The meaning of Sweet Henry in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, BSE. Classifications by G. Sweet Classifications by G. Sweet
Basic principles for selecting a dictionary according to Palmer:
1. Frequency (how often words occur in oral and written speech, and different meanings words must be considered separately)
2. Structural compatibility - the ability of ergons to be combined with other units. Moreover, when the student is already able to use them with other lexical units.
3. Specificity
4. Proportionality
5. Expediency - considering this requirement as secondary, he believed that they could be violated for the sake of words belonging to the same semantic group (for example, learning the words “million”, “billion” and/or “thousand” simultaneously with “one”, “two”, “three”, etc.)
21. Stages of learning according to Palmer
Palmer set purely practical goals for learning a foreign language - to teach students to be fluent in the language (understand oral speech, speak, be able to read and write), and the degree of language proficiency should be as close as possible to the degree of proficiency of the native speaker.
This goal setting, in his opinion, forms the basis of the standard high school curriculum.
Palmer determined the entire course for a period of 2.5-6.5 years, depending on the volume of the language studied. material. According to his method, it is divided into three main stages: original
(elementary stage) six months long, intermediate
(untermediatestage) 1-3 years long and advanced
(advancedstage) also lasts 1-3 years.
Task first
– teach to understand a foreign language by ear with the help of subconscious perception and recognize individual sounds and sound combinations. Also teaching articulation, as well as students mastering a minimum of theoretical knowledge in the field of phonetics, grammar, etymology and semantics.
Intermediate
assumes the following:
a) understanding most of what is read and heard
b) relative error-free reproduction in speech or writing. form 75% of the material contained in the everyday speech of an ordinary person. Students must also master traditional writing
Advanced characterized by the fact that the importance of the teacher-methodologist decreases. She, according to Palmer, “will take care of herself.” Upon completion, students should be able to read various books and write short essays, as well as conduct a conversation with a foreigner.
However, in “ThisLanguage-LearningBusiness!” Palmer clarifies the intended stages. He thinks there should be six. Also, each of them is faced with the task of mastering one aspect of the language.
1) First and second, for example, have as their goal training pronunciation And oral skills speech. Teaching is carried out exclusively orally, with limited use of recordings in transcription. Application at the second stage of training is especially important question and answer exercises. Indications regarding the duration of this period vary. In early works, he believes that one should linger as long as possible on phonetic writing for about 2 years.
In his later works he limits each degree to approximately 36 hours, and the duration of the second can be increased if the traditional writing of the language being studied sharply diverges from the phonetic one.
2) Problem third steps - mastery by reading And by letter based on material studied in the two previous degrees.
3) Problem fourth and fifth degrees – mastery all major grammatical language constructs and selected dictionary. The main focus here is on oral work, which is based on the material of carefully graded textbook texts. At the fifth stage, in addition, the so-called extensive reading.
4) Sixth step – independent work
students above the tongue. It is carried out either under the guidance of a teacher or completely independently. It is not limited in time
At all levels of education, oral speech takes the leading place, reading is given a secondary role, it always follows oral speech. Although the tasks of the last two stages also include the systematic study of texts.
22. Palmer's attitude towards error
One of the main methodological principles Palmer - the requirement for the gradual introduction of difficulties (gradation) and their isolation.
Errors in students' speech in a foreign language are the result of a violation of this principle, according to Palmer. Compliance with the principle of gradation of difficulties does not imply distortion of the lexical, grammatical or phonetic norms of the language being studied. Language material should be given in such a form that the student is accustomed to correct speech at a normal pace from the very beginning. Compliance with this principle also does not imply studying the easier aspect of the language first (for example, its written form). This principle consists of a strict selection of material for study and its arrangement according to the degree of use, as well as a careful selection of exercises in order of increasing difficulty.
In accordance with this, Palmer developed his system of substitution tables and a graduated series of question-and-answer exercises, which occupy a leading place in his teaching system.
23. Main characteristics of the Sweet method
Sweet differentiates practical And theoretical language learning, referring to the first mastery of skills understand spoken language, read, speak and write in a foreign language. And to the second - study of language history and etymology. A complete course should cover, in his opinion, both practical and theoretical study of the language.
Based on his work, one could conclude that the ultimate goal of education is mastery of oral speech in a foreign language. However, according to Sweet, in a school setting this is a very difficult task, and there is only one way to achieve it - text study. Good linguists, he said, must admit that they learned almost everything from books, especially in English. initial stage learning the language, and very little of talking.
The texts on which language learning is based should, according to Sweet, reflect lively conversational language and thus serve as a basis for oral speech. The topics of the texts that Sweet offers for learning English can be judged by their titles: The Sun, The Moon, Rain, and so on. The texts are predominantly descriptive in nature, with only a small number of dialogues included. The subject matter proposed by Sweet differs sharply from the “tourist” one found in the vast majority of other textbooks of that time, written using the direct method. Sweet considers the selection of texts to be one of the most important issues of methodology. He believes that the first texts to read should be descriptive character, because should be easiest in ram. respect, and then stories, which are gradually included dialogues. Dialogues are not recommended as independent texts. The same type of material should appear repeatedly in the same text, but provided that the naturalness of the language is preserved.
Sweet demands diversify texts, graduate them according to degree of difficulty, subordinate content to form. Diversity of original texts is important because, according to Sweet, it provides Possibility of comprehensive display of the use of different grams. phenomena. The degree of difficulty of the texts and their sequence is determined by Sweet based on the grams they contain. material. The same type of material should appear repeatedly in the same text, but provided that the naturalness of the language is preserved.
Other requirements for texts include:
1. Educational texts should be coherent whole to make it easier to memorize the language they contain. material.
2. They must have clear context, then it is easier to understand the meaning of unfamiliar words and learn them.
3. Texts must be written within limited vocabulary.
4. They must be accessible by content, they should not contain concepts unknown to students.
Unlike other representatives of the Reform, Sweet proposes to base teaching on texts that serve as a source of new material for students and around which all language work is built after they have mastered pronunciation.
Sweet divides the entire course into five stages: 1) mechanical (pre-grammatical), 2) grammatical, 3) idiomatic and lexical, 4) literary, 5) archaic
At the first stage, the main thing is the students’ mastery of pronunciation. Gram. phenomena are assimilated as forms of words, without any explanations or generalizations; at this stage, grams accumulate. facts that must be comprehended only at the next stage. The meaning of linguistic material is revealed through translation. As soon as the sounds are mastered, you should move on to reading coherent texts in transcription writing. Reading the text should not be accompanied by a gram. analysis.
