Types of deposits. A deposit is a place where minerals are found. The unity of the natural waters of the Earth
This chapter deals with the morphological features of the deposits, i.e., their shapes and sizes, the spatial orientation of bodies among the host rocks, and post-ore disturbances.
A correct understanding of the morphology of mineral deposits and the conditions of occurrence of ore bodies is important, first of all, in the preparation of projects for the rational exploitation of deposits. Therefore, the study of the form and conditions of occurrence of ore bodies is one of the important tasks in carrying out detailed and operational exploration of deposits. The correct solution of this issue is also important in determining the genesis of the explored deposit, which, in turn, predetermines the exploration plan.
1. Syngenetic and epigenetic deposits
According to the relative age of mineral deposits and their host rocks, two groups of deposits are distinguished: syngenetic and epigenetic. The former are formed simultaneously with the host rocks as a result of the same geological process. Typical representatives of such deposits are seam deposits of coal, fossil salts, bauxites, occurring among layers of sedimentary rocks and formed simultaneously with them in the same process of sedimentation or sedimentation (sedimentary deposits). Epigenetic deposits appear later than those rocks among which they occur; the formation of deposits and host rocks occurs in this case as a result of various geological processes. Characteristic examples of epigenetic deposits are vein ore bodies of postmagmatic genesis occurring in fissures developed in various rocks.
2. Shapes of bodies of minerals
Each geological body has three dimensions in space (length, width, depth); depending on the ratio of the values of these three dimensions, there are trn types of forms of minerals:
1) body isometric, having approximately equal three dimensions;
2) columnar bodies, in which one size is large compared to the other two - the elongation in depth is large, and the length and width are much smaller;
3) body stock-shaped, in which two dimensions are large (extension in depth and length), and the third (power) is small.
Between these three types there are transitional forms. In addition, in nature there are such forms of deposits that cannot be put into any of the above types, for example, a collection of small accumulations of mineral matter. These irregular forms of deposits stand out in a special fourth type - complex bodies.
The classification of the shapes of the bodies of mineral deposits is presented in Table. one.
Isometric shapes bodies of mineral deposits do not have widespread. stem and socket differ from each other in size. The size of the rod in diameter is determined by at least tens of meters. The diameter of the nest is measured in several meters. Nests of chromites and platinum-bearing chromites in ultramafic rocks (Nizhne-Tagilskoe deposit in the Urals) can serve as examples of syngenetic deposits of isometric shape. Epigenetic deposits are characterized by both stock-like and nest-like forms of ore bodies, but still nests predominate. For example, nest-like bodies of lead-zinc ores are often found in limestones, which arose in a metasomatic way (Nerchinsk deposits in Transbaikalia). stock a large more or less isometric deposit of continuous or almost continuous mineral raw materials is called (Fig. 1).
Rice. 1. A stock of copper ore from the Tsitelsoneli deposit. 1 - Quaternary loose deposits; 2- Quaternary lava; 3 - Upper Cretaceous tuffs; 4 - gypsum tuffs; 5 - secondary quartzites; 6- dikes of quartz albitophyres; 7 - ore body; 8 - boreholes.
An example is rock salt stocks, hydrothermal metasomatic ore deposits, etc.
When the stem or socket is flattened in one direction and there is a transition from these bodies to plate-like, lenses and lentils appear. Unlike isometric bodies, the lens has unequal power: its power is maximum in the center, and it disappears towards the edges. A lentil differs from a lens in its relatively greater power but smaller overall dimensions.
nest a relatively small local accumulation of a mineral is called. These include the bodies of some deposits of gold, lead-zinc, chromite, mercury and other ores.
Columnar bodies always epigenetic. They are relatively rare. Their characteristic representatives are pipes and pillar-like veins. Pipes have an elliptical or rounded section, measured hundreds of meters across, and sometimes they extend to a depth of several kilometers. Classical examples of tubular bodies lying almost vertically are igneous diamond deposits in Yakutia and South Africa, confined to intrusions of ultrabasic rocks, kimberlites, corresponding in shape. Columnar bodies are also found among ore postmagmatic deposits: Klimeks (Mo) in the state of Colorado and Deposits in Russia - Angaro-Ilimskoe and Mikoyanovskoe. Columnar veins have a small length in horizontal section and not significant thickness, but vertically they can be traced for hundreds of meters, and sometimes more than a kilometer.
