Concepts of personality traits. Theories of personality traits. d) rigidity of thinking
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1. In G. Eysenck’s personality diagram, two dimensions are distinguished: emotional stability/instability and:
mobility/balance
extroversion/introversion
extrapunity/intropunity
psychoticism/depression
2. Personal qualities predetermined mainly by social factors are:
instincts
mechanical memory
value orientations
ear for music
3. A return to ontogenetically earlier, infantile behavioral strategies is called:
denial
regression
displacement
suppression
4. As a set of internal conditions through which they are refracted external influences, interprets personality:
A.N. Leontiev
S.L.Rubinshtein
K.K.Platonov
A.S.Kovalev
5. Human properties determined by genetic factors are:
good manners
authority
makings
indifference
6. The problem of mental defense mechanisms was first developed:
in Gestalt psychology
in humanistic psychology
in behaviorism
in psychoanalysis
7. Impulsivity, initiative, behavioral flexibility, sociability, social adaptability are characteristic of people of the following type:
introverted
extroverted
intropunitive
schizoid
8. Focus on the world personality type is characterized by:
intropunitive
introverted
extroverted
extrapunitive
9. The transformation of the energy of instinctive drives into socially acceptable methods of activity is called:
rationalization
identification
sublimation
displacement
10. Considering the mental structure of man, 3. Freud showed that the pleasure principle is guided by:
"It"
"I"
"Super-ego"
"Super-ego"
11. The biological processes of personality maturation are based on the following approach to personality development:
psychogenetic
sociogenetic
biogenetic
two-factor
12. The degree of difficulty of the goals that a person strives for, and the achievement of which seems attractive and possible to a person, characterizes:
level of aspiration
locus of control
self-esteem
self-attitude
13. Expresses the indivisibility, integrity and genotypic characteristics of a person as a representative of the genus concept:
individual
personalities
subject of activity
individuality
14. The essence of the projection is:
attributing one's own feelings to others
in orienting behavior towards an accessible goal
in denial of real facts
in choosing behavior opposite to the suppressed one
15. The hierarchical pyramid of needs was developed by:
K. Rogers
A.Maslow
G. Allport
Z. Freud
16. The founder of trait theory is:
G. Allport
G. Eysenck
K. Rogers
K. Levin
17. The state of need for something experienced by a person is:
motive
need
interest
inclination
18. Only observable behavior can be described objectively, according to:
gestaltists
Freudians
behaviorists
cognitive scientists
19. A person as an individual is characterized by:
individual style of activity
creativity
motivational focus
average height
20. The system of stable preferences and motives of an individual, orienting the features of its development, setting the main tendencies of its behavior, is:
temperament
character
capabilities
focus
21. Personality is formed by society; biological characteristics of a person do not have a significant impact on this process according to the approach to development:
psychogenetic
sociogenetic
biogenetic
two-factor
22. The most general formal-dynamic characteristic of individual human behavior is (are):
temperament
character
capabilities
focus
23. According to the concept of G. Eysenck, an emotionally unstable introvert is:
choleric
melancholic
sanguine
phlegmatic person
24. Man as a typical carrier of types of human activity is:
individual
personality
subject of activity
individuality
25. Of the following concepts: “individual”, “personality”, “individuality” - the broadest in content is the concept:
individual
personalities
subject of activity
individuality
26. The highest regulator of behavior is:
beliefs
worldview
installation
interest
27. People have three types of needs: power, success and belonging - according to the theory:
A.Maslow
D. McClelland
A.Akoffa
J. Godefroy
28. The system of established views on the world around us and our place in it is called:
influence
worldview
personal meaning
need
29. The desire of an individual to achieve goals of the degree of complexity that he considers himself capable of manifests itself as:
installation
claim
worldview
personal meaning
Last update: 03/13/2015
Another approach to defining personality is dispositional theories.