At the second stage, the teacher’s focus is on an elementary course in the grammar of the spoken language, of which only the basics are taught. Texts should be selected in such a way as to illustrate various grammatical phenomena, which are introduced gradually, in order of complexity.
At the third stage, the focus is on the study of vocabulary and idioms. The students' vocabulary should increase to 3000 words and expressions (including previously learned ones) and be systematized on a thematic basis. The study of grammar also continues at this degree.
The fourth stage serves to master the modern literary language, and here no special selection of texts is required. At this stage of learning, students master traditional spelling, for which Sweet recommends using texts already known in transcription.
The fifth stage is devoted to the study of the history of language (for English, this is the language of Shakespeare and Anglo-Saxon).
Sweet believes that the practical study of language is no less scientific than the theoretical one.
24. Sweet's use of etymology
To study a foreign language using a natural (natural) method in a school setting, there is neither the time nor the opportunity to provide the necessary practice. Using this method, a language can only be studied in the country of the language being studied or with the help of a governess. However, in both cases there is a danger that the child will not learn well. native language, and even though a foreigner will learn quickly, he will also forget just as quickly if he subsequently does not have the necessary practice.
Why is it important? Sweet sees the significant advantages of learning a foreign language using a non-natural method in the possibility of studying grammar, in the analysis and generalization of linguistic facts. In order to determine the place that Sweet gives to grammar, it is necessary to briefly familiarize himself with his view of the nature of language in general and of grammar in particular.
Sweet believes that language is partly rational and partly irrational when viewed in terms of current state(in historical terms, many “irregularities” can be easily explained). The plural of tree – trees – is a fact of general meaning. However, the fact that the combination of sounds in total (tri:) constitutes the concept of “tree”, the sound (z) in certain positions will always correspond to the concept of multiplicity. This is the main difference between vocabulary and grammar. From this Sweet concludes that everything that subject to generalization into rules (grammar), must be studied with the help theories, the facts are not generalizable(vocabulary) – mechanically.
Sweet does not agree with the theses of other representatives of the Reform that “we learn to speak by models, not by rules” or “we learn living languages more by imitation than by rules.” In his opinion, you need to start not with learning the rules, and from the creation of grammatical associations. “The psychological foundation of language learning is law of associations” (Sweet)
When we learn our native language, we associate words and phrases with thoughts, ideas, actions and incidents.
When creating associations, according to Sweet, the following should be considered:
1) teach first only frequent and characteristic linguistic phenomena
2) report first similar phenomena and then contrasting ones, working on them until they are fully understood
3) it is possible to create clearer and more direct associations
4) avoid cross counters associations, that is, when communicating, for example, a rule, one should not simultaneously give exceptions to it, since in this case students often remember only the exceptions due to the fact that they are sometimes involuntarily given more attention.
Preliminary accumulation facts and then following them comprehension with the help of rules and paradigms - this is how Sweet understands the inductive learning of grammar.
In order to make it easier for students to master vocabulary, it is necessary to rationalize the dictionary. Since there are many related words in the Germanic and Romance languages, they, according to Sweet, should form the basis around which other words should be grouped.
When explaining the meaning of words, Sweet recommends using translation first as the most reliable means, and only at a more advanced stage does he allow for definitions and context. Historical excursions, in his opinion, are useful only when they help reveal the semantics of a word in its modern use.
25. Historical conditions for the implementation of the army method.
Based on Bloomfield's ideas.
It was developed in the USA during World War II, when the computer entered teaching methods.
26. Goals of the army method.
In a short time (6-9 months) teach communication in a foreign language orally within a limited set of everyday topics, i.e. achieve automatic verbal responses to appropriate stimuli through repeated repetition.
27. Why is it impossible to transfer the army method to a secondary school?
The method pursued special military objectives
The method did not provide for mastery of writing and reading the target language
In a regular school there are no conditions for learning a language at such a pace and volume
Students are deprived of initiative, i.e. they must quickly and clearly repeat after the teacher and give correct answers, respond to commands, etc.
However, some elements of the army method were reflected in Stack's "direct method in a new way" and the audio-lingual method of Friz-Lado
28. Basic principles of the army method.
High concentration on learning (25 hours per week)
There are no more than 5-7 people in the group and constant selection into groups according to language proficiency level
Education is based on dialogues on everyday topics, which students first listen to, then reproduce and memorize.
The main type of exercise is drills, or mechanical training - a large number of questions and answers to a learned dialogue under the supervision of a teacher
Classes in the language lab
Creating a language environment during extracurricular time
The hard work of the students themselves in wartime
Ticket No. 29 “The concept of a language laboratory”
A language laboratory is a multifunctional unit within the structure of a university or faculty that optimizes a student’s academic work offline and the teaching and methodological work of a teacher using ICT.
The language laboratory is also a means of optimizing the teaching and methodological activities of the teacher, his language and professional development.
The language laboratory is not only an educational, but also a public language and cultural center for both teachers and students of a particular university, and for everyone who wants to study a foreign language.
(The first language laboratory devices appeared more than 40 years ago, and their spread was due to the growing popularity of audiovisual teaching methods. Although these devices were called language laboratories, most of them already at that time included both audio equipment (tape recorders, electric players) and projection: dia - and film projectors, epidiascopes. As the importance of screen aids in the process of teaching foreign languages increased, the nature of the equipment changed, and in the early 60s the concept of “language laboratory” firmly came into use. Not only language laboratories found a place in language laboratories , but also a developed system of projection equipment. Thus, two concepts began to take shape in the methodology - a general one (language laboratory) and a narrower one (linguistic device). and all other educational equipment necessary for conducting lessons, preparing for them and organizing extracurricular activities.)
Ticket No. 30 “The influence of new technologies on the development of methods in the second half of the 20th century”
With the advent of such new technologies as the tape recorder, computer, television, according to some scientists (for example E. Stack), they could compensate for the lack of a language environment.