The main element that determines the size and shape of isometric bodies is their cross section.
Flat bodies of minerals characterized by two long and one short size. Their most characteristic representatives will be: for epigenetic deposits - a vein, for syngenetic deposits - a layer.
Plast is a plate-like body of sedimentary origin, having a homogeneous composition and limited by two more or less parallel (except for pinches) bedding surfaces. The formations usually occupy a large area: they are elongated along strike and dip for hundreds and thousands of meters, having a relatively small thickness, measured in meters, less often tens of meters. In undisturbed geological sections, the underlying mineral layer is older, and the overburden is younger than the layer located between them. Layers, like veins, have constrictions and bulges, can thin out and wedge out.
Layered deposits of many minerals are known: manganese ores (Nikopolskoe), phosphorites (Karatausskoe), salts (Solikamskoe), coals (Donbass, Irkutsk basin), etc.
Layers are most typical for sedimentary deposits of ore, coal and non-metallic minerals. Metasomatic bodies developing along separate layers of sedimentary rock strata acquire the character layered deposits. The mineral layer is sometimes divided into packs separated by rock interlayers; packs, in turn, can break up into layers. Accordingly, the layers are distinguished simple(without rock layers) and complex(with rock interlayers).
Rice. 3. The structure of the mineral layer (in the section). 1 - bundles and layers of minerals; 2 - rock layers
The main elements that determine the geological position and dimensions of the formations are strike direction and strike length, dip direction, dip angle and dip length, and, finally, formation thickness. Usually reservoir deposits have a large length, reaching, for example, in the Donets Basin, several tens of kilometers. By dip, some formations, such as the gold-bearing Witwatersrand conglometers in South Africa, are mined to depths of more than 3 km. The formations are divided into steeply dipping, with dip angles of more than 45 °, and gently dipping, With angles of incidence less than 45°. The thickness of the mineral deposits varies from barely noticeable interlayers to several hundred meters. So, for example, the thickness of working coal seams in the Donbass is usually 0.45-2.5 m (average 0.7 m), the thickness of brown coal seams of the tertiary basins of the Southern Urals reaches 150 m, and the thickness of the salt deposit in Solikamsk in the Urals is 500 m.
Thin seams of minerals are not mined. Therefore, in addition to the geological definition of thickness, there are industrial concepts of the thickness of mineral deposits. working the minimum thickness at which the formation is expedient to exploit is considered. For coal, it ranges from 0.1 to 1 m. is the total thickness of the mineral and rock layers for the working part of the reservoir. Useful power is defined as the sum of the power packs of minerals, extracted during production from the reservoir.
Deposits of reservoir form are single-layer and multi-layer. In the latter case, it stands out productive strata rocks, enclosing a series of layers of minerals. The number of such layers in the productive stratum can be different. So, in the Moscow Region basin there are only two working layers, in the Donbass - about 100, in the Upper Silesian basin - 140. The richness of the productive strata is determined by productivity factor- the ratio of the total thickness of mineral layers to the total thickness of the strata.
Residential It is customary to call a body formed as a result of filling a crack in any rocks with a mineral substance.
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Rice. 4. Feathered vein and scheme of tectonic movement along the vein shaft
In the event that the vein has not a vertical, but an oblique fall, the rocks that lie above the vein are called the hanging side, and the rocks that lie under the vein are called the recumbent side of the vein. The surface along which the vein mineral substance comes into contact with the side rock is called the selvage. Lives varied in size. Their length is measured in tens of meters, the first hundreds of meters, less often kilometers, and sometimes tens of kilometers. The longest gold-bearing Mother Vein in California has been traced intermittently for 112 km.
Rice. 5. Veins.
a - simple; 6- complex. Dots cover the area of unaltered wall rocks
The thickness of the veins varies from tenths of a meter to tens of meters. Along the dip, the veins sometimes wedge out rather quickly, but they can extend to a considerable depth, exceeding a kilometer. For example, the gold-quartz veins of the Kolar deposit in India were exposed to a depth of about 3 km.