If someone asked you to describe the personality of your close friend, how would you do it? Descriptions like “outgoing,” “kind,” and “even-tempered” immediately come to mind, don’t they? All these are character traits. What exactly does the term “trait” mean? A character trait can be considered a relatively stable characteristic that causes people to behave in a certain way. This approach to personality characteristics is one of the main theoretical directions in the study of personality. Personality trait theory suggests that each individual's personality is composed of individual dispositions.
Unlike other theories of personality - such as psychoanalytic or humanistic ones - the dispositional approach to the study of personality is focused on differences between people. The combination and interaction of various traits in each person forms a unique personality in all respects. Trait theories aim to identify and possibly measure these individual personality traits.
Gordon Allport's dispositional theory
In 1936, psychologist Gordon Allport discovered in one of the dictionaries in English over 4,000 words used to describe various personality traits. In his classification, he divided these traits into three groups (dispositions):
- Cardinal Traits- traits that dominate throughout an individual’s life; often to the point that the person becomes recognizable precisely because of these traits. People with pronounced characteristics often become so famous that their names become synonymous with these qualities - hence concepts such as “narcissist”, “alphonse”, “Don Juan”, etc. appear in the language. Allport suggested that cardinal traits are still rare and, as a rule, appear at a later age.
- Central character traits. These are common traits that form the basic foundations of a person. They, although not as pronounced as the cardinal ones, are the main characteristics that we can use to describe another person. "Smart", "honest", "shy" or "worry" are examples of central traits.
- Secondary traits. They are most often associated with attitudes or preferences, and usually appear only in certain situations or under certain circumstances. Examples include the anxiety that occurs when speaking in front of a large audience, or the impatience that occurs while waiting in line.
Raymond Cattell's sixteen factor personality model
One of the prominent psychologists in this field, Raymond Cattell, reduced the number of basic personality traits from more than 4,000 (in Allport's original list) to 171 - mainly by eliminating atypical traits from his predecessor's list, as well as combining the most general characteristics. Next, Cattell conducted an experiment - he asked subjects to evaluate people they knew using these signs. Then, using a statistical technique known as factor analysis, he eventually narrowed the list down to just 16 top qualities. According to Cattell, these 16 traits are the source of all personality diversity. He also developed one of the most widely used personality measures, the 16-Factor Personality Inventory (16PF).
Three Personal Dimensions of Hans Eysenck
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1. Personality is the result of the interaction of the abilities, past experiences and expectations of the individual, on the one hand, and the environment, on the other, according to:
a) behaviorists;
b) gestaltists;
c) psychoanalysts;
d) cognitive scientists.
2. A person’s personality largely determines his assessment of the situation, as well as where control over his actions comes from, according to:
a) behaviorists;
b) gestaltists;
c) Freudians;
d) cognitive scientists.
3. The influence of intellectual processes on human behavior is emphasized by personality theory:
a) analytical;
b) humanistic;
c) cognitive;
d) active.
4. J. Kelly believes that a cognitively complex person differs from a cognitively simple person in that:
a) has better mental health;
b) copes with stress worse;
c) has a lower level of self-esteem;
d) less adaptive to society.
5. The main concept in the cognitive theory of personality is:
a) “scheme”;
b) “model”;
c) “construct”;
d) “installation”.
6. The key concept of analytical psychology is:
a) artifact;
b) archetype;
a) E. Erickson;
b) G. Eysenck;
c) K. Rogers;
d) J. Kelly.
8. The semantic differential method is proposed:
a) K. Spearman;
b) G. Eysenck;
c) Ch. Osgood;
d) J. Kelly.
9. The metatheory, which was the basis for research into “implicit theories of personality,” became:
a) the theory of cognitive dissonance;
b) concept personal constructs J. Kelly;
c) balance theory;
a) L. Festinger;
b) K. Levin;
c) W. James;
d) P.V. Simonov.
11. Personality trait theories attempt to describe a person's personality based on:
d) his individual psychological characteristics.
12. The principle of functional autonomy is justified:
a) K. Rogers;
b) A. Maslow;
c) G. Allport;
d) K. Jung.