Ticket No. 31 “Basic principles of the audiolingual method”
The creators of the audiolingual method are the American linguist-structuralist Charles Freese and methodologist R. Lado. This is a method of teaching a foreign language, which involves the use of the auditory channel of perception and repeated listening and reproduction after the speaker of strictly selected structures (sample sentences), which leads to their automation. The concept of the method affirms the priority of oral speech over written speech (hence the oral advance in work and the organization of classes in the sequence listening - speaking - reading - writing), the focus of classes on the formation of speech skills as a result of performing exercises such as "drill" (multiple repetition of samples), the predominance of speech practice over explanations and comments, widespread use of regional information. In the process of mastering the structures of language, four stages were identified: learning by imitation, conscious choice of a new model when contrasting it with already known ones, training in speech implementation of the model, free use of the model. The merit of the creators of the method is the careful development of teaching methods, leading to the automation of models, and the organic inclusion of language technology in the training process. A.m.o. refers to the situational type of learning.
The essence of the method is expressed in several principles:
1. The basis of language acquisition is mastery of oral speech skills → oral speech is primary, and writing is secondary;
2. The formation of oral speech skills should take place as learning speech reactions to presented stimuli;
3. Skills must be automated to such an extent that speech actions are carried out without the participation of consciousness;
4. Automation of skills occurs through repeated repetition of speech patterns.
5. Training of structures should take place in a system of observing a gradual increase in difficulties.
6. Most of the learning process (85%) is practice.
Ticket No. 32 “Basic principles of the audiovisual method”
The audiovisual method, or as it is otherwise called, high-speed or global-structural, arose on the basis of the “army method”. Using some provisions of the “army method” - the intensity of training, the creation of an artificial environment, etc. - the founders of the audiovisual method significantly modified it and tried to substantiate it with data from linguistics and psychology.
Basic principles:
1. The material for teaching is spoken language in a dialogical form, and not literary texts.
2.The basis of language learning is oral speech.
3. The perception of new material in the form of integral structures occurs only by ear. Much attention is paid to the unity of the sound image (sounds, intonation, rhythm).
4.The meaning of new language material (vocabulary and grammar) is revealed using Images objects, actions, etc. And context, i.e., the situation being demonstrated.
5.Language material is learned on the basis of imitation, memorization and education by analogy.
33. Development of domestic methods before the 1917 revolution.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the general educational task of teaching foreign languages was put forward as the main one. Studying foreign language in secondary school is considered as a means of developing logical thinking. The main object of learning is therefore grammar, which is identified with logic. Foreign language vocabulary serves only as an illustration of the grammatical phenomena being studied. Since dead languages serve as prototypes for the study of living languages, the sound structure of the language is not studied. Students are introduced only to reading letters and their combinations. The provision about the commonality of languages and the complete coincidence of concepts in content and method of expression gave representatives of translation methods the basis to consider literal (and sometimes word-for-word) translation one of the basic principles of teaching foreign languages.
Since the systems of the foreign and native languages did not coincide, methodologists had to literally convey the lexical and grammatical structures of the foreign language being studied using the means of their native language.
It can be argued that by the beginning of the First World War, an understanding of the general educational significance of studying foreign languages had taken shape in Russian methodology. At this moment, Russian teacher N.N. Stromilov argued that this subject does not contribute anything to the student’s formal education, it overloads the memory, which harms thinking.
At the middle and senior levels, the textual-translation method was used, since the center of the work was reading and translation.
The choice of textbooks was quite large, characteristic feature All textbooks are strongly influenced by tradition. In textbooks one can see the emergence of a tendency towards a comparative approach.
34. L.V. Shcherba and his influence on the development of domestic methods.
Academician Shcherba played the greatest role in the creation of the conscious-comparative method; he found practical application for it. In 1947, Shcherba’s book was created, which systematizes his views on general issues techniques. He put forward the principle of consciousness as the main principle, and he considered grammar-translation to be the leading method. One of the important methodological ideas that influenced the development of the methodology was his idea about the possibility of productive and receptive language acquisition. In the first case, the formation of speaking skills is assumed, in the second, we are talking about mastering the ability to read and extract information from the text. Shcherba’s thoughts on the general educational significance of foreign languages have not lost their significance either. He considered a foreign language as a general educational subject in high school, the study of which not only introduces the student to a foreign language culture, but allows the student to better understand their native language and culture. Subsequently, Shcherba’s ideas were developed by his numerous students and followers (Mirolyubov and Barsuk).
35. The concept of a grammatical minimum. Passive and active grammar
The grammatical minimum is a certain set of grammatical phenomena (grammatical forms, structures, rules for changing words and combining them into sentences), intended for the correct formatting of speech, both from the point of view of morphology and from the point of view of syntax.
The active grammatical minimum refers to those grammatical phenomena that are intended for use in speaking and writing.
The passive grammatical minimum refers to those phenomena that students can recognize and understand in the text.
The active grammatical minimum is selected based on the following principles: a) the principle of prevalence in oral speech; b) the principle of exemplarity; c) the principle of excluding synonymous grammatical phenomena.
The passive grammatical minimum is selected taking into account: a) the principle of prevalence in the bookish and written style of speech; b) the principle of multiple meaning of a grammatical phenomenon.
The comparative method is learning based on comparing the target language with the native language.
The comparative method is currently used in different countries, but it is most widespread in our country.
1) the desire of the Soviet school to provide a thorough general education
2) – philological education, since knowledge of foreign languages is important
3) foreign language - belongs to a different group of languages compared to Russian, therefore the comparative method is suitable
4) a foreign language in schools is taught by a teacher who speaks his native language, this allows the teacher to take into account the difficulties that a student experiences when learning a foreign language and systematically overcome them with the help of exercises
Academician L.V. SHCHERBA played the greatest role in the creation - he found the practical application of the method
The educational task is to, by comparing the linguistic phenomena of our native and foreign languages, become better aware of the thoughts we express and better separate form from content.
The educational task is the formation of a communist worldview, in general, the moral development
The comparative method assumes:
Awareness of linguistic phenomena
Awareness of the ways of using linguistic phenomena in speech activity
Reliance on native language
Ticket 37. The problem of implementing the conscious-comparative method in the Soviet school
Source of information: “Teaching foreign languages in secondary schools” by L.V. Shcherba
Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba points out the significant shortcomings of teaching a foreign language in the Soviet, contemporary school. He sees the main problem in teachers.
