pain of punishment. At the same time, it proclaimed that punishments for crimes and misdemeanors are determined only on the exact basis of the provisions of the law. This limited the arbitrariness of the judges. The system of crimes and punishments was complex and differentiated, which led to casuistry and lack of generalizations in the law. At the same time, it retained the principle of analogy, which gave the court the right to “supplement” the law in the event of a gap in the law.

The law distinguished three categories of criminal acts: grave crimes for which the death penalty could be imposed, hard labor, settlement; crimes for the commission of which imprisonment in a fortress, prison, or correctional house was prescribed; misdemeanors for which arrest and a fine were imposed.

In the first section of the Code, containing the General Part, all the legal signs of the corpus delicti and the conditions for the application of punishments were developed: the subject and the subjective side, the object and the objective side.

Individuals were considered the subject, but punishments were applied to legal entities in some cases. For example, a rural community could be fined. Insane and children under 7 years old were not subject to criminal punishment. Responsibility for a crime was excluded in cases where the act was committed either in pursuance of the current law or the order of the chief, except for an obviously criminal one, or with the permission of the authorities, or in a state of necessary defense or extreme necessity. The punishment was softened for adolescents under the age of 18, due to the limitation period and for some other reasons.

Guilt has become an obligatory sign of corpus delicti. The law divided intent into deliberate and sudden, and deliberate crimes - into those committed in cold blood or in a state of passion. Accidental crime was not punished. The degree of punishment depended on the degree of guilt and the nature of the object of the criminal act. At the same time, punishments for careless misconduct and crimes committed through negligence were provided for in the Charter on punishments imposed by justices of the peace.

In the Code of 1885, the stages of development of a crime were covered in detail: 1) detection of intent and preparation for a crime; 2) attempted murder; 3) commission of a crime. In some cases, punishment was also provided for naked intent. For example, crimes against the royal power or the threat of arson.

The basic principles of complicity in crimes were consolidated. Among the accomplices, the main culprits, participants, instigators, accomplices, co-conspirators (instigators), accomplices and connivors, non-informers and concealers stood out. Types of complicity: osprey, which included the main culprits and participants and formed at the time of the commission of a criminal act; a conspiracy involving instigators, accomplices, instigators and accomplices; a gang consisting of the main culprits, accomplices and accomplices.

The Code of 1885 contained about 2 thousand corpus delicti. Among the types of crimes in the first place were still crimes against the church - blasphemy and blasphemy, seduction of a Christian into another faith, burial of a Christian without a Christian rite, etc. In the second place were state crimes - a revolt against the supreme power, criminal acts against the emperor and members of the imperial family, high treason, turmoil, conspiracy, disobedience to the authorities. They were followed by crimes against the order of government - the passing of a knowingly unjust verdict, perjury, violation of public order, resistance to the police, failure to perform duties, etc.

Particular attention in the Code was paid to cases of insult and obvious disrespect for the authorities and officials in the performance of their official duties. The subject, even if he accidentally fell into the hands of a "swearing letter" or "unlawful composition", was obliged, without reading it, to immediately hand over to the authorities. Failure to comply with this prescription was punished. Also, any offensive or disrespectful statement addressed to the authorities, officials, and the police was punished.

This was followed by malfeasance. Responsibility for them was provided for both in the Code and in the departmental disciplinary charters and rules. Official crimes included abuse of power, excess, as well as inaction of power, disclosure of state or official secrets, improper performance of official duties, etc. Bribery occupied a special place among malfeasance. In the most serious cases, he was entitled to imprisonment and exile to Siberia, but in most cases the punishment was limited to the recovery from the guilty person of a fine in double the amount of a bribe.

Property crimes included robbery, robbery, theft, fraud, extortion, deliberate damage to someone else's property, arson, etc. The list was completed by crimes against the person - murder, bodily harm, unlawful imprisonment, child abduction, insult, etc.

Provided responsibility for suicide, which was condemned by the Christian religion. Suicides were deprived of Christian burial, their wills and dying orders were invalidated. The one who attempted suicide and the survivor was subject to criminal liability on an equal basis with the participants in the duels.

Military crimes - going over to the side of the enemy, surrender of a fortress or a warship to the enemy, loss of a battle banner, failure to comply with an order, flight from the battlefield, desertion, squandering state property, looting, violence against civilians, etc. - were punished in accordance with the Military and Naval regulations on punishment.

The main purpose of punishment was retribution. Another goal was to prevent crimes on pain of punishment. The goals of re-education and correction were not set.

The Code defined more than a hundred types of punishments, which were subdivided into main, additional and substitute ones.

The main types of punishment were:

a) the death penalty, which was more often carried out by hanging, and such painful punishments as wheeling and quartering were no longer applied;

b) hard labor from 4 to 20 years or indefinite term, assigned mainly for political crimes;

d) imprisonment in correctional houses from one and a half to 6 years, in prisons and fortresses from two months to 2 years;

e) arrest from 1 day to 6 months;

Additional punishments were considered the deprivation of all or special rights of state, titles, family rights, the right to participate in elections, the right to engage in certain activities, as well as confiscation of property.

Criminal and correctional punishments did not include such measures of police pressure as surrender under police supervision, expulsion abroad, and prohibition to live in certain localities.

Criminal process. In the course of the judicial reform of 1864, the following principles were proclaimed: equality of parties in court; ensuring the possibility of protection; participation in jury trials; assessment of evidence by the court itself on the basis of the circumstances of the case; separation of the judicial process from the direct interference of the administrative authorities; orality, publicity, competitiveness, the presumption of innocence.

In local courts, the process was carried out in a simplified manner, without dividing into stages. In the person of the magistrate, the investigator, the judge and the prosecutor were united. Reconciliation of the parties was allowed with the assistance of a judge. The testimony of the plaintiffs, defendants, victims, witnesses, as well as written evidence and an oath, served as evidence in the magistrate's court.

