Old Believer copper casting. Copper and bronze cast icons, crosses, folds in the life of a modern person

In an open-collar jacket,

With a naked head

Slowly passes by the city

Uncle Vlas is a gray-haired old man.

On the chest there is a copper icon:

He asks for God's temple, -

All in chains, poor shoes,

There is a deep scar on the cheek ...

ON. Nekrasov

Copper-cast plastic - crosses, icons and folds - is a major national phenomenon of Russian artistic culture. That very special attitude to copper casting that existed in Russia for a millennium has been completely forgotten in the people's memory over the past century.

You must admit that in our modern world of super-speeds, there is absolutely no place left for faith in God. Today, for most people, it has been replaced by expensive cars and money. Money has become a cult. But just a hundred years ago, every Russian Orthodox Christian his day began and ended with a rather simple action - prayer, raising it to the Lord God, sharing with him all his sorrows and joys, which is now for modern man seems, to put it mildly, unusual.

But not all is lost, spirituality is beginning to revive in modern society, because without it, the revival of Russia as a great state is impossible. In other words, our country, as never before, needs to revive and strengthen unshakable moral values, to turn to the sources in order to strengthen the spiritual foundation of society, to act creatively.

Where does the path of an Orthodox person begin? That's right - from baptism. From holy baptism to the hour of death, every Christian must wear on his chest the sign of his faith - a pectoral cross. He is a symbol of our salvation, a weapon of spiritual struggle, a symbol of the confession of faith. This sign is worn not over clothing, but on the body, which is why the cross is called worn on the body. That is why crosses represent the most massive and at the same time the most ancient type of copper-cast products. In the modern world, gold and silver pectoral crosses are most in demand, and in ancient times they were mostly copper, and making them from precious metals was a very expensive pleasure. Copper crosses are still in demand, most of all among the Old Believers. What pectoral cross is considered canon, why is it unacceptable to wear a pectoral cross with the image of the crucified Savior and other images? You can read it here.

Also, iconic crosses, which were used by our ancestors, are still very popular. They differ from chest crosses in larger sizes and do not have an eyelet for a neck cord. The kyoto cross is placed on special shelves (icon cases) among the holy icons in the red corner or attached to the door frame of the dwelling. Due to their small size, they can be taken with you on wanderings, hikes, trips, for the construction of temporary altars.

Copper works, especially crosses and images with relief images, had a protective function, and were revered as shrines-amulets from evil spirits, disasters and diseases. Copper, according to popular belief, had "magical" properties. Separately, I would like to dwell on the topic of dual faith, because after the Baptism of Rus in 988, paganism persisted until the 12th century, and only then it began to gradually fade away. A unique symbol of this time is an icon in the form of a medallion - a serpentine, on which a Christian saint was depicted on one side, and a pagan serpentine creature on the other (that is why it is called that). In the folk environment, the value of the serpentine as a talisman has survived until the 20th century.

The modern replica of the serpentine with the image of the Mother of God and the Child is very interesting. (Ancient Russia, XIII-XIV centuries), it can be purchased in the online store. The image of the Mother of God on the front side of the serpentine symbolizes victory over the devil and over all evil, according to popular beliefs, only the devil could not appear in her image, and she has always been a reliable protector from the devil's power. Thus, the protective significance of these items was especially emphasized.

"The image is pure, worthy of veneration" ... These words can be used to define the copper-cast icons and crosses created by the Old Believers in the vast expanses of Russia - in the sketes of Pomorie and the workshops of Moscow, in the villages of the Moscow region and the Volga region, in secret forges in the Urals and in Siberia - during less than three hundred years from the end of the 17th century. before the beginning of the XX century.

A new period in the history of copper foundry is inextricably linked with the Old Believer movement in Russia, when in the second half of the 17th century, after a split in the Russian Orthodox Church, opponents of the reform of Patriarch Nikon were forced to flee from persecution by the authorities, flee from the center to remote outskirts, and hide in the forests. In such difficult conditions, it was the Old Believers who preserved and continued the ancient Russian traditions of copper casting. It was difficult to constantly transport large church icons to a new place. Bulky icons fell, cracked, broke, the paint layer crumbled, it was difficult to hide them during constant searches. Cast icons turned out to be more suitable for the conditions of constant wandering. Therefore, it is precisely in bespopov agreements, mainly among the Pomors, that copper casting flourishes. As priceless relics, ancient copper-cast images were carefully inserted into icon-case frames and put into picturesque wooden or carved folds.

But the Old Believers not only preserved the ancient Russian heritage, but also created their own special religious and spiritual culture. Copper-cast images, "as having been purified by fire" and not by the hands of "created" ones, received widespread veneration among the people. The variety of forms, iconography, composition and decoration, Old Believers' copper-cast crosses, icons and foldables is striking. Hot multi-colored enamels and fire gilding enhance their decorative effect.

The Deisus tricuspid folds were in great demand. They were cast in different sizes - from small, travel, for wearing on the chest to a large solemn image for a prayer house.

It was during this period that folds of new iconographic types were born. Among them - the three-fold folding "Deesis with the chosen saints", or, as it is often called, "Nine". Indeed, there are nine figures on the fold. In the centerpiece is the Savior on the throne with the forthcoming Mother of God and John the Baptist, on the left wing there are depicted the Apostle John the Theologian, Saint Nicholas the Wonderworker and Metropolitan Philip, on the right - the Guardian Angel and the Monks Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky.

Also, I would like to separately note the four-winged folding with the image of the Twelve Great Holidays - the so-called "large festive wings". This fold, which is a whole marching iconostasis, was extremely popular and not only among the Old Believers. Everything in this copper-cast monument - both the form and the thoroughness of the elaboration of miniature hallmarks, and the ornament on the outer side of the second wing - testifies to the talent and high skill of the foundry workers of the famous Vygovskaya "copper shop".

The mainstays of the Russian land were and remain the saints, deeply revered by the people. This is confirmed by the numerous copper-cast icons and folds, which were addressed with their sorrows and joys, with the words of prayer by Russian people throughout the vast territory of Russia ... The veneration of saints is associated with the concept of holiness - central in the history of salvation - and its bearers. The holy martyrs stand at the source. Jesus Christ is the greatest martyr. Gregory the Theologian said about the feat of martyrdom: "In glorifying the memory of the holy martyrs, we do not just participate in this celebration, we participate in the mystery of the martyrdom that these saints showed ..." ...

The most revered and beloved saints, both in Russia and throughout the world, have been and remain: St. Nicholas the Wonderworker (to him to pray for intercession, marriage, health and other help); Saint Nikita, who beats the devil (helps in teaching, heals, casts out demons, helps to repent of sins and to be freed from the deceptions of the devil, including drunkenness); Saint George the Victorious (he is the patron saint of the military, farmers, livestock breeders); Saint Paraskeva Friday (they pray to her for patronage of the family hearth; in marital sterility; for worthy suitors); Hieromartyr Antipas of Pergamon (they pray to him for healing, in particular from dental diseases); Saints Zosima and Savvaty of Solovetsky (they are patrons of beekeepers, they also pray to them for help at sea from storms and drowning, for help floating on the water); Saint Sergius of Radonezh (they pray to him for the spiritual health of children and their success in education); Saint Matrona of Moscow (they pray to her for pregnancy, health, marriage, conception, love, recovery, help); Saint Seraphim of Sarov (they pray to him for physical and spiritual healing).

Separately, I would like to highlight the image of the Mother of God - all over Russia, in every house, as “an ambulance and a warm intercessor,” people have and are turning to Her. The most revered icons of the Mother of God of Kazan, Fedorov, Tikhvin and Burning Bush. The Mother of God of Kazan is praying for the enlightenment of the blind. The Mother of God Fedorovskaya is addressed with a prayer "for deliverance from the difficult birth of wives." "For the preservation of the health of babies" ask the Mother of God of Tikhvin.

The Russian people consider the Mother of God the Burning Bush as a guardian against fire and lightning. In folk life, they sometimes walked around a burning building with this image of the Mother of God to quickly extinguish the fire ... There were many copper-cast icons and folds with revered images of the Mother of God, but images and icons of the Mother of God Joy of all who grieve are especially loved among the people.

Small copper images and folds, easy to carry, durable and cheap, quite often served as a talisman - they accompanied the owner during long trips and travels. Often such copper-cast objects were found far beyond the borders of the Russian land.

In years Soviet power the production of copper-cast plastics ceased, and only handicraft and limited-edition items were created. But 70 years later, thanks to the successors of the traditions of Russian copper casting, this art began to revive. Modern masters have tried to recreate all the diversity and former splendor of copper plastic, inventing new versions, as well as duplicating the old ones that were created earlier and existed among our ancestors. The poetry of art and metal got a second life!

Online store site offers you a unique opportunity to join one of the most ancient arts - Russian artistic copper casting. Feel the spirit of history through copper-cast plastic, which was created several hundred years ago by the hands of talented craftsmen, and who knows, maybe in this way you can come to faith in God, as it was before, with a Russian Orthodox person. One very interesting feature is that everyone who took a copper icon or a cross in their hands experienced some kind of extraordinary inner feeling, perhaps this is due to their enchanting magnificence, severity and at the same time softness, which attract and fascinate. Or maybe this feeling is the very grace of God?

Unfortunately, in our modern society, there are a lot of people who do not believe in God. But you should not condemn them, for "Judge not, lest you be judged" (Matthew 7: 1-6). Present such a person with a small icon or a copper icon, for example, with Nicholas the Wonderworker. And advise him to turn to God in prayer when there is a difficult moment in his life, because “there are no atheists in trenches under fire” - every person sooner or later comes to faith, and let this first step be taken with the help of a small copper icon donated You.

Friends and relatives will be very pleased to receive a copper icon as a gift for any significant event. Such an original gift will leave a long prayer memory about you, because each time turning with a prayer to the copper icon you donated, loved ones will remember you with prayer and heartfelt warmth. Over time, a copper or bronze icon can become a real family heirloom - a particle of the eternal, immaterial. It can decorate your home iconostasis, or become a wonderful "travel" icon that will accompany you on your travels!

Today our life has become faster and faster. We spend most of our time driving a car. To prevent trouble or misfortune from happening on the road, more and more people resort to the help of miraculous helpers, that is, icons, amulets, holy guidebooks. Icons for the car are a kind of our protection and security on the road while driving, they provide miraculous help, make it possible to turn to God on the way, pray and ask for protection. The copper icon, due to its inexpensive cost, durability and resistance to fading under the influence of sunlight, will be the perfect gift for the motorist.

As an exclusive gift, we are ready to offer you a modern mortise stave - the iconostasis. Modern cut-in icons are made to order, from various types of wood-linden, oak, pine, beech, taking into account all your wishes. All carpentry work is done by hand, and we can say with complete confidence that the new modern cut-in icon will exist in a single copy! This makes it truly unique, and any believer would be pleased to receive such a gift.

We sincerely believe that thanks to our small contribution, spirituality will begin to revive, because without it, the revival of the great Russian state is impossible ...