“It is necessary for our teachers to get rid of the prejudice that learning to read books in any language is possible only to the extent of practical knowledge of this language.” In his opinion, a significant problem is that most of his contemporary teachers were taught the language by the direct method. Or they know it as a second native language since childhood, as they grew up in a once noble family. Shcherba proposes to overcome this prejudice by requiring teachers to read books in an unfamiliar language, using a dictionary and a grammar reference book. Only in this way will they be able to overcome the psychological barrier.
Teachers must not only teach spoken language, but they must also teach understanding of texts not in an intuitive, but in a conscious way, which, despite the programs, they very often do not do. And they should not only teach this, but also achieve concrete results in this direction. In other words, teachers should, on the one hand, show in lessons how, by looking at the dictionary and grammar, one can achieve understanding of the most difficult text, and on the other hand, require students to independently homework over text that was not previously “chewed” in class. In addition to increasing the number of texts read, care must also be taken to expand students' vocabulary. To do this, for each lesson, students must memorize a certain number of words selected from the texts that are assigned at home.
Another big drawback is few hours allocated for foreign language teaching. To successfully master a language using the conscious-comparative method, you need to devote at least 6 hours a day to classes. The largest number of hours allocated to a foreign language at school is 5-6 per week.
Many high school teachers force students to expand their vocabulary by copying out all unfamiliar words from texts and memorizing them. According to L.V. Shcherba, this method is irrational and erroneous. He suggests learning first those words that are most often found in the language or are actively used by speakers. On the other hand, it is necessary to learn words that, although themselves relatively rare, provide the key to understanding many derived words.
At the same time, teachers are obliged to ensure that students write out and memorize words with their grammatical control and in all their basic meanings, and not only in the often more or less accidental one in which they are used in a given context.
Another significant problem is lack of motivation for students to learn a foreign language. Firstly, The prospect of going abroad is very small. Secondly, The foreign language course program often does not take into account the age of students and students aged 12-15 years are forced to learn basic grammar rules several lessons in a row. This makes them less interested in learning the subject.
And finally there is lack of authentic oral material, which is very important for teaching listening comprehension and pronunciation.
Linear Skinner algorithm
American professor Burres Skinner first introduced the concept of linear programmed learning in 1954.
The basis is the following principles:
Splitting up training course to “small portions / steps” - to prevent possible errors by students in their perception;
The level of difficulty of each piece of educational material should be low enough to ensure that the student’s answers to most questions are correct (According to B. Skinner, to organize successful learning, the proportion of students’ incorrect answers should not exceed 5%);
A uniform course of learning for all - since no attempt is made to organize learning according to the abilities and inclinations of the students. The entire difference between students will be expressed only in the duration of completion of the same program;
The student gives answers by filling in the corresponding gaps in the educational text;
Immediate confirmation and encouragement of the correctness of the student’s answer to develop a sense of confidence and interest in learning;
If the answer is incorrect, the student receives help and additional explanations;
The transition to the next step of the program is possible only when the student masters the content of the previous step;
Individualization of the pace of learning - each student works at an optimal pace for himself;
Differentiated consolidation of knowledge - each generalization is repeated in different contexts and illustrated with carefully selected examples.
1. Old English.
2. Middle English.
3. New English language.
The history of the English language is divided into three periods: 1. Old English period - from the time of the appearance of written monuments (7th century) to the end of the 11th century. 2. Middle English period - from the beginning of the 12th century. to the 15th century, which is a transitional phase between Middle English and New English. 3. New England period - from the 16th century. to the present day, and 16th – 17th centuries. - This is the Early New English period. This periodization is conditional and is based on extralinguistic factors: the historical boundary between Old English and Middle English is the Norman conquest, and between Middle English and New England is the end of the Wars of the Roses and the establishment of an absolute monarchy.
1. Old English period. The Germanic tribes of the Angles, Saxons and Jutes moved to Britain from the continent in the middle of the 5th century, displaced the Celts who lived there into the mountainous regions of Scotland, Wales and Cornwall, and created seven states: Wessex, Essex, Sussex, Northumbria, Mercia, East Anglia and Kent. Throughout the entire period, these kingdoms fought among themselves for political leadership, until in the 9th century. Wessex is not in a strong leading position. From this time on, the name ængelcynn "the race of the Angles" began to apply to all inhabitants of Britain, and the name ænglalond to the whole country.
From the end of the 6th century. Christianity is introduced in Britain, monasteries become centers of Latin culture and writing. There were very few runic monuments, and they are of no value for studying the language. Written monuments written in the Latin alphabet testify to the richness of Old English literature in all dialects then existing. Among the prose works are translations that came out of the translation school of King Alfred (second half of the 9th century) in the Wessex dialect: “The Cares of the Shepherd” by Pope Gregory I, “ The World History"Orosia, "The Consolation of Philosophy" by Boethius, the annals of the "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" (7th - 9th centuries), the sermons of Ælfric and Wulfstan, "Ecclesiastical History of the English People" by Bade the Venerable. In the Mercian and Kentish dialects - translations of psalms, hymns, glosses (8th - 9th centuries). In the Northumbrian dialect - translation of the Gospel, Caedmon's hymn, Bed's "Death Song". Among the poetic works is the largest epic poem “Beowulf” by an unknown author, poems by the monk Kynewulf, etc.
Old English, represented by a number of related dialects, was a synthetic language and had a developed system of declension and conjugation. The author of the first scientific grammar of the English language, G. Sweet, called Old English the period of complete endings. Dialectal differences were minor and limited mainly to pronunciation. The grammatical system, in comparison with Gothic, is on the way to reducing inflectional forms. Homonymy of inflections is widespread; grammatical alternation in classes of strong verbs becomes more complicated; reduplicating verbs actually disappear; only three classes of weak verbs remain, as opposed to four in Gothic. The etymological composition of the Old English dictionary was homogeneous - words of common Indo-European origin predominated, supplemented by common Germanic vocabulary. There were also borrowings from the Latin language, distributed across two lexical layers: 1 – everyday vocabulary acquired by the Germans on the continent in the process of contacts with the Romans; 2 – religious and school vocabulary borrowed during the era of Christianization of Britain.