In general courts, the process in criminal cases was divided into several stages: 1) an inquiry conducted by the police, and in political cases - by the gendarmerie in order to establish the fact of a crime; 2) preliminary investigation; 3) preparatory actions for the court; 4) judicial investigation; 5) sentencing; 6) execution of the sentence; 7) revision of the sentence, if necessary.

The legitimate reasons for initiating a criminal case were complaints from individuals, reports from the police, other institutions and officials, a confession, the discretion of a prosecutor or a forensic investigator.

The preliminary investigation was carried out by judicial investigators under the supervision of prosecutors, and on state crimes - by members of the chambers of the judiciary and the Senate. The investigators were assisted by the police. At this stage, the participation of the defense was not allowed. The investigative materials were presented to the accused and sent to the prosecutor, who drew up the indictment and presented it to the district court or to the judicial chamber if the case was to be tried with a jury. The Chamber ruled on prosecution and the case went to the District Court.

The court session was attended by three members of the court, a court clerk, a prosecutor, a lawyer, and in the jury there were also 12 main jurors and two substitutes. The rights of judges and assessors were declared equal. The parties had the right to challenge the court. The meetings were held in public, except for cases of sexual crimes, crimes against the king, his family and faith.

The judicial investigation began with the reading of the indictment. This was followed by the interrogation of the accused, witnesses, verification of other evidence. If the defendant immediately pleaded guilty, then immediately proceeded to the final debate. During them, the speeches of the prosecutor, the lawyer and the explanations of the defendant were listened to. Before the verdict was passed, the prosecutor could not touch on the issue of the punishment.

The jury adopted the verdict before the verdict was passed by a majority vote. One of two answers was given: “guilty” (sometimes “but deserves leniency” was added) or “innocent”. At the same time, the jury could not use the case materials in the deliberation room.

After a guilty verdict was passed, the prosecutor gave an opinion on the measure of punishment. The defense lawyer put forward his objections, then the last word was given to the defendant. The members of the court retired to a meeting, passed a verdict with a determination of the measure of punishment, which was announced in court. If the court found that an innocent person had been convicted by the jury, the case was referred to a new jury hearing, and their decision was already final.

The verdicts delivered by the District Court with the participation of the jury and the verdicts of the Trial Chambers were final and not subject to appeal. They could be appealed or contested by prosecutors on appeal in the Senate. The verdicts of the district courts without the participation of a jury could be appealed on appeal to the judicial chamber. The sentences of the Senate and the Supreme Criminal Court could only be overturned by the emperor by way of a pardon. The sentences that entered into force were carried out by the police.

There were also exceptions from the general procedure for considering cases. Thus, the preliminary investigation and trial of malfeasance were carried out by officials of the department to which the accused belonged, and not by judicial investigators.

The social upsurge during the period of the abolition of serfdom created favorable conditions for the development of Russian science. The importance and attractiveness of scientific activity grew in the eyes of the younger generation. Graduates of Russian universities began to travel more often for internships to foreign research centers, contacts between Russian scientists and foreign colleagues became more active.

Great advances have been made in mathematics and physics. Pafnuti Lvovich Chebyshev (1821-1894) made major discoveries in mathematical analysis, number theory, probability theory. In 1860 he was elected a foreign member of the Paris Academy of Sciences. Chebyshev laid the foundation for the St. Petersburg mathematical school. Many talented scientists came out of it, including Alexander Mikhailovich Lyapunov (1857 - 1918)... His discoveries prompted the development of a number of important areas of mathematics.

A striking phenomenon in the history of science was Sofia Vasilievna Kovalevskaya (1850-1891)... Even in her early youth, she discovered outstanding mathematical abilities. But Russian universities were closed to women, and she went abroad. There she received her Ph.D., became a professor at Stockholm University, where she taught a number of brilliant courses in mathematics. Kovalevskaya's works have received worldwide recognition.

An outstanding role in the development of physics was played by Alexander Grigorievich Stoletov (1839-1896)... He owns a number of studies in the field of photoelectric phenomena, which were later used in the creation of modern electronic technology.

Physical development science determined the success in electrical engineering. PN Yablochkov created an arc lamp ("Yablochkov's candle") and was the first to transform the alternating current. A. N. Lodygin invented a more perfect incandescent lamp.

The discovery of world significance was the invention of the radiotelegraph. Alexander Stepanovich Popov (1859-1905), the son of a priest, showed an interest in electrical engineering during his student years. In the future, the study of electrical phenomena, electromagnetism became the main direction of his scientific research. In 1895, at a meeting of the Russian Physicochemical Society, he made a presentation on the use of electromagnetic waves for signal transmission. The device he demonstrated, a lightning detector, was essentially the world's first receiving radio station. In subsequent years, he created more advanced devices, but his attempts to establish radio communications in the navy met with skepticism and misunderstanding of the command.

Marine officer Alexander Fedorovich Mozhaisky (1825-1890) devoted his life to the creation of a heavier-than-air aircraft. He studied the flight of birds, made models, and in 1881 he began construction of an aircraft with two steam engines of 20 and 10 hp. Mozhaisky's plane was distinguished by a well-thought-out and technically competent design for its time. There are no official documents on its testing. Apparently, the flight attempt ended unsuccessfully due to insufficient engine power. The creation of a steam-powered aircraft was hardly feasible at all. Later experiments of this kind abroad were also unsuccessful: the French inventor K. Ader in 1891 managed to fly only 100 m. rightly inscribed in the history of aviation.

60-70s of the XIX century. called " golden age»Russian chemistry. Pupil N. N. Zinin Alexander Mikhailovich Butlerov (1828-1886) developed a theory of chemical structure, the main provisions of which have not lost their significance to the present. In the second half of the XIX century. great chemist made his discoveries Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834-1907)... He was born in Tobolsk in the family of the director of the gymnasium. His talent as a scientist developed at St. Petersburg University. The greatest merit of Mendeleev was the discovery of the periodic law of chemical elements. On its basis, Mendeleev predicted the existence of many then still unknown elements. Mendeleev's book " Fundamentals of Chemistry”Has been translated into almost all European languages.