13. Personality theory that denies the presence common factor that determines behavior is called a theory:
a) symbolic interactionism;
b) multifactorial;
c) sociotechnical systems;
d) indeterminism.
14. K. Spence’s theory of personality is a theory of personality:
a) behaviorist;
b) psychoanalytic;
c) humanistic;
d) associationist.
a) one-factor;
b) two-factor;
c) three-factor;
d) four-factor.
16. Interactionism as a direction in modern Western psychology is based on the concept:
a) R. Burns;
b) E. Berna;
c) J. Mead;
d) J. Moreno.
17. In G. Eysenck’s personality scheme, two dimensions are distinguished: stability/instability and:
a) mobility/balance;
b) extraversion/introversion;
c) extrapunity/intropunity;
d) psychoticism/depression.
18. Introversion and extraversion, according to Rorschach:
a) non-opposite and non-mutually exclusive personality traits;
b) similar personality traits;
V) the necessary conditions for diseases of neuroses;
d) tendencies that are more or less inherent in everyone.
19. Neuroticism as a personality trait is included in the personality structure:
a) according to K. Horney;
b) according to Z. Freud;
c) according to G. Eysenck;
d) according to E. Bern.
20. According to the concept of G. Eysenck, an emotionally unstable introvert is:
a) choleric;
b) melancholic;
c) sanguine;
d) phlegmatic.
21. Personality is considered as a set of behavioral characteristics in the concept:
a) J. Cattell;
b) K. Leonhard;
c) E. Berna;
d) A. Maslow.
22. The center of consciousness and one of the key archetypes of personality, according to K. Jung’s theory of personality, is:
a) ego;
b) person;
d) self.
23. The concept of “inferiority complex” was introduced into scientific terminology by:
b) A. Adler;
c) S. Freud;
d) K. Rogers.
24. Any behavior is determined by its consequences:
a) according to B. Skinner;
b) according to J. Watson;
c) according to A. Bandura;
d) according to W. Köhler.
25. The behaviorist approach views a person as the result of:
a) understanding the consequences of his behavior;
b) cognitive interpretation of various situations;
c) conflicts between cognitive forces and reality;
d) interactions between people.
26. A direction in psychology that has focused its research not on the connection between stimulus and response, but on the nature of their relationship, is called:
a) neo-behaviourism;
b) interbehaviourism;
c) social behaviorism;
d) neurolinguistic programming.
27. A strict correspondence between certain biological structures of a person and his certain personality traits attempts to establish the direction of the dispositional theory of personality:
a) hard;
b) soft;
c) formal-dynamic;
d) structural and content.
28. Among the “hard” structural models of personality, the most famous is the personality model constructed:
a) A. Maslow;
b) G. Allport;
c) G. Eysenck;
d) K. Rogers.
29. The founder of trait theory is:
a) G. Allport;
b) G. Eysenck;
c) K. Rogers;
d) K. Levin.
30. The founder of the psychodynamic theory of personality is:
b) A. Adler;
c) S. Freud;
d) E. Fromm.
31. Personality trait theories attempt to describe a person's personality based on:
a) his physical constitution;
b) those models that he imitates;
c) factors controlling his actions;
d) individual characteristics of the subject.
32. S. Freud’s psychoanalytic concept of personality refers to:
a) to theories of personality traits;
b) to theories of personality types;
c) to theories of personality instances;
d) to factor theories of personality.
33. Considering the mental structure of a person, S. Freud showed that the pleasure principle is guided by:
a) "It"
c) “Super-I”;
d) "Super-ego".
34. According to Z. Freud, the unconscious is an instance of the psyche:
a) asocial;
b) immoral;
c) illogical;
d) healthy.
35. In S. Freud’s theory the following principles are not considered as a principle of regulation of the mental life of the individual:
a) reality;
b) pleasure;
c) constancy;
d) reflections.
36. Many personality traits are determined by sexual desires suppressed in childhood, according to:
a) associationism;
b) behaviorism;
c) cognitivism;
d) psychoanalysis.