From the end of the 8th century. England becomes the target of Viking raids. The Danes settled the north-east coast of England, which since 878 has been called the “Area of Danish Law”. The result of long-term contacts was borrowings from Old Norse into Old English. Among them are everyday words, legal and military vocabulary, and geographical names. The Old Norse language was close to Old English both in lexical composition and pronunciation, therefore in some cases English and Scandinavian words form an etymological doublet, for example, English. shirt scand. skirt
From 1016 to 1042, England was under the control of the Danish king, and from 1042, a descendant of the Anglo-Saxon dynasty, Edward the Confessor, became king. After Edward's death, his relative, the Norman Duke William, claimed his rights to the throne. In 1066, at the Battle of Hastings, he defeated the Anglo-Saxon troops and proclaimed himself king of England. Secular and spiritual power in the country passed to the Normans, whose language was a northern French dialect.
2. Middle English period. Over the course of one and a half to two centuries, up to two million Normans moved to England from the continent. Their language, subject to the lexical influence of English, turned into the Anglo-Norman dialect, which existed until the end of the 14th century. After the Norman Conquest, the country became bilingual: the ruling classes spoke Norman, and the local population retained their native language. The English language of this period existed in the form of four regional dialects: Northern, East Central, West Central and Kentish. English spelling was reformed by Norman scribes, who organized it according to the norms of the French language. Over the course of all subsequent centuries, right up to our time, spelling has changed very little and now represents traditions established in Middle English.
On average English language The processes of disintegration of the inflectional system continue: the differences between the types of declension of names are consistently erased, which leads to their complete disappearance. The functions of cases take over intensively developing prepositional combinations, and a strict direct word order in a sentence is established. The differences between classes of strong verbs disappear, many of them move into the weak paradigm. The conjugation system actually disappears, and synthetic forms are replaced by analytical ones. Analytical structures are developing passive voice, continuous aspect, perfect and continuous perfect. The nature of the English language is growing from synthetic to analytical. One of the most important reasons These morphological changes are the reduction of unstressed endings. The processes of reduction of unstressed endings began in the era of the German community, when the stress was fixed on the root syllable. G. Sweet called the Middle English period the period of reduced endings.
During the Middle English period, the etymological nature of the dictionary also changed dramatically. In the 13th – 14th centuries. A huge number of French borrowings relating to all, without exception, semantic spheres are pouring into the English language. Along with significant words, prefixes and suffixes, as well as some auxiliary parts of speech, are borrowed.
Throughout the Middle English period, Latin remained the language of church and education; the language of the court, parliament, business correspondence, and legislation was the Anglo-Norman dialect. The English dialects of the Anglo-Saxon population existed equally, and extensive literature was written in them. For example, in the east-central - continuation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, rhymed novels, didactic works; in the west-central - chivalric novels, lives of saints, the satirical poem “The Vision of Peter the Plowman”, etc.
From the middle of the 13th century. The scope of use of the English language is expanding, and government documents are beginning to be written in it. English penetrates into judicial proceedings, schools, parliament; The Norman nobility also adopted it. Among English dialects, the London dialect begins to occupy a special place. London was not only the political center of the country, it was also the largest economic center. Its dialect base was the East-Central dialect, supplemented by a number of features of the South-Western dialect. The London dialect also concentrated the norms of other dialects, since the population consisted of representatives of all provinces of the country. The spread of London written norms was facilitated by the work of Geoffrey Chaucer (1340 – 1400) and the translation of the Bible carried out by J. Wycliffe (1320 – 1384).
The London dialect rises above all other dialects, which since the 15th century. become unwritten, and turns into National language. The question of normalizing the written literary language was raised when W. Caxton introduced printing in 1475 - 1477. In terms of spelling, Caxton consolidated the tradition developed by the Norman scribes. This tradition was largely outdated by the end of the 15th century, and discrepancies were observed between pronunciation and writing.
At the end of the 15th century. The absolute Tudor monarchy is established in England. The centralization of state power is accompanied by the opposition of the state national language to local dialects.
3. Early Modern English. In the 16th century Reformation takes place in England by decree of King Henry VIII. In connection with the introduction of Protestantism, Latin as the language of the church is replaced by English. The Latin language is beginning to be replaced in science. Scientific terminology is being created on a Latin basis. The first attempt at scientific prose was Thomas Eliot's treatise The Tutor (1531). The huge influx of Latin words designed to “beautify” the literary language raises objections from John Chick, Thomas Wilson and others, who, from the standpoint of purism, opposed the contamination of the native language with foreign borrowings. Thus, for the 16th century. characterized by a conscious focus on the struggle for the purity of the language. During the Renaissance, the movement for the strengthening and development of the national language became a way of democratizing education and science, a means of demonstrating national self-awareness.
By the end of the 16th century. The formation of the English literary language, which went in parallel with the process of the formation of the English nation, is completed. English was fully established as the language of the church, science and school, legal proceedings and fiction. The written language became uniform throughout the country, and the national language as a means of communication among the educated classes also became established everywhere. Local dialects exist only as a means of oral communication.
At the end of the 16th century. English begins to be taught in schools as a subject of study. The problem of codifying the language and creating a grammar is raised. The first grammar of the English language was a textbook written in Latin by J. Lyly, and the first grammar in English was a book by William Bullocar. She was followed by the grammarians of Ben Jonson, C. Butler, and J. Wallis. At the same time, works appear whose purpose is to describe the rules of reading, writing and pronunciation, i.e. spelling. In the works of orthoepists there are also attempts to give recommendations for pronunciation and spelling. Among the first spellers are Hart and Bullocar, Gill and Butler. Orthoepists were the predecessors of phoneticians, although they did not create a clear terminology for the system of concepts being studied.
In the grammar of the 17th - 18th centuries. There are two directions. The first was guided by the principle of “reasonableness” in establishing the rules of the language, and the second was based on the established tradition, existing custom. Many grammarians noted the imperfection of the language, the variability of its norms and believed that the language needed to be improved, cleared of unnecessary variants and fixed forever. Therefore, grammar turns into a set of rules, prohibitions and recommendations.
Along with grammarians and spellers, lexicographers are actively working. The first bilingual Latin-English dictionaries appeared already in the 15th century. In the 16th century Dictionaries of “difficult” words by Caudrey and Cockram are published. The first explanatory dictionary of the English language was published by Nathaniel Benley in 1721, and in 1755 the dictionary created by Samuel Johnson, the most authoritative lexicographic reference book of the 18th and 19th centuries, was published. In compiling the Dictionary, Dr. Johnson relied on the works of authors from the 11th to the 17th centuries. and retained the traditional spelling.