DI Mendeleev thought a lot about the fate of Russia. He associated her exit on the path of economic and cultural growth with the wide and rational use of natural resources, with the development of the creative forces of the people, the spread of education and science... He set out his thoughts about the present and future of the country in the books “ To the knowledge of Russia», « Cherished thoughts», « Notes on the national education of Russia».

Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev

Using the achievements of chemistry and biology, Vasily Vasilievich Dokuchaev (1846-1903) laid the foundation for modern soil science. He revealed a complex and lengthy process of the origin of soils. The monograph “ Russian black soil". In the book " Our steppes before and now"(1892) a scientist outlined a plan to combat droughts. Dokuchaev's ideas influenced the development of forestry, land reclamation, hydrogeology and other sciences.

Outstanding Russian scientist, naturalist, founder of Russian physiology became Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov (1829-1905)... At first, his fate was the same as that of most of his peers from noble families. He became an officer, served in a sapper regiment. But, feeling attracted to scientific work, he retired and entered the medical faculty of Moscow University as a volunteer. After graduating from the course of science, he went abroad at his own expense to improve in medicine. He was fortunate enough to become a student of the famous German scientist H. Helmholtz, physicist, mathematician, physiologist and psychologist. Abroad, Sechenov prepared a dissertation on the physiology of alcohol intoxication. Returning to his homeland, he headed the Department of Physiology at the St. Petersburg Medical-Surgical Academy and organized a physiological laboratory - one of the first in Russia. His course of lectures on bioelectricity was of outstanding importance. Later he dealt with the problems of the human psyche. Sechenov's works were widely known “ Reflexes of the brain" and " Psychological studies».

The activities of another world famous Russian biologist, Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov (1845-1916), concentrated in the field of microbiology, bacteriology, medicine. In 1887, at the invitation of the French scientist Louis Pasteur, Mechnikov moved to Paris and headed one of the laboratories of the Pasteur Institute. Until the end of his days, he did not break ties with Russia, corresponded with Sechenov, Mendeleev, and other Russian scientists, repeatedly came to his homeland, helped Russian interns at his famous institute. The French government, which highly appreciated Mechnikov's scientific achievements, awarded him the Order of the Legion of Honor.

Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov

Professional historians have long been dissatisfied with the multivolume work of N. M. Karamzin “ History of Russian Goverment". Many new sources on the history of Russia have been identified, and ideas about the historical process have become more complex. In 1851 the first volume was published “ History of Russia since ancient times"Written by a young professor at Moscow University Sergei Mikhailovich Soloviev (1820-1879)... Since then, for many years, a new volume of his “ Stories". The last, 29th volume was published in 1880. Events were brought up to 1775.

Comparing the historical development of Russia and other European countries, Soloviev found much in common in their destinies. He also noted the originality of the historical path of Russia. In his opinion, it consisted in its intermediate position between Europe and Asia, in the forced centuries-old struggle with the steppe nomads. First, Asia came, Soloviev believed, and from about the 16th century. went on the offensive Russia - Europe's foremost outpost in the East.

« Russian history"S. M. Solovyova was written at a high professional level, is still used by specialists, and is being republished. She is familiar to everyone who is interested in Russian history. However, the style of presentation in it is somewhat dry, in this respect it is inferior to “ Stories"Karamzin.

Soloviev's student was Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky (1841-1911)... He changed his teacher at the Department of Russian History at Moscow University. In keeping with the spirit of the times, Klyuchevsky showed great interest in social and economic issues. He tried to trace the process of the formation of serf relations in Russia, to reveal their essence from an economic and legal point of view. Klyuchevsky possessed an extraordinary gift of vivid, imaginative presentation. His "Course in Russian History", compiled on the basis of university lectures, still has a wide readership.

Klyuchevsky led a quiet, measured life of an armchair scientist, outwardly not rich in events. " In the life of a scientist and writer, he said, the main biographical facts are books, the most important events are thoughts».
The largest Russian scientists who worked in the field of general history gained wide popularity not only in Russia, but also abroad. Maxim Maksimovich Kovalevsky (1851-1916) became famous for his works on the history of the European peasant community. Of particular importance for the Russian reader was his work “ The origin of modern democracy”, Which considered the turning points of European history at the end of the 18th century.
In the second half of the 19th century... Russian scientists have made significant progress in various fields of knowledge. Moscow and St. Petersburg are among the world's scientific centers.

2. The Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century: political, economic situation; political parties.

3. The first Russian revolution 1905-1907.

Russia in the second half of the 19th century.

At the turn of the first and second half of the XIX century. was the Crimean (Eastern) War of 1853-1856. Nicholas the First died in 1855. He was succeeded by Alexander II, Tsar Liberator(1855-1881). Alexander II was the eldest son of the tsar, he was prepared for the occupation of the throne. Under the leadership of VA Zhukovsky, he was brought up in the spirit of lofty spiritual and moral interests, received an excellent education, knew five languages, military affairs, at the age of 26 he became a “full general”. After completing his studies, he traveled to Russia and many European countries. He had a broad outlook, a sharp mind, exquisite manners, was a charming and kind person. He was distinguished by liberal views. Nicholas the First introduced him to the State Council and the Committee of Ministers, entrusted the leadership of the Secret Committees for Peasant Affairs. By the time of his accession to the throne, he was well prepared for government activities. Alexander II initiated reforms that put Russia on the path of capitalism. The main reason for the reforms was the defeat in the Crimean War. The war showed the degree of backwardness of the Russian recruiting army and sailing fleet, weapons from the massive armies of European countries, a new type of ships and weapons. To overcome the new, humiliating position of Russia in the world arena, it was necessary to overcome the backwardness in the military and economic spheres, which was impossible without reforms. Other reasons were the growing actions of the peasants, the tsar's sympathy for the peasants under the impression of Turgenev's "Notes of a Hunter", and the education system developed for Tsarevich Zhukovsky.