In case of full or partial copying of materials from our site, an active link to the source is required!

We continue a series of publications devoted to the history and culture of the Old Believers, which constituted a rich and meaningful layer of Russian spiritual life. The Old Believers have preserved many artistic values and aesthetic principles, without which the picture of the Russian church and everyday culture will be incomplete.

No matter what historians write about the gradual, stretching out for almost three centuries Eastern Slavs to the Christian Church, it is obvious that the baptism of Rus under the Equal-to-the-Apostles Prince Vladimir spread to most of the population of Kievan Rus. The new faith required not only the internal reorganization of a person, but also assumed an external expression, which in the era of the initial spread of Christianity also became a sign of personal confessional feat.

Russia adopted Christianity from Byzantium along with a developed, fully developed church art, in which any decorative detail was subordinated to a strictly meaningful symbolic system. The pectoral cross became the first symbol of faith for yesterday's pagan in Russia. Archaeological excavations show that metal and stone pectoral crosses, the so-called "korsunchiki", were brought to Russia en masse. However, just a few decades after 988, the own production of crosses, and along with them, of wearable icons, acquired such a scale in Russia that the import of similar products from Byzantium became meaningless. The imagination of Russian foundry masters was boundless; preserving the traditional Greek form of an equal-pointed cross, the pre-Mongol Russian vests had dozens of different forms.

The tradition of making copper-cast jewelry was established in Russia in the pre-Christian era. It is interesting to see how ancient decorations with solar symbols timidly and gradually include images of the cross. The notorious Russian dual faith is expressed by round pendants, which were originally symbols of the Slavic Yarila, with cross-shaped slots, and then became simply four-pointed or twelve-pointed crosses enclosed in a circle. The same metamorphosis was undergone by the ancient Slavic lunars, in which the Christian cross was gradually established between the ends of the pagan month.

Serpentines - ancient Slavic amulets, cast on the reverse side of the folds until the 16th century, became a sign of the pagan past, which migrated to the new post-Mongol era.

Casting, established in Russian church art in the pre-Mongol era, is experiencing a rebirth at the turn of the 17th and 18th centuries. At this time, the manufacture of cast icons, folding, various crosses became the property of almost exclusively the Old Believers. An exception was the production of pectoral crosses, which continued to be cast in workshops that offered their products to the Orthodox Church.

The spread of cast icons in the Old Believers, and to the greatest extent in pop-free consents, with the Orthodox Church almost completely indifferent to them, is explained, first of all, by the historical conditions of the Old Believers' existence.

For two and a half centuries, the Old Believers were severely persecuted by the state authorities, unable to openly build their churches and monasteries. At the same time, the priests and bespopovtsy were not in the same position. The Old Believers, accepting the priesthood, dreamed of finding a bishop and restoring the hierarchy, tried at every opportunity to legalize themselves, to regulate their relations with the authorities, since they needed a condescending attitude towards the priests who passed to them from the ruling Church.

The Old Believers-bespopovtsy were convinced that the spiritual enthronement of the Antichrist had already taken place, therefore the true Church can only be persecuted. This conviction found its extreme expression in the ideology of the consent of wanderers, or runners. It was difficult to constantly transport large church icons to a new place. Bulky icons fell, cracked, broke, the paint layer crumbled, it was difficult to hide them during constant searches. Cast icons turned out to be more suitable for the conditions of constant wandering. Therefore, it is precisely in the pop-free agreements, mainly among the Pomors, that copper casting flourishes.

The beginning and flourishing of the Old Believers' production of copper-cast crosses, icons and folds are traditionally associated with the Vygov monasteries and hermitages. Already in the 70s of the 17th century, settlements appeared on the Vyg River, founded by escaped monks of the Solovetsky Monastery, which, not agreeing to serve according to the books sent by Patriarch Nikon, was besieged by the tsarist troops for eight years from 1668 to 1676. After the defeat of the Solovetsky rebels, numerous inhabitants of the monastery went to the banks of the Vyg River, where the founders of the monastery, the Monks Savvaty and German, began their exploit. In October 1694, two settlements founded by Daniil Vikulin and Andrei Denisov were merged into the Vygov community - a monastery, which was the ideological center of the Old Believers of the bespopov style for the next century and a half.

The Vygovsky monastery, divided by a wall into two halves, was originally inhabited by men and women. In 1706, 20 versts from the male Epiphany monastery, a female Holy Cross was built, which stood on the Lekse river. The first abbess was Andrei Denisov's own sister Solomonia. Near these two monasteries, numerous sketes were organized, in which families were allowed to live.

It is in these monasteries that the revival of the ancient Russian tradition of making cast icons is taking place. At the same time, Vygoretsk craftsmen achieve unprecedented technical and aesthetic perfection of their products. Vygovsky cast icons are distinguished by their extraordinary grace, subtlety of casting, conveying the smallest details, right down to curls of hair and eye pupils. Intricate ornaments were filled with multicolored glassy enamels, a significant part of the items were gilded by fire. The favorite product of the Vygov coppersmiths were small bivalve and tricuspid folds, in which not only the front, but also the whimsically ornamented reverse side was covered with multicolored enamels. On Vyga, the "Crucifixions with the Forthcoming", which subsequently spread throughout Russia, resembling the letter F. in shape, were invented. Here, the first "large doors" were cast - four-fold folding with the image of the twelve feasts.

Later, crosses and icons began to be cast on the Vygov samples in Guslitsy (a village in the Vladimir province) and in Zagarye (several villages in the Bogorodsky district of the Moscow province, engaged in the production of copper-cast crosses and icons).

The cheapest and simplest were the products of tanning workshops. The casts were almost never covered with enamels, had a careless finish, were distinguished by indistinct, blurry images.

Guslitsk products were of higher quality. A favorite element of Guslitsa artists were the "sixthril" - small images of cherubs, which were cast on the middle parts of small three-winged folds and, in abundance, on the tops of a wide variety of crosses. Vygovskaya form "Crucifixion with the forthcoming" guslitskie masters expanded at the expense of numerous hallmarks depicting holidays and "six-winged", the number of which in the tops of large crosses reached nineteen.

At the end of the 18th century, Moscow workshops for the production of cast icons appeared. They are grouped around the Preobrazhensky cemetery, which since 1771 has become the center of the Fedoseevsky accord. They flourished in the second half of the 19th century. Moscow products date back to the Vygov designs, differing from them in their ponderousness and excessive decorativeness. Monograms of foundry masters appear on Moscow crosses, icons and folds: MAP, NIB, MRSKh, PX, RS. The last three, which are found more often than others, belong to the master Rodion Semenovich Khrustalev, who had every reason to be proud of the quality of his products.

In the second half of the 19th century, the number of Old Believer coppersmiths increased significantly. They appear in the village of Krasnoye, Kostroma province, in the village of Staraya Tushka, Vyatka province, in the Urals and in other regions of Russia.

The set of plots of Old Believer copper casting differs significantly from the corresponding spectrum of Old Russian cast products. In the Old Believer coppersmiths, the lunar era characteristic of the transition from paganism to Christianity, with crosses attached to them, was not cast. Round cross-shaped pendants were not produced, in which the sign of the cross was inscribed in the ancient solar symbol. Serpentines common in the pre-Mongolian and early post-Mongolian epochs were not made.

At the same time, the subject matter is enriched by a multitude of tricks known from the usual icon painting. Most of the icon-painting subjects are reproduced in one way or another in copper casting. At the same time, the most common in Old Believer copper casting are the image of the Mother of God and the images of saints. The Lord Jesus Christ, although he is the Head of the Church, is represented in iconography by a significantly smaller number of iconographic types (with many versions of each type) than the Mother of God and the saints. This is probably due to the fact that it is much easier for a sinful person to turn with a prayer request to a person - the Mother of God or a saint, than to God, even if it is the Incarnate God Jesus Christ.

The most common iconographic type in casting is Deesis. Russian word Deisus is a distorted Greek word for Deisis, which means prayer. Deesis - the image of Jesus Christ, seated on the throne, to the right of which is the Theotokos, to the left - John the Baptist. In the Old Believers' copper casting, the Deesis is most often the middle of the three-leaf folds, called "nines". Each side panel of such a folding bears an image of selected saints. Most often it is Metropolitan Philip, Apostle John the Theologian, Saint Nicholas - on the left wing; The Guardian Angel, Saints Zosima and Savvaty - on the right. This selection of saints is not accidental. Zosima, Savvaty and Philip are saints, whose deeds were performed in the Solovetsky Monastery, very revered by the Old Believers, where the first such folds were cast. The presence of the Guardian Angel and Nicholas the Wonderworker - the patron saint of travelers - shows that the "nines" were "travel" icons. They were taken on the road, worn as wearable icons. The Calvary cross on the reverse side of one of the doors made it possible to do without a separately worn pectoral cross.

Foldings have survived, the midships of which were an ark divided into four parts, of a sufficiently deep depth, tightly closed by a plate with the image of Deisus. Such a folding could be used for storing holy relics or for transferring Holy Gifts, precious for the Old Believers-bespopovtsy, consecrated by the pre-Nikon priests.

The second, less common version of the "nine" has doors with a different set of saints: the left one depicts the great martyr George the Victorious, the holy martyrs Antipas and Blasiy; on the right - the Monk John the Old Caveman and the Martyrs Cosmas and Damian.

There is also a Deesis in the form of tricuspid folds of another type, the middle of which is a half-length image of the Lord Jesus Christ, the leaves are half-length images of the Virgin (a version similar to Bogolyubskaya with a scroll in his hands) and John the Baptist. The image of John the Baptist is variable. Most often, he is depicted as a winged Angel of the desert with a bowl in his hands, which contains the image of the infant Christ; it is a symbolic image of the Baptism of the Lord. The location of the Infant God can be different, both from left to right, and vice versa. In some of the folds, the right wing represented John without wings, with his hands raised upward in an exquisite gesture.

Sometimes the centerpiece of such a Deesis was cast separately. In this case, he turned into an image Lord Almighty... There are also known special images of the Lord Almighty, both half-length and in the form of the Savior on the throne. As a rule, they are of a more ancient age.

Very widespread in the Old Believers are folds with the central figure Deesis, below which are placed half-length images of four saints: the Monk Zosima, Saint Nicholas, Saint Leonty, and Saint Savvaty. Sometimes other saints were also depicted. The top of such a folding could be the Image of Christ Not Made by Hands or decorated with a simple geometric ornament. .

One of the oldest images of Christ the Savior that existed in copper casting is the so-called Spas Smolensky... This iconographic type is a full-length depiction of Christ, decorated with a massive tsata, at whose feet the Monks Sergius of Radonezh and Varlaam of Khutynsky fall. On the sides of the Savior, in the upper part of the icon, there are images of angels holding the instruments of the passions in their hands. The Savior of Smolensk is found in the form of individual icons, often decorated with multicolored enamels, and as the centerpiece of various folds.