By the end of the 18th century. The norms of the English literary language were completely established, grammar rules were developed and its lexical composition was systematized.
In the phonetic system of Early Modern English, the most significant event was the Great Vowel Shift, which changed the quality of all long vowels. The Great Shift, as well as other changes in vowels and consonants, led to the divergence of pronunciation and spelling that occurs in modern English.
In the field of morphology, the process of reduction of unstressed endings has been completed. According to G. Sweet, New English is a period of lost endings. The last indicators of declension and conjugation have disappeared, and complex analytical constructions of voice, aspect, perfect, mood, and future tense have finally formed. The vocabulary of the New English language was replenished by Latin borrowings from the Enlightenment era, which, unlike early Latin borrowings, represent bookish, scientific vocabulary.
At the end of the 17th century, during the Restoration era, French words penetrated into the English language, preserving the pronunciation and stress of the source language to this day.
In the 17th – 18th centuries. In connection with the expansion of economic and cultural ties between England and other countries, the English language accepts individual words from Italian, Spanish, Dutch and many other languages. On the other hand, English goes beyond England. It has been implanted in Ireland since its annexation in the 12th century. From the 17th century English is spreading in North America and becomes the official language of the United States. American English differs in its pronunciation and vocabulary. Differences in morphology and syntax are minor. Canadian English is close to the American version.
The English language in Australia also has some differences in pronunciation and vocabulary, although the educated strata of Australian society are guided by British norms.
English is used in South Africa, India, Pakistan and a number of other countries that were once colonies of the British Empire.
On the basis of English and local languages of Asia, Africa and America, in modern times so-called hybrid languages have emerged, for example, pidgin, Krio, Beach-la-mar, Kru-English, which are used in the process of communication of multilingual local populations.
SWEET HENRY
(Sweet) Henry (15.9.1845, London - 30.4.1912, Oxford), English linguist. He studied at Heidelberg (1864) and Oxford (since 1869) universities, and taught phonetics at Oxford University (since 1901). Member of the Philological Society (1869-85). Founder English school phoneticians. Main works in the field of phonetics, English and Germanic philology, Old English dialectology. S. made a major contribution to the development of the theory of phonology; He also worked on the typology of phonological systems of the world's languages.
Works: A history of English sounds from the earliest period, 2 ed., Oxf., 1888; A handbook of phonetics, Oxf., 1877; A short historical English grammar, Oxf., 1892; Collected papers, Oxf., 1913.
Lit.: Wrenn S. L., Henry Sweet, in the book: Portraits of linguists, v. I, Bloomington - L., is the pseudonym of the American writer W. S. Porter (William Sidney Porter). His first story, “Whistling Dick’s Christmas Gift,” was published...
SI unit of inductance and mutual inductance. Named after Joseph Henry, designated Gn. 1 Hn=1 V s/A =1 Wb/A =109 cm...
look O...
non-cl., m. physics. unit of inductance and mutual...
non-cl., m. physics. Unit of inductance and mutual...
SWEET (Sweet) Henry (1845-1912), English. linguist. Tr. in the field of theory of grammar, phonetics, intonation, melody of speech. Research living Welsh dialects. Creator...
HENRY PER METER, unit abs. magnetic permeability SI. Designated Gn/m. 1 H/m= =1 T*m/A=1 ...
HENRY'S LAW: when fasting. At temperatures and low pressures, the solubility of a gas in a given liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of this gas above the solution. ...
HENRY, SI unit of inductance and mutual inductance. Named after J. Henry. Designated by Gn. 1 Gn=1 V*s/A=1 Vb/A= =10 9 …
HENRY Ernst (real name and last name Sem. Nik. Rostovsky) (1904-90), publicist (USSR). Book "Hitler against the USSR" (in English - 1936, ...
HENRY William (1774-1836), English. chemist and doctor. He established the dependence of the solubility of a gas in a liquid on its pressure (G.’s law). During …
HENRY (Henry) Joseph (1797-1878), American. physicist. He built powerful electric magnets and an electric motor, discovered (1832, independently of M. Faraday) self-induction, installed (1842) ...
HENRY, see O. Henry...
Hero of the novel …
(named after the American physicist J. Henry, 1797 - 1878) unit of inductance and mutual inductance in the international system of units ...
[named after Amer. physics j. Henry (j. henry), 1797 - 1878] unit of inductance and mutual inductance in the international system of units ...
g'enry, uncl., m. (units...
henry, uncl., m. (units...
g'enry, uncl., m. (units...
see O. Henry. - SI unit of inductance and mutual inductance. Named after Joseph Henry, designated Gn. 1 H=1 V s/A ...
(Henry): - 1) Edinburgh gunsmith, whose gun barrels of a polygonal cross-section with seven grooves were adopted in England in ...
(Henry) ? 1) an Edinburgh gunsmith, whose gun barrels of a polygonal cross-section with seven grooves were adopted in England in ...
(Henry, Joseph) (1797-1878), American experimental physicist. Born December 17, 1797 in Albany (New York). Studied in Albany at the Academy (1819-1822). IN …
Data: 2009-06-11 Time: 03:12:05 = Bloody Price (Part 1) = * Henry: The center of my world is passion. Without her there is no...
Data: 2009-03-06 Time: 23:04:41 Brave New World is a dystopian novel by an English writer...
Stede Bonnet (1688-1718) is a small, undistinguished figure in history, whose entire merit was that ...
"In this issue (AIF) we will talk about the “direct” method, which arose on the basis of the natural method. Its difference from the latter was that its principles were justified by the then data of linguistics and psychology. It is not for nothing that among its creators were such major linguistic scientists, such as V. Fiester, P. Passy, G. Sweet, O. Espersen, etc. The impact of these sciences, in particular psychology, is evidenced by the work of B. Eggert (1). this method due to the fact that its supporters demanded to directly and directly connect the word of a foreign language with the concept, bypassing the word of the native language."
Representatives of this direction considered the main goal of teaching foreign languages to be teaching practical proficiency in the target language. Initially, such “practical” mastery was identified with mastery of oral speech, which is often found today. However, representatives of the direct method also understood learning to read by it (for example, G. Sweet).
The methodological principles of teaching using the direct method were as follows.
1. The basis of learning is oral speech, since any language is by its nature sound and the leading place is occupied by sound and kinesthetic sensations (sensations of the speech apparatus), which has been proven by psychology.