37. S. Freud believed that the Oedipus complex develops at the stage:
a) oral;
b) anal;
c) phallic;
d) genital.
38. The principle that a person's feelings and behavior should be considered inappropriate when his interpretation of situations is based on irrational thoughts underlies the approach:
a) behavioral;
b) cognitive;
c) active;
d) psychoanalytic.
39. The problem of psychological defense mechanisms I was first developed:
a) in Gestalt psychology;
b) in humanistic psychology;
c) in behaviorism;
d) in psychoanalysis.
40. The guarantor of psychological security is not:
a) adequate self-esteem;
b) a sense of belonging to a group;
c) a tendency to supra-situational activity;
d) rigidity of thinking.
41. Psychological defense as a consequence of contradictions in the structure of the “I” is considered by:
a) neo-Freudianism;
b) personalistic theories;
c) domestic psychology;
d) cognitive psychology.
42. Replacing an action with an inaccessible object with an action with an accessible one is called:
a) rationalization;
b) repression;
c) forgetting;
d) transfer.
43. Substitution cannot occur:
a) in a change in feelings;
b) in changing motives;
c) in changing personality relationships to the opposite;
d) in regression.
44. The transformation of the energy of instinctive drives into socially acceptable methods of activity is called:
a) rationalization;
b) identification;
c) sublimation;
d) repression.
45. A return to ontogenetically earlier, infantile behavioral strategies is called:
a) denial;
b) regression;
c) repression;
d) suppression.
46. The concept of “sublimation” was introduced into the scientific dictionary:
a) K. Jung;
b) A. Adler;
c) Z. Freud;
d) G. Helmholtz.
47. The essence of projection is:
a) attributing one’s own feelings to other people;
b) in the orientation of behavior towards an accessible goal;
c) in denial of real facts;
d) in choosing behavior opposite to the suppressed one.
48. A more mature psychological defense mechanism is considered to be:
a) denial;
b) repression;
c) projection;
a) projection;
b) repression;
c) sublimation;
d) suppression.
50. One form of psychological defense helps to cope with the Oedipus complex. This:
a) repression;
b) projection;
c) identification;
d) sublimation.
51. In a girl, the Oedipus complex corresponds to the following complex:
a) Electra;
b) Aphrodite;
d) A. Freud.
52. According to A. Adler, an inferiority complex is not:
a) a consequence of a defect;
b) universal driving force personality development;
c) a consequence of frustration of the need to overcome unfavorable circumstances;
d) a force that inhibits development.
53. According to A. Adler, the tendency to be late for dates or the need to arouse admiration at any cost is a consequence of:
a) inferiority complex;
b) superiority complex;
c) feelings of inferiority;
d) inadequately resolved Oedipus complex.
54. According to humanistic theories, self-realization is closely related:
a) with a superiority complex;
b) with self-respect;
c) with a revaluation of one’s own “I”;
d) with the ability to love.
55. Only observable behavior can be described objectively, according to:
a) gestaltists;
b) Freudians;
c) behaviorists;
d) cognitive scientists.
56. A person’s behavior in a problem situation, based on a series of “blind” motor tests that only accidentally lead to success, was explained by:
a) psychology of consciousness;
b) Gestalt psychology;
c) behaviorism;
d) psychoanalysis.
57. As elements of personality, the behaviorist theory of personality calls:
a) deposits;
b) reflexes or social skills;
c) abilities;
d) temperament.
58. One of the founders of social learning in the behavioral theory of personality is:
a) J. Watson;
b) B. Skinner;
c) A. Bandura;
d) K. Horney.
59. According to A. Bandura, the formation of confidence in what a person can and cannot do is determined by:
a) 3 main conditions;
b) 4 main conditions;
c) 5 basic conditions;
d) 6 basic conditions.
60. According to E. Sheldon’s typology, a person of the ectomorphic type is:
a) shy, prefers mental work;
b) strong, muscular, dynamic and prone to dominance;
c) fat, round, cheerful and sociable;
d) small, fragile and most often extroverted.