Another iconographic type of Christ the Savior represented in copper casting, depicted surrounded by saints, is Deesis, in which figures of the archangels Michael and Gabriel, the apostles Peter and Paul are added to the images of the Mother of God and John the Baptist, as well as leaning Zosima and Savvaty. V "Weeks" in a larger format, figures of the Apostle John the Theologian and Saint John Chrysostom are added, as well as the kneeling Nicholas the Wonderworker and the Monk Sergius of Radonezh.

Miraculous Image The Savior is most often found in casting in the form of pommels of individual icons and folding ones. This tradition originates in the most ancient examples of casting, and the iconography of the image changes very noticeably from the exquisite 17th century versions, which also depicted a plate with its bizarre folds, to simple, almost schematic images of the 18th and 19th centuries. The Image Not Made by Hands is also found in the tops of cast crosses of various sizes. It is this type of cross, which, in addition to the Image of Not Made by Hands in the pommel, is distinguished by the absence of the image of the Holy Spirit "in the form of a dove" and "Pilate's title" - the letters INTSI - was considered by the Old Believers of the Pomeranian consent to be the only correct cross.

The Miraculous Image is also found in the form of separate small specimens. He is known mainly in two versions; moreover, the one in which the Image Not Made by Hands is surrounded by an inscription is more ancient and rare.

Rare ancient cast icons are the images of the Descent from the Cross, which depict the naked torso of the dead Christ with arms folded crosswise on the chest, resting on the edge of the coffin. On the sides of the cross are visible figures of the forthcoming Mother of God and John the Theologian, executed almost in full growth; in the upper part of the icon there are shoulder images of Angels in round medallions. It is possible that small icons of the Descent from the Cross were cast before the split. However, knowing the tendency of the adherents of the old faith to rare plots, it is more likely to assume that they were still cast in the Old Believer coppersmiths. This iconographic type by the 19th century will turn into an image "Don't cry for me Mati", which is appropriate to refer to the icons of the Theotokos.

Russian icon painters, starting from the 16th century, dared to depict the Second Hypostasis of the Trinity even before its Incarnation. Although the legitimacy of such allegorical images as Sophia the Wisdom of God in her Novgorod version was disputed by several church councils of the 16th and 17th centuries, they continued to be reproduced until the end of the 19th century. They also found their reflection in copper casting.

The classical iconography of Sophia the Wisdom of God, like the symbolism of this image, is extremely complex. However, the central part of the image, which is a kind of "Deesis", in which a winged effeminate figure with angelic wings and a star-shaped halo sits on the throne instead of Christ, is represented in ancient casting by rare casts made long before the split.

The Old Believer copper casting reproduces an abbreviated version of Sofia, known in iconography since the 17th century under the name "Spas the Good Silence"... Silence is a symbol of unspokenness, non-manifestation, non-embodiment. The silence of Sophia is a symbol of the non-incarnation of the Eternal Logos, and Sophia Itself is the Logos before the Incarnation. Thus, the icon "Savior the Good Silence" is the image of Jesus Christ before His Incarnation.

The image "Good Silence" is a half-length image of Sophia in its Novgorod version. This is a winged Angel with the face of a young maiden with a star-shaped nimbus inscribed in a circle, dressed in a royal dalmatic, with his arms crossed on his chest. In casting, this image appears only towards the end of the 18th century. It exists either in the form of a small casting, where only the Angel is depicted, or in the form of a larger icon, where the Angel turns into a centerpiece, inscribed in a frame with 18 round medallions, in which there are waist figures of various saints. These icons, as a rule, were colored with enamels of various shades.

The theological content of this very elegant icon is inferior to the more modest, but no less mysterious image of the Angel of the Great Council. This is what the famous collectors of the 19th century, the Khanenko brothers, call this image of the Angel on the cross. Another well-known researcher of Old Russian art, Peretz, calls this casting the "Only Begotten Son", directly linking it with the "renounced" icons of the 16th century. The Angel himself with a mirror and a measure in his hands resembles the well-known image of the Archangel Michael. However, the presence of the cross behind the Angel's back helps to see a deeper theological content in this image.

The Apostle Peter in the First Council Epistle, which is part of the New Testament, calls Jesus Christ the Lamb, destined even before the creation of the world for the slaughter (1 Peter 1, 19-20). The same symbolic image is found in the Apocalypse (Rev. 13, 8). At the same time, the prophet Isaiah calls the not yet incarnate Christ the Angel of the Great Council (Isaiah 9: 6). Thus, this small archaic image of an Angel expresses the deepest theological idea of the absolute value of the personal freedom of man, the infinite love of God, ready to sacrifice Himself for the salvation of the only being who is the bearer of His Image.

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the interest in the theologically ambiguous subjects in the Old Believers is clearly increasing. This is evidenced by the "Only Begotten Son" icon cast at that time, which seems to be a fairly accurate, albeit "reduced" copy of the 16th century icon. The "Only Begotten Son" castings are known in single copies; in the collections of copper casting are very rare. Most likely, it was a one-time order from one of the 19th century Old Believer collectors, or the icon was cast specifically for a few connoisseurs and lovers of ancient casting. (Picture 12. Only Begotten Son. XIX century).

The Lord Jesus Christ is also depicted on numerous copper-cast crucifixes, which were loved not only by the zealots of the old faith, but also by all pious Orthodox people in Russia. With all the diversity of these Old Believer crosses, the image of the crucified Savior on them remains unchanged. As for the holiday plots, here the variations in the very image of Christ are quite interesting. This topic requires a special discussion and will be presented in one of the next articles on Old Believer art.

Copper-cast plastic is a remarkable and not fully explored phenomenon of Russian artistic culture, which has a thousand-year history. Determining the meaning of copper crosses, icons and folds in the life of the Russian people, F.I. Buslaev, a well-known philologist and art critic of the 19th century, wrote: “These were the most convenient shrines for transferring, durable and cheap; therefore they are still in great use among the common people ... ". These words can rightfully be attributed to any region of Russia, including the Moscow province, where during the XVIII - XX centuries. not only revered copper-cast images, but also engaged in their production.

A defining milestone in the history of copper casting was the decree of Peter I of January 31, 1723 “On the prohibition to have icons of private persons in parish churches; also to pour and sell in the ranks sacred images of copper and tin. " This decree put under control the production, sale and use of copper-cast items that should be "used for church needs." Thus, already at the beginning of the XVIII century. the policy of state authorities in relation to copper plastics was determined. It was in these conditions, which put the foundry business in an illegal position, that the Old Believers of different directions (bespopovtsy and priests) managed not only to preserve ancient Russian traditions, but also to create new samples of crosses, icons and folds.

Thanks to the talent of the Pomor, Moscow, Guslitsk, Zagarsk and Vladimir masters, copper drinking has become an accessible form of art that has become widespread in cities and villages throughout Russia. This material, heterogeneous in material and technological characteristics, is striking in its diversity, starting from form, iconography, composition and finishing with decorative decoration. All these features are the basis for the classification of a significant layer of preserved copper-cast small plastic.

In the first half of the 19th century. the problem of the classification of copper casting was of interest not only to historians and archaeologists, but also to officials of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. So, in one of the documents of the 1840s. it reads: “... cast copper crosses and icons, known under the names: Zagorsk, Pomor, Pogost and others, of which the first two varieties are cast in Moscow, and the last in the Vladimir province. The use of these icons and crosses, as you know, is ubiquitous throughout Russia, it has taken root for a long time among the common people, not excluding persons of the Orthodox confession, so that these icons are found in almost all huts and other dwellings and are hung in villages above the gates of houses , on ships and so on. Moreover, with these icons, the peasants bless their children who are away on long journeys or who are recruited, and these images remain with them for a lifetime ... ”. This official document is the first, known to us, attempt to understand copper casting, to determine its varieties and, most importantly, the distinctive features of each of the groups given. When describing objects, it is noted “ best finish"The so-called Pomor crosses and folds and the low quality of casting of Zagarsk and Pogost articles, on which" it is difficult to distinguish images. "

In the above classification, only 3 categories are named, or varieties of copper casting - Pomorskoe, Zagarskoe, Pogostskoe. For the first time, the mention of guslitsky casting is found in the materials of the Vladimir local historian I.A. Golysheva: “Copper icons are divided into 4 categories: Zagarsk (guslitsky), Nikologorsky (Nikologorsky churchyard), old or Pomor (for the schismatics of the Pomor sect) and new. The new ones are meant for the Orthodox, and the old ones are for the schismatics, who pour out with drawings special for them. "

In general, it becomes clear that the Old Believers' copper-cast plastic differed in categories, including the place of origin and production in its definition. Each of the named varieties had significant differences concerning not only the quality of casting, but, first of all, iconography and, therefore, existence among different groups of the population. So, the Pomor casting became widespread among the Old Believers-bespopovtsy (Pomors, Fedoseevtsy, Filippovtsy), who do not recognize the priesthood, and the Guslitsky was revered by the Old Believers-priests. Subsequently, icons, crosses and folds were made in numerous foundries all over Russia according to the accepted samples (Pomor, Guslitsky, etc.).

When classifying the Guslitsky and Zagorsk casting, it is necessary to recall and cite all the information we know that is relevant to the production and characterization of these categories. Only in this case it is possible to define what was meant by "guslitsky and / or tanning casting".

The qualitative difference between these groups of casting is evidenced by the data given in the catalog of the Old Believer icon, icon case and book trade of M.P. Vostryakov's heirs. It is known that at the beginning of the 20th century N.M. Vostryakov had trading places in Moscow in the Ilyinsky row and at the Nizhny Novgorod fair. Among the wide range of Old Believer products, there are not only books and church utensils, but also copper-cast items. So, for example, icons and crosses "of the best Pomor work" are shown with an indication of the iconography and the price per piece. Other categories of copper-cast products were sold by weight at a price per pood: "Zagarsk casting from 18 to 22 rubles." and "Antsiforovskoe casting from 30 to 38 rubles." We believe that a significant difference in price also indicated a difference in the quality of copper icons, crosses and folds, which apparently came from different workshops. Information about the Zagarsk foundries is contained in the published materials on the history of handicrafts in the Moscow province. Among the villages of the Novinsky volost of the Bogorodsky district, which "fed" with copper, the following are mentioned: the village of Averkievo - 7 workshops, the village of Alferovo - 17 workshops, the village of Danilovo - 22 workshops, the village of Dergaevo - 15 workshops, the village of Krupino - 12 workshops, village Novaya - 8 workshops, village Perkhurovo - 14 workshops, village Pestovo - 13 workshops, village Shibanovo - 9 workshops and others (total indicated - 139 copper establishments) ".

Note that among these workshops, only a few were engaged in casting images and folding. So, in the village of Novoe (which is attributed by another author to Guslitsy) only 3 owners are indicated - A.D. Afanasyev, I.M. Mikhailov, I.T. Tarasov, who had from 6 to 11 workers, including adult family members. The cost of the products produced annually was 5-10 thousand rubles.