2. Exclusion of the native language and translation. This position was based on the research of neogrammarians that the words of the native language do not coincide with the words of the meaning being studied, they express different concepts, etc., since each people has its own worldview, a system of concepts reflected in the language.
3. Particular importance was attached to phonetics and pronunciation, since mastering the sound side of speech is an indispensable condition for oral communication. This conclusion was made on the basis of research into the sound side of language, begun by neogrammarians. As a result, methods for staging pronunciation were developed.
4. Based on the position of Gestalt psychology that the whole is not the sum of its components, and the linguistic position on the polysemy of words, representatives of the direct method recommended studying words only in context, that is, as part of sentences.
5. This method proposed to learn grammar through induction. Based on a well-studied text, students made observations of the text and extracted rules. O. Jespersen called this “observational grammar” (2). Subsequently, these rules were brought into the system.
A somewhat different position was taken by the prominent linguist G. Sweet (3). Sharing the view of other representatives of the direct method about the practical purpose of teaching, he believed that the path to this in a school setting lies through the study of texts that reflect living spoken language - the basis for teaching oral speech.
1) texts must be varied and contain significant repetition of linguistic material, which promotes memorization;
2) G. Sweet refuses the “tourist theme” characteristic of the direct method and offers texts on a wide variety of topics;
3) at the beginning, descriptive texts are recommended - easier from the grammatical point of view, and then students should be given stories interspersed with dialogues;
4) finally, texts should be selected taking into account the gradual complication of difficulties.
The lesson using the direct method was structured as follows: the teacher named the objects in the picture and repeated them by the students, then questions and answers, descriptions of the pictures and lexical exercises. Everything ends with a retelling, a dialogue based on the material studied. If a text was used as the basis, then first the text was read three times by the teacher and the words were explained, then exercises were done, and only after that the text was read in transcription and traditional writing.
Analysis of the materials indicates that the direct method was not a homogeneous methodological direction in the West. In different authors we find techniques that differ from each other. At the same time there is common features: refusal of the native language, attention to the sound image, inductive study of grammar, study of vocabulary in a sentence, and finally, ignoring the thinking of students when learning and relying solely on memory and sensory perception.
It is impossible not to mention the meritsrepresentatives of the direct method who contributed significant contribution to the methodology of teaching foreign languages.
First of all, it should be noted the attention to the sound side of the language and the development of methods for teaching pronunciation, since this was done for the first time.
The absolute merit of the representatives of the directmethod was the development of an inductive approach to teaching grammar.
First it has been shown that the words different languages reflect different worldviews of peoples, although the not entirely correct conclusion was made about the use of only untranslatable means of semantization.
The requirements for texts developed by G. Sweet also deserve attention. Finally, the means of semantizing vocabulary were systematized
In contrast to the direct orthodox method, widespread in the West, in our country it has acquired a slightly different form. To consider this issue we are moving on.
The direct method began more widelyspread in Russia in the early 90s XIX century. However And before I the world war was a lot ofsubmitters who recognize the old textual-translation method.
The spread of the direct method in Russia collided with the tradition of considering positive influence studying a foreign language to improve proficiency in your native language. Thus, K. D. Ushinsky wrote: “Here (when translating from a foreign language - A. M.) it is not only necessary to fully and deeply understand the thought being translated, not only to grasp all its shades, but also to find it in the corresponding expression in your native language. The mind, reason, imagination, memory, the gift of speech must be exercised at the same time” (4; p. 302).
F.N. Buslaev testified to the same influence: “But in order to improve their Russian syllable, students practice written translations from a foreign language” (5; p. 468).
In this regard, even among ardent supporters of the direct method we find the assumption of the native language, which is absolutely excluded in the Western version of the direct method. Thus, I. Sig, in his guide to teaching using the natural method, emphasizes the need to avoid the native language and immediately admits: “However, for educational institutions, especially crowded ones, it is necessary to write down words with Russian meaning and repeat them” ( 6; p. V).
A number of methodologists criticized the direct method for eliminating the native language at the initial stage of training. Thus, E. Bik asserted, criticizing the direct method: “I am far from rejecting the benefits of introducing students to live speech, but I cannot, however, agree with the elimination of the native language for Russians at the beginning of foreign classes language already because by conveying the meaning of a given phrase of the language being studied in our native language, we thereby develop the ability to spontaneously assimilate and thus contribute to understanding the spirit of the language, and especially turns of speech, which becomes noticeable only with the assistance of the native language" (7; p. 95).
We find similar thoughts in R. Orbinsky, A. Thomson and others. Finally, I. Baudouin-de-Courtenay advocated comparison of native and foreign languages: “Comparison of languages seems to be a very beneficial means for developing students’ observation and scientific thinking by their structure" (8; p. 75).
If in pre-revolutionary Russia there were still adherents of the direct orthodox method, then in the 20s XX century, all methodists professing the direct method, and it was then dominant, finally determined the features of the use of the direct method in Russia.
Firstly, methodologists of this period are characterized by a significantly greater use of the native language as a means of semantization and control of understanding. Regarding the latter, K. A. Ganshina wrote: “Meanwhile, the benefits of translation, carried out thoughtfully, with care, after using and elaborating the text, can be very great” (9: p. 41). And such an ardent supporter of the natural method as E.I. Spendiarov recognized translations from the native language, although to a limited extent, as important for mastering grammatical structures.
Secondly, in Russian conditions comparisons with the native language were allowed. D. Shestakov, who also adhered to the direct method, insisted on this.
B Thirdly, methodologists noted that the use of the native language when studying a foreign language is more used in initial stage, and then it shrinks more and more.
Thus, E. A. Fechner wrote: “It is clear that the possibly limited use of the native language required by the direct method cannot begin directly with its absolute expulsion, but it must be approached gradually” (10; p. 48). Let us note that the exact opposite opinion prevailed among Western Methodists.
All the above considerations prompted the author of the article to consider this method used in Russia to be a “Russian version” of the direct method. How can we explain the appearance of such an option in our country? In our opinion, there were two reasons.
Firstly, differences in the native (Russian) and Western European languages played a serious and, perhaps, the main role. The proximity of the latter to each other made it possible to build students' education without resorting to their native language. Let's compare: This is a book (a hand) and Das ist ein Buch (eine Hand ). This is impossible in a Russian audience.