61. He sees the origins of neuroses in anxiety arising in interpersonal relationships:
a) K. Horney;
b) G. Sullivan;
c) E. Fromm;
d) E. Erickson.
62. At the core of human nature is intention, which determines the goals and expectations of each person, according to:
a) E. Erickson;
b) K. Buhler;
c) E. Sheldon;
d) A. Vallon.
63. The “flourishing” of a person depends on how a person copes with each of the eight psychosocial crises through which he goes through in his life, according to:
a) E. Erickson;
b) K. Buhler;
c) A. Vallon;
d) A. Maslow.
64. Human nature can only be known through affective experience through which it is expressed “in a given place and at a given time,” according to theories of personality:
a) behavioral;
b) humanistic;
c) psychoanalytic;
d) cognitivist.
65. Personality is considered as a set of self-states in the concept:
a) K. Rogers;
b) A. Bandura;
c) E. Berna;
There are no two completely identical people. Any person behaves with a certain consistency and differently from others. Allport explains this in his concept of “trait,” which he considered the most valid “unit of analysis” for studying what people are like and how they differ from each other in their behavior.
Allport defined a trait as “a neuropsychological structure capable of transforming a variety of functionally equivalent stimuli and of stimulating and directing equivalent (largely enduring) forms of adaptive and expressive behavior.” Simply put, a trait is a predisposition to behave in a similar way across a wide range of situations. For example, if someone is inherently timid, they will tend to remain calm and composed in many different situations - sitting in class, eating at a cafe, doing homework in the dorm, shopping with friends. If, on the other hand, a person is generally friendly, he will be more likely to be talkative and sociable in the same situations. Allport's theory states that human behavior is relatively stable over time and across a variety of situations. Maklakov A.G. General psychology. SPB., 2015. P.324.
Traits are psychological characteristics that transform a set of stimuli and determine a set of equivalent responses. This understanding of trait means that a variety of stimuli can evoke the same responses, just as a variety of responses (feelings, sensations, interpretations, actions) can have the same functional meaning.
According to Allport, personality traits are not associated with a small number of specific stimuli or responses; they are generalized and persistent. By providing similarity in responses to multiple stimuli, personality traits impart considerable consistency to behavior. A personality trait is something that determines constant, stable, typical features of our behavior for a variety of equivalent situations. This is a vital part of our " personality structure" At the same time, personality traits can also be decisive in a person’s behavior. For example, dominance as a personality trait can only manifest itself when a person is in the presence of significant others: with his children, with his spouse, or with a close acquaintance. In each case he immediately becomes the leader. However, the dominance trait is not activated in a situation where this person finds a ten dollar bill on the doorstep of a friend's house. Such a stimulus will most likely cause a manifestation of honesty (or, conversely, dishonesty), but not dominance.
Thus, Allport recognizes that individual characteristics are reinforced in social situations, and adds: “Any theory that views personality as something stable, fixed, unchangeable is incorrect.” Likewise, water can have the shape and structure of a liquid, solid(ice) or substances such as snow, hail, slush - its physical form is determined by the temperature of the environment.
It should be emphasized, however, that personality traits do not lie dormant, awaiting external stimuli. In fact, people actively seek out social situations that facilitate the expression of their characteristics. A person with a strong predisposition to communicate is not only an excellent conversationalist when he is in company, but also takes the initiative to seek contacts when he is alone. In other words, a person is not a passive “respondent” to a situation, as B. F. Skinner might have believed; rather, on the contrary, the situations in which a person finds himself most often are, as a rule, the very situations in which he actively strives get in. These two components are functionally interrelated.
In Allport's system, personality traits can be said to be characterized by “traits,” or defining characteristics. A personality trait is not just a nominal designation. Personality traits are not fiction; they are a very real and vital part of any person's existence. Every person has within himself these “generalized aspirations for action.” Allport's main emphasis here is that these personal characteristics are real: they really exist in people, and are not just theoretical fabrications. Reinwald N.I. Psychology of Personality. M., 2015. P.312.