The first and most significant was agrarian reform of 1861... Her preparation took about 6 years. In 1856, speaking before the Moscow nobility, the tsar said: "It is better to abolish serfdom from above, than to wait for the time when it will automatically begin to abolish from below." The development of the plan for the liberation of the serfs from 1857 was carried out by a secret committee, the work was headed by the tsar himself. In response to the appeal of the Lithuanian nobles, Alexander II announced a rescript addressed to the Vilna Governor-General V.I. Nazimov, who allowed the creation of committees in 3 provinces to develop projects for the liberation of the peasants. In 1858, the Main Committee on the Peasant Question was created under the leadership of the Minister of Internal Affairs S.S. Lansky and the provincial committees. In 1859, editorial commissions were created to consider projects submitted by provincial committees. The publication and discussion of any proposed projects for the liberation of the peasants was allowed. The reform was based on the plan of the historian of the public school K.D. Kavelin. In January 1861, the reform project was submitted by the Main Committee to the State Council and approved by the tsar. February 19, 1861 Alexander II signed Manifesto about the emancipation of the peasants "Regulations on peasants emerging from serfdom", which included documents on the procedure for implementing the reform on the ground. Former private peasants entered the estate of free rural inhabitants and received civil and economic rights. The main directions of the reform: liberation of serfs from personal dependence; allotment of land to them for ransom; retaining at least 1/3 of the land owned by the landowners before the reform; allotment land was transferred to the ownership of the peasant community; the provision of loans by the state to peasants for the redemption operation. Only peasants were allotted land, other categories of serfs were freed without allotments. Allotment size was determined in the provinces of different regions from 3 to 12 dessiatines; if a peasant agreed to an allotment equal to ¼ of the prescribed rate, it was given to him free of charge. The landowner had the right to cut the size below the minimum norm, if, if the norms were observed, he had less than 1/3 of the land that he owned before the reform. The redemption deed was recorded in charter, concluded between the landlord and the peasant, it recorded the location of the plots included in the allotment, their size, price, types of payments, etc. temporarily liable relationship. The landowner was obliged to provide the peasant with land for use, and the peasants were obliged to perform any work, pay quitrent, that is, the connection between them did not stop. To assist the parties in drawing up statutes and resolving any controversial issues, an institute was created world mediators... The peasant immediately had to pay the landlord 20-25% of the value of the allotment, the remaining 75-80% the state provided to the peasants in the form of a loan, which was given for 49 years, repaid by annual payments of the peasants with an accrual of 6% per annum. The peasants were to unite in rural societies... They introduced self management: matters were decided at village gatherings, the decisions of village elders, elected for three years, were carried out. Rural communities of one locality constituted a rural parish, its affairs were in charge of a meeting of village elders and special elected representatives from rural communities. The redemption payments were paid annually by the rural community collectively. A peasant who did not want to buy out the land and remain in his former place of residence, could not abandon his allotment and leave without the consent of society. Such consent was given with difficulty, since society was interested in buying out as much land as possible. The reform was carried out very slowly. At the conclusion of redemption acts in the chernozem and non-chernozem provinces, cuts of land from the peasants prevailed, in the steppe provinces - the cuttings. After the death of Alexander II, his successor in December 1881 g... issues the Law on the termination of temporarily liable relations between peasants and landowners and on the compulsory redemption of land allotments. It entered into force on January 1, 1884, by that time 11-15% of the peasants had retained temporarily liable relations. The law slightly reduced the amount of redemption payments (in Great Russia - by 1 ruble per capita, in Ukraine - by 16%). The law came into force in 1884. 1882 was established Peasant Land Bank, which provided loans to peasants secured by property with 6.5% per annum. When payments were delayed, the allotments were sold at auction, this led to the ruin of many peasants. V 1885 was formed Noble land bank to support landowners in the conditions of capitalist development, loans were issued at 4.5% per annum. The agrarian reform of 1861 extended to the landlord peasants in 47 provinces of Russia. With regard to other categories of the dependent peasantry, specific and state peasants a similar reform was carried out in 1863 and 1866 biennium For outlying areas- even later, on the basis of special "Provisions" and on more favorable terms. In the most favorable conditions in comparison with the central provinces were Right-bank Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus and especially Poland... In Poland (1864), the peasants received allotments without redemption, they even slaughtered part of the landlord's land, taking it away from the gentry, who took it in the uprising of 1863-1864. The peasants were in the worst situation Georgia, from which more than 40% of the land was cut off. In the North Caucasus, the peasants lost almost all their land and paid a significant sum for personal liberation. In Russia, the agrarian reform was carried out mainly according to the Prussian version, which ensured the slow development of capitalism in agriculture. Despite its limitations, this reform had exceptional value... Personal dependence has disappeared, the almost slave position of millions of the country's population has disappeared. A labor market has emerged. Capitalism began to develop actively.