Secondly, pedagogical traditions, starting with K. D. Ushinsky, also had a special influence. These features in the tradition of teaching foreign languages also affected further development techniques.
LITERATURE
1. Eggert V. Der psychologische Zusammenhang in der Didaktik des neusprachlichen Reformun-terricht. - Berlin, 1904.
2. Jespersen 0. How to Teach a Foreign Language. - London, 1904.
3.Sweet H. The Practical Study of Langua-ges. - Oxford, 1894.
4. Ushinsky K. D. Explanatory note to the draft training course programs in the educational society of noble maidens
and St. Petersburg Alexander School // Collection. Op. - T. 6. - M.-L., 1948.
5. Buslaev F. I. General plan and programs for teaching languages and literature in women's schools educational institutions. Teaching the native language. - M.: Education, 1992.
6.Sig I. A guide to initial teaching of the German language in secondary schools using the natural method. - M., 1893.
7. Bak E. Analytical-synthetic method of teaching foreign languages // Russian School. - 1890. - No. 5.
8. Baudouin-de-Courtenay I.The importance of language as a subject of study // Russian School. - 1906. - No. 7-9.
9. Ganshina K. A. Sat. materials on methods of teaching foreign languages. - M., 1924.
10. Fechner E. A. Methods of teaching German in Russian schools. - L., 1924.
A.A. MIROLYUBOV.Moscow
Back to teaching methods Let's have fun
Classifications by G. Sweet
G. Sweet, the author of the first scientific grammar of the English language, offers two classifications of the parts of speech of the English language. The first classification is based on a morphological criterion. The second is based on syntactic.
1.1.1.1. Classification based on morphological properties
"G. Sweet, the author of the first scientific grammar of the English language, divides the parts of speech into two main groups - mutable and unchangeable. Thus, he considers morphological properties to be the main principle of classification." Within the group of changeables ("declinables"), all words were traditionally divided into nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions and interjections were included in the group of unchangeables (“indeclinables”).
1.1.1.2. Classification based on syntactic properties
Along with the first (morphological) classification, Sweet offers another one, based on the syntactic functioning of words. Thus, the group of noun-words includes, in addition to nouns, “noun-pronouns”, “noun-numerals”, infinitives and gerunds, since they are similar in functioning to nouns. The group of adjective words includes, in addition to adjectives, “adjective-pronouns”, “adjective-numerals” and participles, since they are also similar in their functioning. The verb group includes personal forms and verbal forms (verbals). But it is worth noting that here again the morphological principle comes first, since all non-finite forms of the verb, along with personal ones, have verbal categories of tense (tense) and voice.
1.1.1.3. Classification controversy
Based on all of the above, it becomes clear that verbals - infinitive and gerund - find themselves in the same group with nominal words based on their functioning in a sentence, and according to their morphological properties they find themselves in the verb group.
As we can see, Sweet understood the contradiction between the morphological and syntactic properties of parts of speech. However, his attempt to create a single and consistent grouping based on syntactic features led to the fact that, having united categories that were previously dissimilar in lexical and morphological characteristics, he, on the contrary, fragmented categories that were morphologically and lexically united earlier. But if we talk about the “unchangeable” group, then it combines completely heterogeneous elements: adverbs that are members of a sentence, and conjunctions, prepositions and interjections that are not; prepositions functioning within predicative units, and conjunctions connecting predicative units.
Nevertheless, G. Sweet's classifications are among the most famous in English linguistics, despite their noticeable contradictions.
Analysis of synonymy and polysemy of the term system of French media texts about painting
The purpose of this paragraph is to review the existing classifications of the term. Classifications of terms may depend on taking into account their structural features, semantics, time of origin, geographical distribution...
Borrowings in English and ways of translating them into Russian
The first feature that serves as the basis for the classification of borrowings is the source, i.e. the language from which the borrowed element came into the receiving language. The vast majority of the world's languages are involved in the process of borrowing...
Lexico-grammatical features of translation of historical texts
Currently, there is a large number of works devoted to translation transformations, since this aspect is one of the central ones, and knowledge of it theoretical foundations important in the work of a translator...
Microtoponymy of the city of Tyumen
microtoponym name building street During the study of the origin of microtoponyms, certain trends in the formation of unofficial names were identified, in connection with which several ways of forming microtoponyms can be identified: 1...
Features of modern youth slang in English songs (using the example of Rihanna’s work)
Language as a multifaceted phenomenon and reflecting various aspects of human activity presupposes the presence, accordingly, of different layers of vocabulary. So, according to Tarasov...
Translation of corporate structures
Translation of French phraseological units with national and cultural specifics
Unlike Sh. Bally, V.V. Vinogradov divides all phraseological units not into two, but into three broad groups: 1) Phraseological combinations - phrases in which one of the components has a phraseologically related meaning...
The concept of “life” in “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin
The classification of linguistic material is based on a comprehensive study of the interrelations of systems at individual levels, not a differentiating approach, but an integrating study. Why is this so? On the one hand, a concept is “the content of a concept...
Nicknames in modern means mass media
Modern Russian nicknames of the Lensky district of the Arkhangelsk region
Description and analysis of proper names is impossible without a certain classification. When classifying onomastic material, one can proceed from the belonging of names to certain languages, territories, chronological periods...
Comparison of terminological systems of English and Russian languages in the field of psychology
Category terms, general scientific and general technical terms, interdisciplinary terms, and special terms are distinguished. First of all, the most general concepts of matter and its attributes are highlighted, which are called categories (matter, space...
Compiling a thesaurus on the topic “Mountain and hiking tourism” based on the Russian and Spanish languages
Classification in its most general definition is the partitioning and ordering of sets. It is called the distribution of objects into classes based on a common characteristic...
Ways to convey German realities in Russian text
Realities can be divided into different groups, depending on what concept they represent; they can be historical, ethnic, everyday, etc. In this regard, there are different classifications of realities...
Stylistic properties of synonyms (based on the novel “Hero of Our Time” by M.Yu. Lermontov)
The rich synonymy of the Russian language, the variety of functions performed by synonyms, different interpretations of the very concept of a synonym - all this provided the basis for the construction of various classifications of synonyms. So...
Typological features of modern Chinese language
The most famous are the genealogical and morphological classifications, which will be discussed in detail. also in diploma work I would like to note the classifications that V.A. Kurdyumov studied...
Loading...