A personality trait is a more generalized quality than a habit. Personality traits determine relatively unchanged and general features our behavior. Habits, while stable, are more specific tendencies, and therefore they are less generalized both in relation to the situations that “trigger” them and in relation to the behavioral reactions caused by them. For example, a child may brush his teeth twice a day and continue to do so because his parents encourage him to do so. It is a habit. However, over time, the child can also learn to comb his hair, wash and iron clothes, and tidy his room. All these habits, merging together, can form such a trait as neatness.
A personality trait is the driving, or at least determining, element of behavior. As already noted, traits do not lie dormant, waiting for external stimuli that can awaken them. Rather, they encourage people to engage in behavior in which these personality traits are most fully manifested. For example, a college student who is highly social will not just sit around waiting for parties to socialize. She actively seeks them out and thus expresses her sociability. So, personality traits “build” an individual’s action.
The existence of personality traits can be established empirically. Although personality traits cannot be observed directly, Allport pointed out that their existence can be confirmed. Evidence can be obtained by observing human behavior over time, studying medical histories or biographies, and using statistical methods that determine the degree to which individual responses to the same or similar stimuli coincide.
A personality trait is only relatively independent of other traits. To paraphrase a famous expression, we can say: “No feature is an island.” There is no sharp boundary separating one feature from another. Rather, personality is a set of overlapping traits that are only relatively independent of each other. Reinwald N.I. Psychology of Personality. M., 2015. P.316.
A personality trait is not synonymous with moral or social evaluation. Despite the fact that many traits (eg, sincerity, loyalty, greed) are subject to conventional social evaluation, they still represent the true characteristics of an individual. Ideally, the researcher should first detect the presence of certain traits in the subject, and then find neutral, rather than evaluative, words to describe them.
A trait can be viewed either in the context of the individual in whom it is found or by its prevalence in society. Just because actions or even habits are inconsistent with a personality trait is not evidence that the trait is absent. Not every person's traits have the same degree of integration. A trait that is the main one for one may be secondary or completely absent for another. The same individual may have contradictory traits. There are cases when social conditions, much more than personal traits, are the primary “drivers” for certain behavior. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya K.A. Life Strategy M., 2011. P.125.
In his early work, Allport distinguished between general traits and individual ones. The former (also called measurable or legitimized) include any characteristics shared by a number of people within a given culture. We might say, for example, that some people are more persistent and persistent than others, or that some people are more polite than others. Logic of reasoning about existence common features is that members of a given culture experience similar evolutionary and social pressures and therefore develop, by definition, comparable patterns of adaptation. Examples include language skills, political and/or social attitudes, value orientations, anxiety and conformity. Most people in our culture are comparable to each other on these general dimensions.
According to Allport, as a result of such a comparison of individuals according to the degree of expression of any common trait, a normal distribution curve is obtained. That is, when indicators of the severity of personality traits are depicted graphically, we get a bell-shaped curve, in the center of which there is a number of subjects with average, typical indicators, and at the edges there is a decreasing number of subjects whose indicators are closer to extremely pronounced. The figure (see Appendix 1) shows the distribution of indicators of the severity of such a general personality trait as “dominance-subordination”. Thus, the measurability of common traits allows the personologist to compare one person with another on significant psychological parameters (as is done with general physical characteristics such as height and weight). Petrovsky A.V., Yaroshevsky M.G. History and theory of psychology. Rostov n./D., 2013. P.504.
While Allport considered this comparison procedure valid and useful, he also believed that personality traits are never expressed in exactly the same way in any two people.
IN last years Throughout his career, Allport came to realize that using the term "personality trait" to describe both general and individual characteristics was problematic. Therefore, he revised his terminology and called individual traits individual dispositions. General traits changed their name, becoming simply personality traits. The definition of personality disposition now includes the phrase “characteristic of the individual,” but otherwise the definition remains the same as the earlier definition of trait.