The given data could change due to the demand for products. For example, in the village of Kostino (Zaponorskaya volost), there were isolated cases of icon painters' transition to "casting copper images and folding".

When analyzing the activities of these establishments with traditionally established production, which included a smithy and "printing", such a feature of the Zagarsk variety as the rare use of enamels to decorate the surface of copper-cast objects is noted.

The low quality of tanned products is evidenced by the information given by the Krasnoselsky master caster A.P. Serov (1899-1974): “Crosses and icons were cast in the Zagarye. The development of these products there was not famous - there was no purity in the casting and they said so: bad like Zagarsk. (For these products, their front side was not filed. Icons and crucifixes were so often forged under old casting). "

But obviously this characteristic cannot be attributed to the work of all tanning masters. So, at the famous All-Russian art and industrial exhibition of 1882, held in Moscow, among 12 exhibitors on copper products that presented bells, candlesticks, ashtrays and other items, a peasant from the village of Novoye, Bogorodsky district, Moscow province, Ivan Ivanovich Tarasov was awarded “for copper images very clean work and fairly cheap prices. " Later, in 1902, the master Fyodor Frolov from the same village exhibited his copper crosses at the All-Russian handicraft-industrial exhibition in St. Petersburg. The given brief information allows us to speak about the small possibilities of this handicraft establishment: “Production for the amount of up to 400 rubles / year. There are 3 men working, 1 of them is hired. Material from Moscow for up to 220 rubles / year. Distribution to different locations. Manual production. Works since 1890 ".

So, what kind of casting was called Zagarsk? Crosses, icons and folds can be preliminarily attributed to this category of copper-cast plastics, which are distinguished, first of all, by the absence of filing on the front and back sides, significant weight and rare use of enamels.

As a sample of a Zagarsk product of the second half of the 19th century. a small four-part icon “Martyrs Kirik and Julitta. Savior Not Made by Hands. Our Lady of Vladimir. Our Lady of the Sign ", crowned with ogpavia" Savior Not Made by Hands "(Ill. 1). Similar icons depicting the martyrs Kirik and Ulita were widespread among the people.

The closeness of the repertoire of the Zagarsk and Guslitsk copper-cast plastics and its ubiquitous existence made it difficult to clearly distinguish each group. So, at the beginning of the XX century. VG Druzhinin, a well-known researcher of Pomor books and plastics, attributed all drinks produced in the Moscow province to the category of "guslitsky or zagarsky". He wrote: “In Moscow, apparently, the casting of the priest-masters prevailed; in the eastern part of the Moscow province and the border part of the Vladimirskaya province adjacent to it, there is an area called Guslitsy. Cast icons are still working there in an artisanal way; images on them of very poor design; roughly done, mostly without enamel and differ sharply from the Pomeranian, although lightweight. "

From this generalized characteristic, attention should be paid to such an important feature as "lightness". We believe that in this case we are talking about the casting of guslitsky production. It is to this category that the so-called "Antsiforovskoye casting" can be attributed, which was sold in Moscow at a higher price than the Zagarsk one. In addition, it is known that already in the XVIII century. In the village of Antsiforov, master icon painters worked.

An analysis of all the information given about the Old Believer copper plastics of the 18th - 20th centuries, which existed in the Moscow province, makes it possible to determine the repertoire of guslitsky casting. The main place in its composition was occupied by crosses, which differed not only in a certain iconographic program, but also in compositional diversity. Guslitsk craftsmen cast men's and women's wearable crosses, eight-pointed altar crosses with a relief image of the Crucifixion of Christ and the title "I NCI" (Fig. 2) and iconic crosses of various sizes, supplemented with plates with groups of people to come, as well as icons-stamps with the twelve-year holidays and crowned , images of cherubim.

Icons and folds with images of the Savior and the Mother of God, Saints Nicholas the Wonderworker, Blasius, Athanasius, George, Florus and Laurus, Paraskeva Pyatnitsa - this is not a complete series of compositions created by masters near Moscow. Following ancient Russian traditions, the three-leafed guslitsky castings have a special shape, repeating in miniature the Royal Doors of the temple iconostasis. A fold with the image of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker (Mozhaisky) is a vivid example of the work of a guslitsky master (Ill. 3). In the centerpiece, which has a keeled end in the form of a kokoshnik, the saint is represented with a sword and a temple (hail) in his hands. In the upper part of the doors there is a divided composition "The Annunciation of the Most Holy Theotokos", in the hallmarks - "The Entry of the Lord into Jerusalem", "The Meeting of the Lord"; "Resurrection of Christ" ("Descent into Hell") and "Ascension of the Lord." Such guslitsky "folds", decorated not only with a curly plant shoot and a frame with a geometric ornament, but also decorated with white and blue enamel, are the most common type of copper-cast products. Lungs, with "superfluous", i.e. the processed surface of the turnover, relatively inexpensive guslitsky icons and folds enjoyed special veneration during the 18th - 20th centuries.

These simple copper cast images, distinguished by the originality of the form and decoration, allow us to speak of the existence of an independent artistic direction - guslitsky casting.

V. Ya. Zotova
Candidate of Historical Sciences,
senior researcher at the central museum
of ancient Russian culture and art. Andrey Rublev,
Curator of the Copper Casting Fund (Moscow)

The Bronze Horseman, a monument sculpted by Falconet, was an allegorical depiction of Peter and his deeds. Long before the opening of the monument, back in 1768, by order of Catherine II, its plaster model was exposed for public viewing, and the newspapers published the official interpretation of the allegory, listed the "properties" of the monument. “In order to know the properties of the statue now being made by Mr. Falconet, it is necessary to know that Emperor Peter the Great is depicted striving at a fast run up a steep mountain that forms the base, and stretching out his right hand to his people. I sow a stone mountain, which has no other decoration, as soon as its natural appearance, marks the difficulties suffered by Peter I; by the runner's gallop - the rapid flow of his affairs. The domestic hand does not require explanation. "

The Bronze Horseman - the image-symbol - is the ideological center of the poem. All the events of the Petersburg story are connected with him, the life of Eugene leads him irresistibly to the monument, the theme of the city naturally closes in on the monument to the one whose "fateful" will the city was founded. Finally, the flood that broke out in the capital threatened the monument as well; - “the flood was playing” on the square where the bronze horseman towered, and “the waves of ravenous crowds, revolting viciously around him”. The "spiteful rebellion" of the "predatory waves" against the bronze horseman highlighted the main metamorphosis of the image of Peter. The living personality of Peter in the Entry turned into a monument in the St. Petersburg story, into an idol. The living is contrasted with the dead, acting in its own behind the bronze imperial greatness.

This is just a statement of duality. The question is - has St. Petersburg become a city of captivity for nothing? - is not put, yes, and was not yet realized by Pushkin. In The Bronze Horseman, both the question is posed and the answer is given: the spirit of bondage is characteristic of the city as a citadel of autocracy. This answer, as a result of artistic research, is most fully given in the symbolic image of the monument.

Radishchev was the first to introduce into literature the huge theme of the Bronze Horseman: he was present at the unveiling of the monument on August 7, 1782, and in a "Letter to a friend who lives in Tobolsk, but the duty of his title" gave a description of the "powerful horseman", and most importantly, he did not limit himself to guessing the "thoughts of the sculptor "And the meaning of his allegory (which means" the steepness of the mountain ", the snake" lying on the way ", the head," crowned with laurels "), wisely interpreted the activities of Peter I.

The idea of the double nature of Petersburg had long tormented and worried Pushkin. It also broke through in a small lyric poem in 1828:

After the Introduction, the St. Petersburg tale begins, the plot of which is the life and death of a resident of the capital, a little official Eugene. And the appearance of the city immediately changes - the image-symbol acquires an even greater scale, its content is enriched and sharpened - it appears in its new face.

A new image-symbol appears - a monument, a statue, an idol on a bronze horse. It also turns out to be merged with the new face of the city - the stronghold of autocracy, highlighting the other face of Peter - the emperor. In the two faces of the city, acting as a symbolic image, the contradictoriness of the figure of Peter, a wise man-activist and an autocratic emperor, is manifested. Created by the people turned against him - the capital of the empire embodies the power of the autocrats, their inhuman policies. The image-symbol of the city acquired an acutely political character when the symbol of the city-capital intersected and interacted with the image-symbol of the monument, the bronze horseman.

The city is lush, the city is poor,
Boredom, cold and granite.
Spirit of bondage, slender look,

What is this new face of the city? Petersburg appears as a stronghold of Russian autocracy, as a stronghold of autocracy, it is fundamentally and consistently hostile to man. The capital of Russia, created by the people, turned into a hostile force both for themselves and for an individual V person. That is why gloomy, dark colors appear, r. That disturb the imagination ("November breathed autumnal chill over darkened Petrograd"), the Neva became formidable, foreshadowing misfortune ("Splashing with a noisy wave At the edges of its slender fence, Neva rushed about like a patient In her bed restless "), the streets were homeless and anxious (" It was already late and dark; the rain was pouring angrily through the window, And the wind blew, howling sadly ").

The vault of heaven is pale green,

Radishchev answered the question why any monarch, including an enlightened one, cannot express the interests of the people: “And I will say that Peter could have been more glorious, ascending himself and exalting his fatherland, affirming private liberty; but if we have examples that kings left their dignity in order to live in peace, which did not come from generosity, but from the satiety of their dignity, then there is no example until the end of the world; his power, sitting on the throne "

An exception was the production of pectoral crosses, which continued to be cast in workshops that offered their products to the ruling Church.

The spread of cast icons in the Old Believers, and to the greatest extent in pop-free consents, with the official Church almost completely indifferent to it, is explained, first of all, by the historical conditions of existence of the Old Believers.

Old Believers-bespopovtsy were convinced that the spiritual enthronement of the Antichrist had already taken place, therefore the true church can only be persecuted. This conviction found its extreme expression in the ideology of consent of wanderers or runners. It was difficult to constantly transport large church icons to a new place. Bulky icons fell, cracked, broke, the paint layer crumbled, it was difficult to hide them during constant searches. Cast icons turned out to be more suitable for the conditions of constant wandering. Therefore, it is precisely in bespopov agreements, mainly among the Pomors, that copper casting flourishes.

The set of plots of Old Believer copper casting differs significantly from the corresponding spectrum of pre-Mongol cast products. In the Old Believer coppersmiths, the lunars, characteristic of the transition from paganism to Christianity, with crosses attached to them, were not cast. Round cross-shaped pendants were not produced, in which the sign of the cross was inscribed in the ancient solar symbol. Serpentines common in the pre-Mongolian and early post-Mongolian epochs were not made.

At the same time, the subject matter is enriched by a multitude of versions known from the usual icon painting. Most of the icon-painting subjects, one way or another, are reproduced in copper casting.