Zemskaya reform was carried out according to the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions" of January 1, 1864. In a number of provinces of Russia, uyezd and provincial zemstvos - public bodies of local self-government... The main reason for their creation was the need to equip the life of the post-reform village in conditions when the small administrative staff at the local level was unable to cope with the problems on their own. The government turned over the "less significant" cases to public bodies of local self-government. Initially, zemstvos were created in 7 provinces, then their number constantly increased, until the liquidation of these bodies by Soviet power. Competence of zemstvos: insurance of farms, stockpiling of food and seeds, ensuring fire safety, creating a health and primary care system, providing veterinary assistance, combating epidemics, agronomic assistance, taking care of the state of communications, building roads, bridges, taking care of the work of the post office, telegraph, economic support of prisons and charitable institutions, assistance in the development of local industry and trade. For their activities, zemstvos were allowed to levy taxes and duties on the population of counties, create zemstvo capitals, and acquire property. Zemstvos had executive and administrative bodies... Administrative bodies - county and provincial zemstvo meetings, as a rule, they were headed, as a rule, by the provincial and district leaders of the nobility. Executive bodies - county (chairman and 2 members of the board) and provincial (chairman and 6-12 members of the board) zemstvo councils, their chairmen were elected. The chairman of the provincial zemstvo council was approved by the minister of internal affairs, and the uyezd one - by the governor. The bourgeois content of the Zemstvo reform was that representatives of zemstvos were elected by the population for a period of 3 years... Voters were divided into 3 curiae(groups) by property qualification. The 1st curia consisted of large landowners with at least 200 dessiatines and owners of large commercial and industrial enterprises and real estate worth at least 15 thousand rubles. Among the urban voters, the large and partly middle bourgeoisie was represented. The third curia was represented by peasant societies; only landowners who had at least 10 acres of land or the corresponding income from other property participated in their gatherings for elections to zemstvos. For the 1st and 2nd curia, the elections were direct, for the 3rd - step-by-step: at village meetings, electors were elected, who at volost meetings elected electors who elected vowels. Elections to the provincial zemstvo assembly took place at the uyezd zemstvo assembly. The number of vowels to be elected was distributed in such a way that the predominance of representatives from the landowners was ensured. The weakness of the position of the zemstvos manifested itself in the absence of an all-Russian central body coordinating their activities, they had a limited budget, did not have the right to publish reports on their meetings without permission, they were prohibited from engaging in political activities. In addition, after the Zemstvo counter-reform of 1890, they were placed under the petty control of the local administration and were forced to report annually to the provincial authorities on their expenses, to substantiate the requested budget for the next year. Despite all the prohibitions, zemstvos began to organize congresses of their representatives, where they exchanged, published statements, and constantly communicating with peasants, taking care of the needs of the poor, representatives of zemstvos imbued with sympathy for them and at the beginning of the 20th century a new socio-political trend appeared - zemstvo liberalism. Meaning the activities of these bodies have exceeded the expected results. They not only conscientiously performed the functions assigned to them, but also went beyond them, for example, they organized schools to train teachers for zemstvo schools, sent promising peasant children to study in universities, created a constantly growing staff of zemstvo agronomists, experimental fields, and exhibitions of technology. and etc.

Urban reform on " City status June 16, 1870. " envisaged the creation in cities all-estates of self-government bodies whose representatives were elected from the population paying taxes and performing duties. To participate in the elections, the urban population was divided into 3 curiae according to property: large, medium and small owners. Each curia chose 1/3 of the vowels in the city thought- regulatory body. Their term of office is 4 years... Composition city ​​government(a permanent executive body) elected vowel dumas from their midst. They chose mayor, who headed the council, his candidacy was approved by the governor or the minister of internal affairs. The competence of city self-government bodies, principles of activity, reporting, etc. were similar to those of the zemstvo bodies. Their activities were controlled by the "provincial town affairs presence" under the chairmanship of the governor.

Judicial reform 1864 was the most consistent of the nineteenth-century liberal-bourgeois reforms. The decree on her and the "New judicial statutes" were approved by the tsar on November 20, 1864. The need to rebuild the judicial system was caused, first of all, by the abolition of serfdom and the liquidation of the feudal court. Principles a new judicial system: meaninglessness, openness, adversarial nature of the trial, the introduction of the institution of jurors, independence and irremovability of judges. The whole country was divided into judicial districts and world districts, their boundaries did not coincide with the administrative ones in order to avoid pressure on judges from the administration. Considered minor civil and criminal cases magistrate's Court, cassation cases were considered by the congress of justices of the peace. Justices of the peace were elected by county zemstvo assemblies and city councils according to lists approved by the governor, and were finally confirmed by the Senate. The judge could not be dismissed, re-elected, except for the cases when he committed a crime; however, it was possible to transfer him to another district. The main structural unit of the new judicial system was district Court with criminal and civil offices. Cases were heard by judges: the president and members of the court appointed by the government. For the most important cases in composition of the court consisted of the chairman, members of the court and jurors drawn by lot from the trustworthy citizens of the district. The hearing of the case took place in the presence of the accused (defendant) and the victim (plaintiff), his defense lawyer, the prosecutor-prosecutor. The prosecutor and the lawyer conduct a judicial investigation, on the basis of which the jury pass a verdict (after secret deliberation) on the guilt or innocence of the defendant, on the basis of this the court issues a verdict, appointing a measure of punishment or releasing the defendant. The civil suits were tried without a jury. Cassation cases were considered by the judicial chamber (9-12 district judges), the highest court was the Senate and its local departments. The inferiority of the court was originally violated the existence of special court systems for a number of categories of the population. For the peasants there was a special volost court; special court - consistory- for the clergy; dealt with high-ranking officials directly Senate; there were several ships for the military ( tribunal, court-martial, regimental court); for political processes were introduced military courts, special presences at the Senate and administrative punitive measures (without trial).

Before the judicial reform, in 1863 year., were corporal punishment abolished for the underprivileged estates, with the exception of the peasants (rods were preserved according to the verdicts of volost courts), exiles, convicts and penal soldiers (rods).