Allport was deeply interested in the study of individual dispositions. Over time, it became obvious to him that not all individual dispositions are equally inherent in a person and not all of them are dominant. Therefore, Allport proposed to distinguish three types of dispositions: cardinal, central and secondary.
Cardinal dispositions. The cardinal disposition permeates a person so much that almost all his actions can be reduced to its influence. This highly generalized disposition cannot remain hidden, unless, of course, it is such a trait as secrecy - the owner of it can become a hermit, and then no one will recognize his inclinations. Central dispositions. Less comprehensive, but still quite striking characteristics of a person, called central dispositions, are, so to speak, the building blocks of individuality. Secondary dispositions. Traits that are less noticeable, less generalized, less stable, and thus less useful in characterizing personality are called secondary dispositions. Petrovsky A.V., Yaroshevsky M.G. History and theory of psychology. Rostov n./D., 2013. P.507.
a branch of psychology based on the idea that people are predisposed to behave in certain ways in different situations. This kind of predisposition, formed in the process of development of a particular personality, is usually called traits within this direction.
The first detailed concept of personality traits was developed at the turn of the 30s - 40s. XX century already mentioned in an article about the humanistic direction in psychology by the American psychologist G. Allport. According to his ideas, a personality trait not only determines a certain behavioral response to a wide range of external stimuli, subjectively perceived as similar, but is also a motivator that encourages a person to seek and create phenomena of the external world (for example, social situations) that are adequate to the trait.
G. Allport divided traits into general, or measurable ones, which many people possess to a greater or lesser extent, and individual, or morphological, unique for each individual and most fully, from G. Allport’s point of view, reflecting the characteristics of his personality. Subsequently, developing his theory, G. Allport began to use the term “personality traits” only to designate general traits, and for individual traits he introduced a new term - individual dispositions (for this reason, trait theories often began to be referred to as a dispositional direction in psychology, which should not be confused with the dispositional concept of V. A. Yadov, which has become widespread in Russian psychology). G. Allport distinguished three types of individual dispositions: cardinal, central and secondary.
Cardinal dispositions are the most generalized, pervasive (all-pervasive) personality trait that determines a person’s entire life. Very few people are endowed with it, who, as a rule, become widely known precisely because of the presence of a cardinal disposition. Moreover, the names of these people become common nouns for a certain lifestyle or behavioral strategies, for example, Don Juan, Doubting Thomas, Marquis de Sade, etc.
Central dispositions are stable characteristics well recognized by other people, allowing a fairly complete and accurate description of the personality. Based on the results of his research, G. Allport came to the conclusion that the number of central dispositions for each individual varies from five to ten. Central dispositions are the most universal and in terms of content are close to personality traits.
Secondary dispositions are less stable and less recognizable compared to central ones. These usually include taste preferences, situationally determined short-term attitudes, etc.
According to his convictions, G. Allport was close to representatives of the humanistic movement. Because of this, in his works he anticipated many principles of humanistic psychology. In particular, G. Allport insisted on the need to study mentally healthy people, introducing the concept of a mature personality. From his point of view, the behavior of a mature subject is autonomous and conscious, while a personally immature, neurotic individual is guided by unconscious motives associated with childhood experiences. According to G. Allport, a mature personality develops in a process of formation that continues throughout human life. He was also committed to the principle of holism, viewing a healthy personality as an integrated whole of heterogeneous parts. The organizing and unifying principle in human nature, which is at the same time the main driving force of personality development, was designated by G. Allport as proprium.
Developing the theory of traits, G. Allport made a significant contribution to the development social psychology, in particular, in the study of the problem of adaptation and social influence. His works “The Nature of Bias” and “The Psychology of Rumors” (co-authored with L. Postman) have become classic works on this issue. Having become interested in the problem of values in the context of studying a mature personality, he, on the basis of E. Spranger’s typology of values, back in 1931 developed the “Values Study Test,” modifications of which are still used in organizational psychology.