A statistical analysis of copper icons makes it possible to compile a fairly accurate table of the prevalence of individual subjects in Old Believer copper casting:

The image of the Mother of God - 35%

Saints - 45%

Holidays - 11%

Image of Christ - 9%

The image of the Mother of God:

Our Lady of All Who Sorrow Joy - 35%

Mother of God Hodegetria of Smolensk - 25%

Our Lady of Kazan - 20%

Our Lady of the Sign - 10%

Mother of God of Tikhvin - 5%

The rest of the troubles - 5%

Nikola - 40%

Selected Saints (Kirik and Julitta, Gregory the Theologian and John Chrysostom, Paraskeva, Catherine and Barbara) - 12%

Antipa - 10%

George - 4%

Paraskeva - 4%

Mozhaisky - 3%

Kirik and Julitta - 2%

Others - 25%

Holidays:

Nativity of Christ - 23%

Nativity of the Virgin - 19%

Resurrection (Descent into Hell) - 14%

Old Testament Trinity - 12%

Crucifixion of Christ - 6%

Others - 26%

Images of Christ:

Deesis - 82%

Savior Image Miraculous - 6%

Savior the Almighty - 5%

Weekday - 5%

Others - 2%

Images of Christ

The Lord Jesus Christ, although he is the Head of the Church, is represented in iconography by a significantly smaller number of iconographic types (with many versions of each type) than the Mother of God and the saints. This is probably due to the fact that it is much easier for a sinful person to turn with a prayer request to a person - the Mother of God or a saint, than to God, even if it is the Incarnate God Jesus Christ.

The most common iconographic type in casting is the Deisus. The Russian word "Deisus" is a distorted Greek word "Deisis", which means prayer. Deesis is an image of Jesus Christ sitting on a throne, to the right of which is the Theotokos, to the left is John the Baptist .. In the Old Believer copper casting, the Deisus is most often the middle of the three-leaf folds, called "nines". Each side panel of such a folding bears an image of selected saints. Most often these are Metropolitan Philip, Apostle John the Theologian, Saint Nicholas - on the left wing; guardian angel, Saints Zosima and Savvaty - on the right. This selection of saints is not accidental. Zosima, Savvaty and Philip are saints, whose deeds were performed in the Solovetsky Monastery, very revered among the Old Believers of Vyga, where the first such folds were cast. The presence of the guardian angel and Nicholas the Wonderworker, the patron saint of travelers, shows that the "nines" were "travel" icons. They were taken on the road, worn as wearable icons. The Calvary cross on the reverse side of one of the doors made it possible to do without a separately worn pectoral cross. Foldings have survived, the midships of which were an ark divided into four parts, of a sufficiently deep depth, tightly closed by a plate with the image of Deisus. Such a folding could be used for storing holy relics or for transferring Holy Gifts, precious for the Old Believers, who were bespopovtsy, consecrated by pre-Nikon priests.

The second, less common, version of the "nine" has doors with a different set of saints: on the left are depicted - the great martyr George the Victorious, the holy martyrs Antipas and Blasii; on the right - the Monk John the Old Caveman and the Martyrs Cosmas and Damian.

Sometimes the centerpiece of such a Deesis was cast separately. In this case, he turned into the image of the Lord Almighty. There are also known special images of the Lord Almighty, both half-length and in the form of the Savior on the throne. As a rule, they are of a more ancient age.

The folds are more ancient, in which the middle is Deesis, in which all three figures are presented in full growth; the sash of such folding can be very different. The fold is quite widespread, in the centerpiece of which, below the full Deesis, there are half-length images of four saints: the Monk Zosima, Saint Nicholas, Saint Leonty, and the Monk Savvaty. Sometimes other saints were also depicted. The top of such a folding could be the Image of Christ Not Made by Hands or decorated with a simple geometric ornament.

A cast icon is known, on which below the Deesis are full-length figures of the Monk Zosima, the Guardian Angel, Saint Nicholas and the Monk Savvaty.

The name "Deesis" is sometimes referred to a very rare image, in the upper part of which there is a half-length image of the youth of Christ (Savior Emmanuel), on the sides of which are the figures of the Mother of God and St. Nicholas.

Another kind of copper-cast "Deisus" consists of three large icons, united by a common style. The middle one, which has a complex top, is Christ the Almighty, sitting on the throne, the two side ones are cut-through icons of the archangels Michael and Gabriel, elongated vertically. One of the oldest images of Christ the Savior that existed in copper casting is the so-called Savior of Smolensk. This iconographic type is a full-length depiction of Christ, decorated with a massive tsata, at whose feet the Monks Sergius of Radonezh and Varlaam of Khutynsky fall. On the sides of the Savior, in the upper part of the icon, there are images of angels holding the instruments of the passions in their hands. The Savior of Smolensk is found in the form of individual icons, often decorated with multicolored enamels, and as the middle of various folds.

Another iconographic type of Christ the Savior, depicted surrounded by saints, presented in copper casting, received an incomprehensible name "Weeks", although its correct name is "Savior with the Forthcoming". This is the Deesis, in which the figures of the archangels Michael and Gabriel, the apostles Peter and Paul are added to the images of the Mother of God and John the Baptist, as well as the leaning Zosima and Savvaty. In "Weeks" of a larger format, the figures of the Apostle John the Theologian and St. John Chrysostom are added, as well as the kneeling Nicholas the Wonderworker and St. Sergius of Radonezh.

The Image of the Savior not made by hands is most often found in casting in the form of tops of individual icons and folding ones. This tradition has its origins in the earliest examples of casting, and the iconography of the image changes very noticeably from the exquisite 17th century versions, which depicted the plate with its bizarre folds, to simple, almost schematic images of the 18th and 19th century. The Image Not Made by Hands is also found in the tops of cast crosses of various sizes. It is this type of cross, which, in addition to the Not-Made-by-Hand Image in the pommel, is distinguished by the absence of the image of the Holy Spirit "in the form of a dove" and "Pilate's title" - the letters INTSI, was considered the only correct cross by the Old Believers of the Pomeranian consent .

Russian icon painters, beginning in the 16th century, dared to depict the Second Hypostasis of the Trinity even before its Incarnation. Although the legitimacy of such allegorical images as Sophia the Wisdom of God in her Novgorod version was disputed by several church cathedrals of the 16th and 17th centuries, they continued to be reproduced until the end of the 19th century. They also found their reflection in copper casting.

The classical iconography of Sophia the Wisdom of God, as well as the symbolism of this image, is extremely complex. However, the central part of the image, which is a kind of "Deesis", in which instead of Christ sits on the throne a winged effeminate figure with angelic wings and a star-shaped halo, is represented in ancient casting by rare casts made long before the split.

The Old Believer copper casting reproduces an abbreviated version of Sophia, known in iconography since the 17th century under the name "Savior the Good Silence". Silence is a symbol of unspokenness, non-manifestation, non-embodiment. The silence of Sophia is a symbol of the non-incarnation of the Eternal Logos, and Sophia Itself is the Logos before the Incarnation. Thus, the icon "Savior the Good Silence" is the image of Jesus Christ before His Incarnation.

The image "Good Silence" is a half-length image of Sophia in its Novgorod version. This is a winged angel with the face of a young maiden with a star-shaped nimbus inscribed in a circle, dressed in a royal dalmatic, with his arms crossed on his chest. In casting, this image appears only towards the end of the 18th century. It exists either in the form of a small casting, where only an angel is depicted, or in the form of a larger icon, where the angel turns into a centerpiece, inscribed in a frame with 18 round medallions, in which there are waist figures of various saints. These icons, as a rule, were colored with enamels of various shades.

The theological content of this very elegant icon is inferior to the more modest, but no less mysterious image of the Angel of the Great Council. This is what the famous collectors of the 19th century, the Khanenko brothers, call this image of an angel on a cross. The angel himself with a mirror and a measure in his hands resembles the well-known image of the Archangel Michael. However, the presence of the cross behind the angel helps to see in this image a deeper theological content. The Apostle Peter in the First Council Epistle, which is part of the New Testament, calls Jesus Christ the Lamb, destined even before the creation of the world for the slaughter (1 Peter 1, 19-20). The same symbolic image is found in the Apocalypse (Rev. 13.8). In the same time prophet isaiah calls the yet non-incarnate Christ the Angel of the Great Council (Isaiah 9.6). Thus, this small image of an angel expresses the deepest theological idea of the infinite love of God for man, God, ready to sacrifice Himself for the salvation of the only being who is the bearer of His Image.

Images of the Virgin

The Mother of God was the closest to the saints to the Russian Orthodox person. Hundreds of iconographic types are known in icon painting, each of which, originating from a specific miraculous icon, has several varieties. Not all of them are found in the products of the Old Believer coppersmiths: some due to the fact that they were little known in Russia (for example, Mammal, Jerusalem, Blakhernskaya, etc.), and some due to the fact that they were very similar to each other ( for example, Smolensk, Iverskaya, Skoroposlushnitsa)

The most common theotokos plot in casting is the image of "Joy to All Who Sorrow". Perhaps this is due to the fact that this icon was one of the last miraculous icons glorified in Russia before the split. This plot is found in small plaques, rather large castings with a dome-shaped top, sometimes framed by cherubs. Tricuspid folds of various types are quite common, the middle of which represent this image. Unlike icons on wood, where the Mother of God is sometimes depicted with a baby, in casting she is always depicted without a baby with a scepter in her hands. The top of the dome-shaped castings contains the image of Jesus Christ wearing a crown and with outstretched blessing hands; this version in iconography is known under the name "Tsar Tsar". In large casts, the composition of the icon is more detailed than in small ones, where it is limited to the figures of the Mother of God and several suffering people who benefited from her; here angels appear, through whom the Mother of God gives her help, the faces of the sun and moon, symbolizing the continuity of this grace.

The second most common type of casting is the iconographic type of the Smolensk Mother of God. This is one of the many images that go back to the Byzantine image of Hodegetria - the Guide, known in Russia since the 12th century. A feature of this image is the infant Christ, sitting on the left hand of the Virgin; his right hand is folded into a two-fingered blessing, his left is clutching a folded scroll. The faces of the Theotokos and Christ are depicted frontally. On some castings, both the Mother of God and the Christ Child have special neck decorations - tsats. There are icons on which, over the halo of the Virgin Mary, there is a crown. These images are close to the different type of the Skoroposlushnitsa from the Smolensk type.

The image of the Tikhvin Mother of God is also close to Smolensk. The difference is that the faces of the Mother of God and Christ are facing each other, and the baby's right leg is tucked under the left so that the lower part of the foot is visible.

Kazan is another icon of the Mother of God widely known in Russia. Acquired in 1579, it remained among the locally revered, that is, not revered outside of a certain region of the icons, until the fall of 1612. The people's militia, which liberated Moscow from the Poles and Lithuanians, moved to the capital with this miraculous icon. Since that time, Kazan has become a national shrine of the Russian state: most of the churches and monasteries built in the 17th century were consecrated in honor of this icon. A distinctive feature of Kazan is that the infant Christ is depicted standing. His left hand is hidden in the folds of his clothes, his right is folded into a two-fingered blessing. The image of the Mother of God is shoulder-worn; her hands are not visible at all. On separate icons, the Theotokos and Christ have tsats. In copper casting, the image of the Kazan Mother of God is presented in products of different sizes with a wide variety of tops. A wide variety of folds are widespread, in which the centerpiece - less often one of the doors - represents the Kazan icon.