Military reforms were actively carried out in 1862-1884, they were started by the Minister of War D.A. Milyutin. The structure of the War Ministry was simplified, the departments were enlarged. The country was divided into military districts, headed by district commanders, responsible for all matters (supply, recruitment, training, etc.), the military units of the district were subordinate to him. Since 1863, some of the soldiers are dismissed on indefinite leave, without waiting for the end of the 25-year service life, they made up the reserve. V 1874 g... was accepted new military regulations, was introduced general conscription, recruitment was canceled... Men of all classes who reached the age of 20-21 were required to complete an active 6-year service in the ground forces and a 7-year service in the navy, then retired for 9 years and 3 years, respectively. With a large population of Russia, they were called up for service by lot, the rest made up the militia and passed military training. They were exempted from compulsory service the only breadwinners in the family, persons with education, doctors, teachers of schools and gymnasiums, artists of the imperial theaters, railway workers, confessors, as well as "foreigners" as unreliable. The appeal of persons who started commercial activities was postponed for 5 years. For the training of officers a network of new educational institutions was introduced. Cadet corps, except for Pages, Finland and Orenburg were closed, instead of them were created military schools(6 schools with 3-year training), their graduates received the title of second lieutenant. The contingent for schools was trained military gymnasiums(18 gymnasiums with a 7-year period of study) and gymnasium(8 with 4 years of training). In 1882 they were all again converted to cadet corps, but on the basis of a combination of programs of gymnasiums and military schools. To obtain higher military education were created military academies and naval school... The academy accepted persons who graduated from a military school and served in the army for at least 5 years. In 1884 were created cadet schools with a 2-year training, there were admitted soldiers who showed aptitude for service and completed their active service, graduates were not assigned an officer rank, it was received at the place of service with a vacancy. In the infantry, officers-nobles made up 46-83%, in the navy - 73%. The rearmament of the army was carried out. As a result of the reforms, the army became more professionally trained, had a large supply, and the leadership system became more effective.

Were held educational reforms and censorship... According to the "Regulations" of 1864, the initial public schools public organizations and private individuals could open (with the permission of government agencies), the management of the teaching (programs, etc.) was carried out by officials, school councils and the boards of directors and school inspectors; the educational process was strictly regulated (instructions, etc.). Children of all classes, ranks and religions had the right to study. But in the gymnasiums there was a high tuition fee. Classical gymnasiums with a 7-year period of study (from 1871 - with an 8-year period), they prepared students for admission to universities, mainly for training officials. Real gymnasiums(later - real schools) with a 6-year course were called upon to train personnel for industry and trade, their graduates were given access to higher technical educational institutions, they were not admitted to universities. The division of secondary schools into two types was focused on teaching children of nobles and officials in classical schools, and children of the bourgeoisie in real schools. Introduction female gymnasiums, the foundation was laid for female secondary education... Women were not admitted to universities. In the sphere higher education there have been significant changes. In the 1860s-1870s. Universities were opened in Odessa, Warsaw, Helsingfors (Finland), the Petrovskaya Agricultural Academy in Moscow, the Polytechnic Institute in Riga, the Institute of Agriculture and Forestry in Alexandria (Ukraine), higher courses for women in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan and Kiev. V 1863 year... a new Charter of Universities restoring their autonomy. The direct management of the university was entrusted to a council of professors, which elected the rector, deans and a new teaching staff. But the activities of universities were supervised by the Minister of Education and the trustees of the educational district. Student organizations were not allowed. V 1865 g... were introduced "Temporary Printing Regulations", abolishing preliminary censorship for periodicals and small books published in the capital cities.

Several attempts were made on the Tsar-Liberator by members of revolutionary organizations. After the explosion of a bomb in the Winter Palace, Alexander II creates a Supreme Administrative Commission for the leadership of the country, headed by Count M.T. Loris-Melikov, appointed Minister of the Interior. It got the name "Dictatorship of Loris-Melikov", "dictatorship of the heart"... Loris-Melikov actively fought terrorism, abolished the Third Section, which had shown its failure, and created in its place the Police Department, which was part of the structure of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Ministers-conservatives were removed from the government, supporters of reforms took their place, at the same time the conservative, apologist of autocracy K.P. Pobedonostsev became the chief prosecutor of the Synod. Censorship was weakened, the tsar instructed Loris-Melikov to develop a reform program for the coming years. Projects have been prepared (Constitution of Loris-Melikov) but were not enforced. March 1, 1881 Alexander II was killed People's Will.

He stood on the throne Alexander III, Tsar-Peacemaker(1845-1894, emperor from 1881). He was not prepared for the reign, he took the throne due to the death of his older brother. He received an education corresponding to the position of the Grand Duke, was a diligent student and pupil, was not stupid, but also did not have a sharp mind, more than other subjects he loved military affairs. Rough, rustic and unpretentious in everyday life, he ruled as if "fulfilling the duties of a king" with his inherent conscientiousness. During his reign, Russia did not participate in wars. The king believed that the country should deal with internal problems. By convictions, he was a conservative, a supporter of the "inviolability of autocracy", as stated in the Manifesto on April 29, 1881, developed by Pobedonostsev. He rejected the petition for pardoning the First March members. The reign of Alexander III marks transition to reaction and counter-reforms, aimed at a partial rollback of the liberal reforms of its predecessor. After the Tsar's Manifesto, all the ministers who supported the reforms resigned, and Pobedonostsev selected candidates for their places.

Earlier than others began judicial counter-reform... In August 1881 was published " Regulations on measures to maintain public order and public peace": The governors were given the right to declare the provinces" in a state of enhanced and emergency protection ", to hand over to the military court" for crimes of state or attacks on the ranks of the troops, police and all officials in general ", to demand a closed trial. This provision, introduced for 3 years, was in effect until 1917. 1887 was published limitation of public sittings law... The court was given the right to close the doors to the public, which created opportunities for arbitrariness. For the same purpose, a number of changes have been made to the provisions of the judicial reform. Since July 1889 by the law on zemstvo chiefs the magistrate's court was abolished, its functions were transferred to new judicial and administrative officials - district zemstvo chiefs. They had the right to suspend decisions of the volost court, appoint volost judges, impose fines and subject to administrative arrests. The supervision over the execution of their decisions was carried out by the provincial presences headed by the governor. Influenced by workers' struggles the registration of the all-Russian labor legislation began... In 1885, a law was issued prohibiting night work for women and adolescents. In 1886 - the law on the procedure for hiring and dismissal, on the regulation of fines and payment of wages, to control its observance, the institute of factory inspectors was introduced. In 1887 - a law limiting the length of the working day in hazardous work and physically difficult.