The further development of trait theories is associated with the work of G. Eysenck and R. Cattell. If G. Allport, placing individual dispositions at the forefront, used mainly the idiographic research method aimed at an in-depth study of a specific person, then G. Eysenck and R. Cattell relied primarily on allowing one to identify patterns characteristic of significant according to the composition of communities. To this end, they examined large samples of subjects and used complex mathematical procedures, in particular factor analysis, to identify patterns. At the same time, both G. Eysenck and R. Cattell proceeded from the belief that the main function of psychology is prognostic, that is, the main task is the need to predict human behavior in a given situation.
G. Eysenck believed that all elements or personality traits are combined into a hierarchical structure and can be reduced to universal supertraits. Since such traits are inherent to all people to a greater or lesser extent, he designated them as types. Initially, G. Eysenck identified two types: extraversion - introversion and neuroticism - stability.
The first type is directly related to the processes of excitation and inhibition, or, in the terms of G. Eysenck, “cortical activation.” From his point of view, introverts are more excitable than extroverts, which is why they tend to avoid strong external stimulation, particularly associated with social situations. Extroverts, experiencing a lack of arousal, on the contrary, constantly seek additional stimuli in the external environment.
The second type reflects the characteristics of the reaction nervous system to one stimulus or another. People prone to neuroticism react more acutely than stable individuals to stress and other anxiety-provoking situations, and their reaction is more stable and long-lasting. Despite a certain external similarity in the psychological “filling” of these two types, G. Eysenck characterizes them as orthogonal dimensions of personality, that is, he believes that there is no correlation between them.
Subsequently, G. Eysenck added a third to the two original types - psychoticism, associated with the intensity of androgen production. However, to date, this assumption remains largely hypothetical, without sufficient empirical confirmation. It is assumed that high level psychoticism is mediated by a tendency to non-conformism, and in extreme cases to deviant behavior.
G. Eysenck developed a number of psychodiagnostic techniques to identify individual characteristics of three personality types. The most famous of them is " Personality questionnaire Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), its use has significantly advanced the research of psychopathology and criminal behavior.
R. Cattell, unlike G. Eysenck, who developed his scheme on the basis of pre-formulated assumptions, believed that universal personality traits can be identified exclusively empirically, by combining, through factor analysis, an array of data obtained as a result of a survey large number subjects using various methods, to the minimum possible number of variables. Thus, according to R. Cattell, it is possible to reduce diverse and changeable surface traits, observed and recorded from the outside, to a limited number of universal and stable initial traits, the configuration and expression of which determines the essence of personality.
As a result of long-term multifaceted research, R. Cattell identified 16 initial traits or personality factors, which formed the basis for the psychodiagnostic technique “Sixteen Personality Factors” (16 PF) that he developed and became widespread.
Further research in this direction, in particular the work of American psychologists P. Costa and R. McCrae, led to the identification of five initial factors, called the “Big Five”. It included neuroticism (N), extraversion (E), openness (O), agreement (A), conscientiousness (C). To measure the severity of each factor, the NEO - PI questionnaire was developed. The Big Five model has become widespread in organizational psychology and management psychology not only due to its simplicity, but also to its fairly high validity and predictive reliability.
Despite this, almost all theories of personality traits have been repeatedly subjected to severe criticism. In particular, G. Allport was accused of eclecticism and excessive adherence to the ideographic method of research. Moreover, the very idea of traits has been questioned. In particular, the works of W. Michel provided serious evidence that behavior is mediated by situational factors to a much greater extent than by personality traits.
The concepts of G. Eysenck and R. Cattell seem to many specialists to be too complex, overloaded with statistical procedures and at the same time too “in-depth” in neurophysiology, due to which they are difficult to adapt to practical application. Moreover, doubts have been repeatedly expressed about the reliability and validity of the 16 PF test, despite the huge sample size of subjects and the powerful statistical apparatus on which its development was based.
Nevertheless, the works of apologists for trait theories have, in fact, become classics of modern psychology, and the psychodiagnostic methods they developed are still used in social and psychological research with a wide range of applications.
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