Among the ancient icons of the Mother of God, the icon of the Sign, originating from Novgorod, occupies a special place. In copper casting, this image is represented by several types of products. The "simple" Sign is a half-length image of the Mother of God with raised hands, in the center of which there is also a half-length image of the infant Christ, sometimes inscribed in a circle. The infant's right hand - sometimes both - is folded into a two-fingered blessing. There is another common version of the Sign, in which the Virgin and Child are in the middle of a rhombus formed by slightly concave lines, at the corners of which are the symbols of the Evangelists. In the rare, most ancient and most beautiful casts, the composition of the Sign is framed by two cherubs. The omen can be part of miniature bivalve - less often three-winged - folding. One of the rarest folds is the so-called panagia - a fold, consisting of two round leaves, one of which is the image of the Sign, the other - the image of the Old Testament Trinity.

Among other iconographic types of the Virgin, known in casting, the most interesting are the Three-handed, Vladimirskaya, Burning Kupina, Passionate, Bogolyubskaya, and Pokrov.

Three-handed is a very interesting iconographic type that appeared in Byzantium at the end of the 8th century. Some art historians associate the appearance of this image with the influence of the iconography of Hinduism, where many-armed deities were a familiar reality. However, it is more likely that the Three-handed person appears as an "icon of an icon", that is, an image of the icon of the Mother of God, to which a healed person has attached a silver or gold image of an aching hand. Church tradition connects the appearance of the image of the Three-Handed with the name of John Damascene, a learned monk, theologian and hymnographer who occupied an important position at the court of the Damascus ruler in the 8th century. At the direction of the iconoclast emperor Constantine Copronymus, John, who wrote several works in defense of the veneration of icons, had his right hand cut off, which subsequently merged safely with the body. John Damascene was the man who hung the image of the hand to the image in front of which he prayed for healing. In copper casting, the Three-handed is rare. It is a small copper plate with an unusual decorative frame.

The Vladimir icon, the first national shrine of Russia, brought from Byzantium in the middle of the 12th century, is relatively rarely reproduced in copper casting. Vladimirskaya belongs to the ancient Byzantine iconographic type Tenderness. The Christ Child is on right hand Theotokos, presses against her so tightly that the palm of his left hand, clasping his neck, becomes visible. The baby's left leg is tucked under the right so that the lower part of the foot is visible. The Vladimir icon is known both in independent casts and as a centerpiece in three-leaf folds. There are known casts of the Vladimir icon, in which the head of the Mother of God is crowned with a crown.

The iconographic type of the Fedorov Icon of the Mother of God, which was considered the patroness of the Reigning House of the Romanovs, is close to the Vladimir icon. The difference lies in the free position of the baby's legs.

The Burning Bush is the most complex and multi-figured icon. In the circle formed by angels with outstretched wings there is a half-length image of the Mother of God with the Christ child, similar to Hodegetria. This circle is the central part of an eight-pointed star, in the rays of which there are symbols of the evangelists and images of various angelic ranks. Angels are also depicted in the space between the rays of the star. In the corners of the icon there are four compositions dedicated to the Old Testament prophecies of the Mother of God: Moses in front of the Burning Bush, Jesse under the tree of the family of David, Jacob's Ladder and the prophecy of Ezekiel. The Burning Bush is often decorated with multi-colored enamels, which make the icon very attractive. Particularly beautiful are large icons, on which, above the image of the Burning Bush, in five round medallions, half-length images of the Apostle Peter, the Mother of God, Jesus Christ, John the Baptist, the Apostle Paul are depicted.

Equally multi-figured, although less interesting than the Burning Bush, is the icon of the Intercession of the Most Holy Theotokos.

The Passionate Icon of the Mother of God is a half-length image of the Hodegetria type, in which the Mother of God and the baby are surrounded by angels who hold the instruments of passion in their hands. The baby's head is turned back towards one of the angels. The head of the Mother of God is crowned with a jagged crown extending beyond the upper edge of the icon. The passionate is often crowned with five cherubs; often she is the middle of a tricuspid folding.

The Bogolyubskaya icon of the Mother of God, known since the end of the 12th century, is an image of the Mother of God without a baby, in full growth with a scroll in her hands. In copper casting, one of the rare editions of the later period is widespread, in which, in addition to the Mother of God, Metropolitan Peter standing in front of her and several kneeling figures are depicted. The half-length image of the Mother of God with a scroll, close to Bogolyubskaya, forms the left wing of the sa most common tricuspid folding Deisus.

Very beautiful and unusual is the Mother of God image "Do not weep for me, Mati", which depicts the Savior taken from the cross. This "Russian pieta" has a very laconic and at the same time expressive iconography. On the background of the upper part of the cross, there are half-length images of the dead Jesus with his hands folded on his chest and the Mother bowing to him. They lean against the wall of the coffin, in which the body is to be placed. This image is known in the archaic casts of the 17th century and in the realistic icons of the 18th and 19th centuries.

Holiday stories

In the Old Believer casting, festive plots occupy a large place. Basically, these are images of the main church holidays, which by their number (12) are called "twelve". Only one holiday, the Resurrection of Christ, has a higher status, which is also quite fully represented in ancient casting.

Among the "travel" icons worn on the body during travels of the 16th-17th centuries, "festive" images are remarkable for their richness, where up to twelve holidays are placed on a space of several square centimeters. Similar images, in which the images of saints took the place of holidays, were distinguished by the same laconicism.

All twelve feasts are united in the shutters of the well-known three-winged folding fold, which was originally cast, most likely, in the Vyga coppersmiths. The peculiarity of this folding is the absence of the plot of the Exaltation of the Cross, instead of which the Resurrection is inserted. The appearance of this fold is associated with the theme of the iconostasis, which is the most noticeable and necessary part of an Orthodox church. The iconostasis is the first thing that catches the eye of every person who enters an Orthodox church. This is a symbol of the unity of the earthly Church, consisting of believers living on earth, and the Heavenly Church, which includes the saints glorified by God. The Russian man became so close to the iconostasis that he wanted to have it with him even when there was no opportunity to visit the church.

For centuries, the Old Believers, persecuted by the authorities, did not have the opportunity to pray in real, properly built churches. The few churches built under the three monarchs condescendingly, referring to the adherents of the old faith: Catherine II, Paul and Alexander the First, - during the reign of Emperor Nikolai Pavlovich were either forcibly transferred to common faith, or were deprived of crosses on domes and bells on bell towers; the altars of the temples that did not join the Unity remained sealed for half a century. Old Believers accepting the priesthood were rescued by the so-called marching churches, which were vast linen tents, which housed marching iconostases - wooden folds, consisting of one and a half or more dozen doors, depicting all five tiers of the classic Russian iconostasis.

The Old Believers bespopovtsy did not need an iconostasis, since there were no altars in their chapels. The absence of priests did not allow serving the Liturgy, celebrating the Sacrament of the Eucharist (Communion), the only one that should be performed at the altar. However, the iconostasis was the strongest reminder of the lost fullness of church life. The love for him was so irresistible that the eastern wall in the prayer house, in which there were not only the Royal Doors, but no doors at all, was tightly hung with icons arranged in the canonical order of the iconostasis.

The first folding iconostases were double-leaf compositions depicting the main part of the iconostasis, local icons of the Savior and the Mother of God, which are placed in the stationary iconostasis on the sides of the Royal Doors. The northern origin of this fold is obvious: the Mother of God was represented by the ancient Novgorod shrine - the icon of the Sign, the image of the Savior was replaced by the Old Testament Trinity. Along with this laconic replica of the local rank of the iconostasis, a three-winged Deesis appears, which immediately appears in a fairly complete form of the so-called "nine" (actually Deesis - on the centerpiece and three saints on the doors) and only then is limited to three images of the Savior, the Mother of God and John Forerunners, one on each leaf. The three-leaf folding with images of the twelve major holidays becomes the image of the festive rite of the classic Russian iconostasis.

Already at the beginning of the 18th century, the three-winged folding with twelve-year holidays was expanded into the so-called "large sections". A fourth wing appears, which depicts the acquisition of four miraculous icons, the most revered in the Russian Church in pre-Nikon times. This is the acquisition of the Smolensk Icon of the Mother of God with selected saints; the meeting (meeting) of the Vladimir icon with the revered Moscow miracle workers; the appearance of the Tikhvin icon with selected saints; and the image of the Mother of God of the Sign with the Novgorod saints. The doors are crowned with domed pommels, in which four more plots are placed: Crucifixion with the forthcoming, New Testament Trinity surrounded by angels; Exaltation of the Cross and Praise of the Virgin. Colored with numerous enamels, sometimes gilded, these "large gates" became real travel iconostases, which, together with the prayers of pilgrims, absorbed the history of huge Old Believer families, whole accords, wandering over vast areas from the Austro-Hungarian border to Eastern Siberia.

Large sections were cast, probably, in the largest circulations - every Old Believer family wanted to have a traveling iconostasis. However, few of them have survived to this day in full four-winged composition. The godless power even destroyed the old-believer family way of life, which had been tested for centuries. The family collapsed, the sons went to the side, and when the last keeper of the family iconostasis died, the fold was dismantled into sashes, each of which went to a new family. To this day, in many families, who barely remember their Old Believer roots, separate doors of the festive folding are kept darkened, worn out almost to the point of complete indistinguishability.

Molds for casting holiday folds were usually assembled from separate dies. Therefore, all the plots of the four-leaf festive folding, including the tops, existed in the form of separate castings. The difference in the frequency of these small icons is associated with a different attitude towards the holidays, the status of which in the church calendar was the same. For example, the feast of the Lord's Entry into Jerusalem (Palm Sunday) was lost in the shadow of Easter, which came exactly one week after Palm Sunday; the feast of Epiphany (Epiphany) became invisible after the Nativity of Christ and the almost two-week Christmastide with their inevitable festivities. Relatively rare were the subjects of the Introduction to the Temple, the Presentation, the Ascension.

Many holiday plots appeared in casting long before foldings imitating the iconostasis began to be cast. The ancient icons of the Nativity of Christ are very touching, on which there are figures of bowed angels and the figure of Joseph, alone in its detachment from the event, and a swaddled figure of the infant Christ lying in a manger, over which a melancholic cow is bending. In the lower part of the icon there is an image of a round font, in which Jesus is bathed. The counterpoint of the complex composition is the Star of Bethlehem at the top of the icon. Magi with gifts appear in casts of the 19th century, and next to Joseph appears the figure of an old man leaning on a staff. This is an evil spirit that confuses the righteous with an indication of the unusual circumstances of the appearance of the Divine Infant.