Counter-reforms were carried out in the region education and press... In 1882, the Petersburg higher women's medical courses were closed, admission to other higher women's courses was discontinued. Introduced " Temporary Printing Regulations", According to which newspapers that received" warnings "had to undergo preliminary censorship on the eve of their release; the meeting of the ministers of education, internal affairs, justice and the Holy Synod was given the right to close a periodical publication, to prohibit a work that was not loyal to the authorities. The activities of the national reading room and libraries... Since 1888, a special department of the committee under the Ministry of Education has been revising the catalog of reading rooms; their opening required permission from the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and managers were appointed with the consent of the governor. In the field of education, a line was pursued to curtail the autonomy of educational institutions, narrow the access of the lower classes to education, and strengthen the influence of the church. The network of parish schools was transferred to the jurisdiction of the Synod, short-term literacy schools - to the jurisdiction of diocesan schools; in the schools of the Ministry of Public Education, the teaching of the "law of God" was expanded. V 1887 g... was published circular(nicknamed " cook's children law”), Who proposed to admit in the gymnasium and progymnasium only the children of well-meaning citizens who could create“ the convenience they needed for educational knowledge ”. This reduced the access to them for the children of "coachmen, lackeys ... and the like," except for the gifted ones. Tuition fees have been increased for the same purpose. V 1884 g... a new university charter... Each university was headed by a trustee and a rector appointed by the minister of public education with broad administrative powers; the rights of academic colleges, councils and faculty meetings were narrowed. The professors were appointed by the minister, the deans - the trustee of the educational district, who approved plans and programs, oversaw the entire life of the university, could approve the journals of council meetings, assign grants, etc. The inspector was the assistant to the rector in organizing supervision of the students. The position of the students was regulated by the rules. A certificate of conduct from the police was required for the applicant. Student meetings and performances were prohibited, a uniform was introduced. Tuition fees increased. The charter provoked protests from students and professors. The answer is dismissal and expulsion. All measures were directed against the access to higher education of people from the Raznochino environment.

Government limited zemstvo and city self-government... Since 1889, the conciliators, their county congresses, and county peasant presences were replaced by district zemstvo chiefs appointed from the nobility and performing both judicial and administrative functions. They had the right to suspend the decisions of the village gathering. V 1890 the adoption of a new " Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions ", a zemstvo counter-reform was carried out... The dependence of the zemstvos on the administration increased, not a single resolution of the zemstvo assembly could enter into force without its approval by the governor or the minister of internal affairs. The vowel election system was changing. The electives from the volost were only candidates for vowels, from their list the governor selected and appointed vowels to the zemstvo, taking into account the recommendations of the zemstvo chief. The number of vowels from the peasants was reduced, from the nobles increased, while the total number of vowels was reduced. " City status "1892 granted electoral rights mainly to owners of real estate, increased property qualifications, which significantly reduced the number of voters.

V economic sphere the government pursued a course of support and development of domestic industry, trade, stabilization of the financial system and the development of the capitalist sector in the countryside in the person of noble land tenure. V 1882 year, the poll tax was abolished from landless peasants and reduced by 10% from former serfs. This law came into force in 1884. poll tax was abolished in 1885 city, it was replaced by other taxes. Creation of the Peasant Land (1882) and the Noble Land (1885) banks provided loans to land owners. Agricultural Employment Act(1886) obliged peasants to sign an agreement on work for landlords and established penalties for unauthorized departure from an employer. He helped stabilize the market for hired labor in the countryside. With the growth of "land hunger" in order to ease tensions in the countryside in 1886 and 1893 biennium published laws obstructing land divisions allotment land (the consent of an older family member and a peasant gathering is required) and redistribution of communal land (no more than 1 time in 12 years); early redemption of allotments is allowed with the consent of at least two-thirds of the village gathering, it is prohibited to sell allotments to persons who do not belong to this rural society. V 1899 d. laws are issued, canceling mutual liability communal peasants when collecting payments. The Minister of Finance took an active part in their development. S.Yu. Witte, it was he at the end of the XIX century. supervised economic policy, and from the beginning of the twentieth century. - all spheres of government activity. S.Yu. Witte was a nobleman by birth, graduated from the Novorossiysk University. Made a brilliant career in the civil service. He rose from an employee of the office of the Odessa governor, a minor employee of a promising railway industry, to the Minister of Railways (from 1882), the Minister of Finance (from 1882), the Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers (from 1903) and the Chairman of the Council of Ministers (1905- 1906). He was distinguished by a sharp mind, independence of judgment, lack of servility and scrupulousness, not refined manners. A monarchist by conviction, he considered Alexander III to be the ideal of a statesman, who in turn highly valued him. He showed himself as a skillful diplomat at the conclusion of the Portsmouth Peace Treaty, as a pillar of autocracy in the development of the tsarist Manifesto of October 17, 1905. Even his enemies could not but admit that everything he did contributed to the strengthening of Great Russia. S.Yu. Witte's economic platform: to reduce the distance between Russia and the developed countries of Europe by attracting foreign capital, accumulating domestic resources, customs protection of domestically produced goods; take a strong position in the markets of the East; the creation of a solid middle stratum of good taxpayers in the person of the peasant-proprietors. He considered the expansion of the railway network "a cure for poverty." S.Yu. Witte understood that Russia would not be able to catch up with the advanced industrial countries in a short time, therefore, it was necessary to benefit from the existing potential. He takes active and quickly pays for himself. construction of state railway lines in the European part of Russia, the Trans-Siberian Railway (1891-1905) for the transportation of goods from the Pacific Ocean and the implementation of intermediary trade, the CER (1897-1903). V 1887-1894 biennium in Russia, customs duties were raised on the import of iron, cast iron, coal; for manufactured goods, they reached 30%. This got the name " customs war". Germany increased duties on grain, which contradicted the interests of Russian exporters, in whose interests they were changed internal railway tariffs. On the western lines, they decreased, which facilitated export; in the southern and eastern regions they were increased in order to prevent the import of cheap grain from the Volga region and the North Caucasus into the center. V 1894 Mr. Witte concluded a mutually beneficial customs agreement with Germany... V 1894-1895 he achieved stabilization of the ruble and in 1897 introduced gold money circulation, which increased the domestic and foreign exchange rate of the ruble, ensured the inflow of foreign capital, caused a rise in the price of export grain and the dissatisfaction of exporters. Witte was a supporter of unlimited attracting foreign capital to industry, the spread of foreign concessions since the state did not have enough funds of its own, and the landlords were reluctant to invest them in entrepreneurship. Active factory construction in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. received the name " industrialization Witte". To replenish the treasury, he introduced state wine monopoly giving up to ¼ of budget revenues. Witte began work on agrarian question, achieved the elimination of mutual responsibility in the community, developed a reform to introduce private ownership of peasants to land, but did not have time to implement it, obviously, considering it not a priority. V 1897 g... was first held in Russia general population census, its number was 125.6 million. Largely as a result of the activities of S.Yu. Witte 1890s became a period of economic recovery in Russia: a record number of railway lines were built, the ruble was stabilized, the industry was growing, Russia came to the first place in the world in oil production, in first place in Europe in the export of bread, which became its main item.