Almost more often than the Nativity of Christ, the Nativity of the Virgin is found in copper casting, known in castings of various sizes. The prevalence of the plot is probably due to the fact that this holiday (September 21, new style) was the first big holiday of the church year, which began on September 1. In addition, the icon depicts the parents of the Virgin Mary, the saints and righteous Joachim and Anna, who for a long time did not have children, and to whom the childless spouses prayed.

Quite often, the plot of the Resurrection of Christ is embodied in copper casting. The moment of Resurrection was hidden from the observant human eye. The wives of the myrrh-bearer discovered an empty coffin, in which lay the remains of the cloth in which the Body of Jesus was wrapped. Therefore, classical Byzantine iconography knew only two images of the Resurrection: the appearance of an angel to the myrrh-bearing wives and the descent into hell. These iconographic types were also established in Russian icon painting, and only the last of them originally existed in copper casting. Until the end of the 18th century, in copper casting, the Resurrection of Christ was embodied only in the form of the Descent into Hell. Christ was portrayed as standing on the crossed boards of the overthrown infernal gates; he stretched out his hand to Adam, raising with him from hell the souls of all sinners there. Towards the end of the 18th century, this iconography becomes somewhat more complicated: an allegorical depiction of hell appears in the form of a gaping toothy mouth; some of the castings bear the image of three Calvary crosses.

In the 19th century, in Russian iconography, a previously unknown image of Christ rising from the sepulcher, who came from the Catholic West, appeared in Russian iconography, carrying a certain banner in his hands and surrounded by angels leaning towards him. The iconography of the Resurrection in copper plastic became extremely complicated at this time. Above the composition of Descent into Hell, there is a Latin image of the risen Christ. Appear: the angel slaying demons, the Apostle Peter, crouching to the tomb, the angels who are in it. Sinners raised from hell ascend to heaven, the entrance to which is guarded by a seraphim placed immediately after the expulsion of Adam and Eve. In paradise, the sinners who have turned into righteous are awaited by three lucky ones who got there before the Resurrection of Christ: these are the Old Testament forefather Enoch, the prophet Elijah and the prudent robber Rach.

In several versions, the plot of the Assumption was embodied - one of the favorite Russian holidays. Even on the smallest "vershok" icons, it was possible to place the bed with the body of the Mother of God, and Christ receiving her soul, and the apostles who arrived at the burial and the six-winged seraphim standing at the entrance to paradise; an angel was also depicted swelling with the sword of the hand of an impious Jew who intended to overturn the bed of the Virgin. Along with these miniatures, in the second half of the 19th century, large icons of the Assumption were cast, in the upper part of which there were half-length images of the apostles, carried on the clouds to the burial place of the Virgin.

The iconography of the Annunciation in copper casting has at least two versions. Only the Virgin Mary and the Archangel Gabriel are depicted in small icons; the swift movement of the Holy Spirit is emphasized by oblique strokes. In the larger icons, the plot is enriched with the image of God the Father bowed, sitting on a lush cloud and blessing Mary. In this case, the interior has been worked out in more detail.

The embodiment of the Exaltation of the Cross plot is very interesting. Copper icons with the Exaltation of the Cross are somewhat larger than other holidays. In the center - Patriarch Macarius, raising (erecting) the authentic cross of Christ found during excavations. His hands are supported by two deacons. To the left of the Patriarch is the Equal-to-the-Apostles Emperor Constantine the Great. On the right is his mother, Empress Elena, who organized the search for the cross.

The Entrance to Jerusalem (Palm Sunday) is just as beautiful. In the center of the composition is Christ sitting on a donkey. His disciples - the apostles follow him. On the right - against the background of the Jerusalem Temple, the inhabitants of the capital of Judea with palm branches in their hands.

Ascension also belongs to the multi-figured compositions that have found embodiment in casting. The ascended Christ himself is depicted in a circle, which is raised by four angels. Below, the apostles and the Mother of God are depicted in full length.

The Epiphany (Epiphany) plot is an abridged version of the typical iconography of the holiday. John the Baptist immerses Christ in the waters of the Jordan; He is met by the angels on the right; above him in the clouds is God the Father and the Holy Spirit issuing from him in the form of a dove.

Equally laconic is the icon of the holiday of the Transfiguration. In the Center, surrounded by radiance, Christ with the upcoming prophets Moses (right) and Elijah (left). Below - three kneeling figures of the apostles Peter, John and James. The rays of light emanating from Christ with considerable physical force bend them to the ground.

Externally similar plots of the Introduction and the Meeting are quite rare. The similarity lies in the fact that the action in both cases takes place in the Jerusalem temple and the priest participates in it. In the Meeting, this is Elder Simeon, who meets the Holy Family, bringing the infant Christ to the temple. In the plot of the Introduction, the priest's name is Zechariah. He meets the baby Mary, the future Mother of God, who is brought to the temple by her parents Joachim and Anna.

The Orthodox holiday of the Trinity is embodied in two iconographic subjects. Firstly, this is the Descent of the Holy Spirit on the Apostles and the Mother of God, the event to which the holiday is dedicated. Secondly, it is the Old Testament Trinity - three angels, symbolizing the three Hypostases of the Divine who appeared to the forefather Abraham. The descent of the Holy Spirit in the Old Believer casting is represented by a few products that are not widespread outside the "large range". The Mother of God, placed in the center of the icon, is surrounded by the apostles. Above it, in a semicircle, the Holy Spirit is depicted "in the form of a dove." Here you can see a clear discrepancy with the canon: according to the book of the Acts of the Holy Apostles and canonical iconography, the descent of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost occurs not in the form of a dove, but in the form of tongues of flame.

The Old Testament Trinity is found in a greater number of versions. At the heart of each of them is an image of three angels sitting at a table with a prepared meal; in the background, a stylized image of the Mamre oak is a characteristic detail of this plot. Interesting are rare casts on which angels are decorated with massive tsats. A possible prototype of these copper-cast icons were icons on wood, covered with frames, on which tsats were common details in the 17th century. An interesting round icon, an icon imitating a panagia, with a pommel in the form of the Savior Not Made by Hands, on which, in addition to three angels, is depicted serving Abraham and Sarah, and with them a slave slaughtering a lamb who will be served on the table.

The Crucifixion should also be attributed to the festive themes. At the same time, icons depicting the crucified Christ are found much less often than individual crucifixes. The iconography of the Crucifixion is simple. In addition to the cross with the crucified Savior, the icon usually depicts four coming: the Mother of God and St. Mary on the left, John the Theologian and centurion Longinus on the right. There are rare icons depicting a crucifixion, in which two persons to come are depicted in full growth, and two more are placed on top in a half-length image. Crucifixions without any forthcoming are even more rare.

The icons with the archaic form of the Crucifixion with two standing ones are very elegant, which is surrounded by ten round medallions with half-length images of saints: the upper row is Deesis, below - symmetrical paired images of the archangels Michael and Gabriel, the apostles Peter and Paul; the bottom row represents Metropolitan Alexy, Leonty of Rostov and St. Sergius of Radonezh.

By their meaning, 4 great holidays are approaching the twelveth holiday, of which three are reflected in the casting. These are the holidays of the Protection of the Most Holy Theotokos, the Nativity of John the Baptist and the Beheading of John the Baptist.

Icon of the Intercession - depicts the vision of the Virgin in the Blachernae temple of Constantinople during the siege of the city by the Saracens. There are two planes on the icon - earthly and heavenly. In the lower part of the icon there is an image of the temple, praying, Blessed Andrew pointing to his disciple Epiphanius to heaven. Deacon Roman the Sweet Songwriter, who received the gift of composing church hymns from the Mother of God, is also here. This is a side plot that is not directly related to the holiday of the Intercession. In the upper plan - the image of the Mother of God, surrounded by the faces of the saints in front of Jesus Christ. In her hands she holds an omophorion (veil), which is a symbol of her intercession. Copper casting reproduces one later version of this iconographic type. It differs in that the Mother of God is depicted not in the center, as in the ancient editions, but in the left part, half-turned. Sometimes the cast icons of the Intercession have a pommel in the form of an image of Christ - King as King, the Old Testament Trinity or the New Testament Trinity.

The holidays of the Nativity and the Beheading of John the Baptist are combined in one casting. At the top of the icon is the Lord Almighty in the clouds, on the left is Christmas, on the right is Beheading.

Images of saints

Saints in Old Believer casting are not particularly numerous. Of the hundreds of names included in the calendar, no more than two dozen saints are embodied in casting. At the same time, the Archangel Michael, most common in pre-Mongol casting, almost disappears in the Old Believer.

Cast icons with images of saints are best classified by the number of images.

A lone saint on cast Old Believer icons may be: Nicholas the Wonderworker (he is also Saint Nicholas, Nicholas of Mirlikisky, Nicholas), Hieromartyr Antipas, Great Martyr George the Victorious, Martyr Dmitry Thessaloniki, Venerable Sergius of Radonezh, Saint Tikhon, the Apostle John the Theologian - the devil, the martyr Paraskeva-Friday, the martyr Uar, the martyr Tryphon, the Monk Paisios, the Monk Niphon and the Monk Mara.

Most often there are cast icons of St. Nicholas the Wonderworker, the most revered saint in Russia. The Old Believers recognized only the ancient form of the name of this saint - Nikola, which was placed on the icons. Nikola's iconography is a variation of two versions: Nikola Zaraisky - with the Gospel (it can be closed and opened) in his hands and Nikola Mozhaisky - full-length, with a temple in his left hand and a sword in his left.

Nikola Mozhaisky is much less common in casting, which corresponds to the ratio of these images in an ordinary wooden icon. A characteristic feature Nikola's iconography is the presence of half-length images of Christ and the Mother of God, holding out the Gospel and omophorion to the saint - signs of his episcopal dignity. This feature is associated with one hagiographic episode. Saint Nicholas denounced the heresiarch Arius at the First Ecumenical Council so passionately that in the heat of polemics he struck him on the cheek. Such assault was considered a sin, and Saint Nicholas was stripped of his episcopal rank. It was returned to him only after Christ Himself and the Mother of God appeared in a dream to the influential participants in the Council and pointed out the incorrectness of their decision. Occasionally, instead of Christ and the Mother of God, Nikola is surrounded by images of two saints.

Nikola's waist pictures come in a wide variety of sizes. They are part of a wide variety of folds. From small wearable icons to very large icons decorated with multicolor enamels. The most common are the so-called "vershok" icons, where Nikola is depicted with the forthcoming Zosima and Savvaty Solovetsky.

Icons with Nikolai Mozhaisky are also diverse. Foldings with the image of this saint became widespread. Small carved icons dating back to the 17th century are very beautiful. Occasionally there are icons of Nikolai Mozhaisky, on which two scenes from his life are depicted on either side of the saint.

The next after Nicholas in terms of distribution is the image of the Hieromartyr Antipas, Bishop of Pergamon. Antipas is known for the small icons and middle pieces of numerous folds. His appearance is distinguished by a long wavy beard and curls on his head. Larger icons covered with floral ornaments are known, often covered with multi-colored enamels. The most beautiful of them have the image of Deesis in three round medallions located over the head of the saint. On some castings with the image of Antipas, the letters Z and C are visible, which means the Tooth Healer. Antipa is believed to help in the treatment of toothache.