History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the XX century Nikolaev Igor Mikhailovich

Russian culture in the second half of the 19th century.

Abolition of serfdom, other reforms of the 60-70s. XIX century. led to serious changes in the social, economic and political life of the country. The confrontation between revolutionaries and autocracy exerted a definite influence on literature and art. Social sharpening is a characteristic feature of many works of literature, drama, painting of the post-reform period, sometimes with photographic accuracy reflecting the dramatic events that took place in Russia. A new phenomenon in the second half of the nineteenth century. there was a wide entry into the literature and art of commoners. These people from different strata of society, often from the bottom, tried to convey their bitter life experience in their work.

Literature ... In the works of Russian writers of the second half of the nineteenth century. one way or another, the pressing issues of post-reform life were reflected. Despite the differences in origin, political views, attitudes towards religion, most writers were united by artistic realism. Whatever they wrote about, their thoughts revolved around the problems associated with the search for the meaning of life, social justice, sympathy for the "humiliated and insulted", condemnation of the arbitrariness of the authorities. L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky, as if complementing each other, in his works depicted human life in all the diversity of its relationship with the world. Sharp satire by M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, lyric poems by F.I. Tyutchev, the mysterious Russian soul in the stories and stories of N.S. Leskov, "Oblomovshchina" I.A. Goncharov, the decline of the “noble nests” by I.S. Turgenev, the merchant environment in the dramas of A.N. Ostrovsky, the greatness and tragedy of man in the works of L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky - all this makes Russian literature of the second half of the nineteenth century. great.

Painting ... In 1863, 14 graduates of the Academy of Arts refused to complete their graduation work on a given classic theme. The initiator of the "academic revolt" was I.N. Kramskoy, who later became the head of the Association of Traveling Art Exhibitions. The Wanderers opposed pompous academicism and sought to reflect real life in their work. The main place in their works was occupied by genre painting. The Peredvizhniks were interested in the ideological side of creativity. In the first years of the "Partnership" existence, most artists put the ideological side of painting above the aesthetic one. As a result, their paintings reflected a heightened vision of the socio-political processes taking place in the country, and sometimes they were illustrations for specific events. The best Russian artists at different times were participants in traveling exhibitions: I.N. Kramskoy, V.I. Surikov, I.E. Repin, N.N. Ge, I.I. Shishkin, I.I. Levitan, V.A. Serov and others.

However, with the advent of photography and the change in aesthetic tastes, the painting of the Wanderers lost their social acuteness. In addition, the time has divorced many like-minded people. The Academy of Arts was no stranger to new trends. A number of prominent Itinerants (Repin, Kuindzhi) became its members. The revolt of the Itinerants at the end of the century was repeated by a new generation of artists. A group of young painters united around the magazine "World of Art" (1898) and attacked the work of the Wanderers with harsh criticism. Miriskusnikov was united by the recognition of the intrinsic value of art as such and the denial of its ideological role. The flourishing of their creativity dates back to the beginning of the next century.

Architecture ... The socio-economic situation in the post-reform era has changed the requirements for residential and public buildings. In architecture, the focus was on the function of the building. However, its appearance, regardless of the purpose of the building, was sometimes very bizarre (up to the Moorish style). The dominance of eclecticism continued for almost the entire second half of the 19th century. At this time, new types of buildings appear: department stores, passages, apartment buildings, train stations, large hotels, museums. The construction of industrial warehouse facilities is proceeding at a rapid pace. It is these types of buildings that are replacing the monumental classical buildings of the past.

In the last years of the nineteenth century. in architecture, the era of the Art Nouveau style begins, which flourished already at the beginning of the twentieth century.

Music ... A huge role in the development of musical culture was played by the creative association of composers M.A. Balakirieva, M.P. Musorsky, Ts. A. Cui, A.P. Borodin and N.A. Rimsky-Korsakov, known as "The Mighty Handful". In the early 60s. in Moscow and St. Petersburg through the efforts of the brothers A.G. and N.G. Rubinstein conservatories were opened, which laid the foundation for professional music education in Russia. The musical works of P.I. Tchaikovsky. Russian music of the second half of the 19th century, using folklore and national motives, continued the traditions of Russian classical music.