The image of St. George the Victorious is also quite common in copper casting. Probably, the tradition of making cast images of George has not been interrupted since pre-Mongol times. Old Believers made both small icons with George and larger icons, often decorated with enamels. Icons such as mullions were inserted into folds with various doors. There are at least three different types of carved icons dating back to the 17th century. George's iconography is traditional. He is depicted sitting on a horse, striking a defeated winged dragon with a spear. The staging of the figure of the saint is variable. Its head can be turned forward or, less commonly, half turned backward. In the upper right corner, the blessing right hand of God is visible in the clouds. There are icons on which, above the figure of the saint, there is a half-length image of Christ-Emmanuel (the youth), with a blessing gesture of both hands.

Even more than George, another martyr was venerated in pre-Mongol Russia - the warrior Dmitry Solunsky. In Old Believer casting, the image of this saint is known mainly in one very elegant casting. The central part of this icon depicts Dmitry sitting on a horse and beating with a spear the wicked pagan Leah, who was thrown to the ground. In general, Dmitry's iconography is very similar to that of George. However, where George has a dragon, Dmitry has a defeated warrior Leah. Above the image of Dmitry in the icon in question is the Savior Not Made by Hands, on either side of which there are four waist images; on the left - Prince Vladimir and John Chrysostom, below - the Monk Sava and Saint Meletius; on the right - Saint Athanasius and Emperor Constantine, below - Saint Lazarus and Saint Paphnutius. To the left of the very image of Dmitry is a column with three saints: the Monk John of Damascus, Prince Boris, the Martyr Florus; right the same column: the Monk Ephraim the Syrian, the prince Gleb, the martyr Laurus. The lower row is formed by the half-length figures of six holy hermit dwellers: the Monks Mary of Egypt, Onuphrius, Peter the Athonite, African, Maron, Alexei God's man. This very ornate icon was usually decorated with numerous enamels. Images of Dmitry Solunsky were occasionally placed on the middle of three-fold folding.

Ilya was one of the favorite saints of Ancient Russia. It is difficult to understand why the prophet, who denounced the wicked Israeli kings in the 9th century BC, becomes a completely Russian saint, responsible for thunder and lightning, as well as for the timely supply of rain. This is probably due to the fact that one of the first Kiev Christian churches, built long before the Baptism of Rus, was Ilyinskaya. Specific traits Perun, the main deity of the ancient Slavic pantheon, united with Ilya, whom the Kievans who were not rooted in the new faith for a long time considered more important than Christ. In casting, Ilya has been known since ancient times. The composition of the Fiery Ascent was embodied in small icons, which existed both independently and were middle and (less often) folding sashes. In larger icons, it was supplemented by several more scenes of hagiography.

Orthodox women in Russia traditionally venerated the martyr Paraskeva-Friday. The image of this saint is also quite common, but only in small copper-cast icons. Usually these are half-length images, in which Paraskeva holds a cross in his right hand and an unfolded scroll in his left. Occasionally Saint Paraskeva is crowned with a crown. Even more rarely, two saints are depicted in the upper part of the icon.

The Monk Sergius of Radonezh is portrayed in a monastic robe, with an open head. His expression is very good-natured. Castings with the image of St. Sergius vary in size. In most of them above the head of St. Sergius there is an image of the Holy Trinity, in honor of which the first temple of his monastery was consecrated.

The Monk Niphon, who was considered to be "the exorcist of demons", is represented by the only icon on which the saint is depicted in a monk's doll with a scroll in his hands. The Monk Mara is similar to him, who, unlike Niphont, is cast bald and with an uncovered head.

The Monk Tikhon in Old Believer casting is represented by one small image, in which the saint is depicted in a mantle and a monastic doll.

The apostle and evangelist John the Theologian is represented in the same way with a figurative ending. This is the famous composition "John the Theologian in Silence", where an eagle is depicted next to the seated apostle - his iconographic symbol.

Very touching small icons depicting the martyr Nikita beating the demon. This image dates back to the pre-Mongol era. In the 15th - 17th centuries, pectoral crosses with the image of Nikita the Besogon were very common. The image of a saint who defeated evil spirits was considered good remedy against the mischief of demons.

Among the copper-cast icons with images of single saints, there are small icons of the martyrs Paisius, Huar and Tryphon, which have a similar style. The appearance of these saints is due to their special function in the life of a Russian person. They prayed to the Martyr Tryphon at danger from enemies; this saint helped in the expulsion of all kinds of insect pests from the fields and vegetable gardens. The Canon was read to the martyr Uaru for those who died without repentance; they prayed for the repose of those careless Christians, over whom the priest refused to sing the burial. In addition, they prayed to the Martyr Paisius for the repose of the suicides.

There are few icons depicting two saints. These are the images of the princes of the passion-bearers Boris and Gleb, Kirik and Ulita, Blasius and Athanasius, the Monks Zosima and Savvaty.

Boris and Gleb were the first saints glorified by the Russian Church. The sons of Vladimir, who baptized Russia, killed by their brother Svyatopolk the Accursed, young Boris and Gleb were considered the embodiment of Christian humility and defenders of all unjustly offended people. In casting, Boris and Gleb are always portrayed as horsemen. Round body images depicting the two holy princes appeared long before the Mongol invasion. The carved icon depicting Boris and Gleb sitting on horses with mines decorated with flags in their hands is very beautiful. The icon is crowned with a round medallion with the image of the Trinity, above which there is a small plate with the image of the Savior Not Made by Hands, in which there is a hole for the Gaitan. This iconography is repeated in other images, which are of different sizes. In later casts, the caps on the heads of the princes are replaced by helmets.

Images of the martyr Julita and her baby son Kirik should also be attributed to images common in casting. Julita is depicted with a cross in her hand, Kirik with his hands folded on his chest. Small images made in the spirit of touching naivety are very attractive. They depict Kirik and Iulita surrounded by flowers of a fantastic size. Such images were often used as mullions of tricuspid folds. The image of Kirik and Iulita is included in a fairly common four-part icon, where, on an area of several square centimeters, in addition to them, plots can be placed: The Image Not Made by Hands, the Vladimir Mother of God, the Mother of God of the Sign. A small icon with selected saints is very common, where the martyrs Paraskeva, Eudokia and Barbara are depicted in the upper row, in the lower row - Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, Kirik and Julita.

Blasius and Athanasius were portrayed very simply, in the form of standing figures, dressed in felonies, covered with bishop's homophores. These icons often became the middle of the folds.

A small icon depicting the Apostle John the Theologian and his disciple Prokhor is quite rare. Among the saints is the image of the Savior Not Made by Hands, under which is a conventional image of Heavenly Jerusalem.

The Monks Zosima and Savvaty were especially loved by the Old Believers, since the Solovetsky Monastery founded by them for a very long time resisted the reforms of Patriarch Nikon, who, incidentally, was also one of the Solovetsky monastic brethren. Zosima and Savvaty cast against the background of the Solovetsky archipelago; in their hands they held a model of their monastery. Particularly touching are the icons, on which, with the help of white and blue enamel, the casters depicted the sea on which the monastery stood.

The images of the three saints in Old Believer casting are represented by a few icons. In the form of individual icons, the folds of the folding "nines" were cast, the centerpiece of which was Deesis. These are icons depicting Metropolitan Philip, Nicholas the Wonderworker and John the Theologian; The Guardian Angel, Saints Zosima and Savvaty; Great Martyr George, Hieromartyrs Antipas and Blasias; St. John the Old Cave, Martyrs Cosmas and Damian.

Icons of three saints were very common: Gregory the Theologian, Basil the Great and John Chrysostom. This image is known in two versions. One of them, more ancient, represents the great teachers of the church in full growth in a frontal composition. Another, which appeared not without the influence of the Baroque, depicts the saint in freer and more relaxed poses; this image is known as "Conversation".

Similar to the three-priestly image in its first simplified version is the icon of the Monks John Levichnik, John Damascene, and Alexy the Man of God.

The great martyr and healer Panteleimon, surrounded by the holy martyrs Zadok and Athenogenes, form another icon of the "troika". The Hieromartyr Antipas, surrounded by the martyrs Florus and Laurus, was cast both as a separate icon and as the middle of the fold.

Among the saints revered among the people, a special place was occupied by the martyrs Guri, Samon and Aviv, who were considered the patrons of marriage. Small cast figurines with full-face full-length images of these saints are known.

The height-profile images of the martyrs John the Warrior, Kharlampy and Boniface are characteristic of yet another cast icon of "vershok" size. They prayed to John the Warrior for the return of a stolen or lost thing, the martyr Bonifatius helped from an excessive addiction to wine.

Similar icons of the "troika" were cast with images of the martyrs Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, Catherine and Barbara; Paraskeva Friday, St. Nicholas, St. Tikhon. It should be noted that Saint Tikhon, depicted in a phelonion with the bishop's omophorion, is not the Monk Tikhon, who is better known in icons with the only saint.

A rather rare icon is a small icon with the image of the Virgin of the Sign, on which the martyrs Tikhon, Mina and Paraskeva Friday are depicted in the bottom row.

Icons depicting more saints are very few in number. There is a well-known icon depicting five saints: the holy martyrs Modest, Blasius, the Monk Nile, the martyrs Florus and Laurus. There is an icon with six saints: the martyrs Evdokia Barbara, Julita, Ekaterina, Paraskeva Friday are depicted in a row. Before Julita stands her son, the infant martyr Kirik. At the top of this icon is Savior Emmanuel in the clouds.

On the most multi-figured icon with images of saints, they are depicted in two rows: the upper one - the noble princess Fevronia, the martyrs Paraskeva Friday, Catherine, Evdokia Alexandra, the Monk Mary of Egypt; in the bottom row - Saint Basil the Great, the noble prince Peter, the martyr Julitta, the Apostle Herodion, the Monk Paisius the Great; before Julita stands her son, the infant martyr Kirik. There are twelve saints in total.

Another twelve-figure icon represents, as it were, two connected folding doors. On the left side, from top to bottom, there are belt images.

The icons described in the article certainly do not exhaust the whole variety of Old Believer copper casting. Numerous variations within not only one iconographic type, but also within one edition, would require such a detailed writing that the volume of the article could increase very significantly. In addition, icons remained undescribed, cast in a small number of copies, which were not subsequently replicated. The icons and folds cast before the split were also not considered, which, although they were in the hands of the Old Believers, cannot be called Old Believers proper; they are part of the general culture of the Russian Church. The article does not specifically touch upon the issue of various modifications of folds, variations of iconography in their centerpieces and shutters.

A special and very extensive section in the study of Old Believer copper casting is the description of various crucifixes, pectoral, iconic, altar crosses, which, in contrast to worn crosses, were cast in a very wide iconographic spectrum. This issue requires separate consideration.

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