The power of the veins rarely remains constant; usually, however, it varies both along the strike and along the dip of the vein, sometimes increasing in places of swelling, then decreasing in places of constrictions. Lived; characterized by bloat, following one after another, is called cicatricial th or chamber. If these bulges are close to each other, the vein is considered beaded.
Rice. 6. Beaded vein x Fig. 7. Chamber vein
Wedging of veins can be simple, blunt and complex. With a simple wedging out, the power of the core gradually decreases down to zero. With a blunt wedging out, the power of the core is abruptly cut off. With complex wedging, the veins are divided into a number of separate protrusions, or so-called fingers. Such complex wedging is very typical, for example, for pegmatite veins of the Mamsky mica-bearing region.
veins can be located in various ways among the host rocks. In accordance with this, bedded veins are distinguished, which occur in accordance with the stratification of rocks, and secant veins, which are located inconsistently with the stratification or schistosity of the host rocks. As noted earlier, the veins that lie in the cavities of the exfoliation of anticlines are called saddle veins. Their classical representative is the system saddle lived in the Bendigo gold deposit in Australia (see Fig. 8).
Rice. 8. Saddle vein
complex shapes ore bodies are widespread. They occur mainly among epigenetic deposits. Sometimes complexly built reservoir bodies are observed in syngenetic deposits.
In this case, there is an alternation of mineral interlayers with interlayers of waste rock. For example, the layer of the Chiatura manganese deposit is divided into 10-15 ore and non-ore layers. Among the epigenetic deposits of complex shape, which appeared in most cases in combined structures, stockworks and complex veins are the most common.
Stockwork consists of a network of intersecting small ore veins and veinlets, accompanied by impregnation of ore minerals; the general form of distribution of such vein-disseminated mineralization is irregular, sometimes isometric or elongated and resembles a fractured mineralized zone (see Fig. 9). Stockworks are characteristic of many hydrothermal deposits of tin, gold, copper, molybdenum, tungsten, beryllium, etc.
Rice. 9 Schematic section of the stockwork Altenberg deposit;
1 - granite-porphyry: 2 - stockwork in greisenized granite; 3 - host rocks along ruptures (and cleavage) in granite-porphyry dikes
Complex veins are quite diverse in their structure. Contiguous parallel veins predominate among them, and, in addition, branching veins, leafing veins and reticulate veins stand out.
branching vein It is characterized by the presence of numerous branches, the so-called apophyses, extending from the main ore vein towards the recumbent and hanging sides. Similar body shapes are characteristic of many deposits of mica-bearing and rare-metal pegmatites.
leaf vein is a system of veins, veinlets, lenses and lentils formed as a result of the execution of a complex network of thin more or less parallel cracks by mineralized solutions, confined to the shear zone (Fig. 10). An example of a deposit with such complex bodies is the hydrothermal Klyuchevskoye copper-cobalt deposit in the Urals. In the event that small veins in an elongated shearing zone are oriented in different directions, a complex vein is called mesh. All the mentioned ore bodies can either come to the surface or be located at a depth without reaching the surface. In the latter case, they are called "blind" or "hidden" bodies.
The contact surface of the vein with the host rocks is called selvedge. The rocks adjacent to the vein are often altered and mineralized; such zones of metamorphosed wall rocks create halo periveinal change, sometimes containing industrial concentrations of valuable components. The veinlets extending from the veins into the side rocks are called apophyses. The main geological elements that determine the size and conditions of occurrence of the veins are the strike direction and strike length, direction, dip angle and dip length, declination, and thickness. The length of the veins of minerals varies over a very wide range, from short veins measuring 1 m or less to a colossal length of 200 km (for example, the Mother vein of gold ores in California).
Veins, as well as layers, are divided into steep (more than 45°) and gently dipping (less than 45°). By dip, some veins wedge out shallowly from the earth's surface, while others, such as the Sadonskaya vein of lead-zinc ores in the Caucasus, can be traced at a distance of more than 1.5 km; the Kolar gold-bearing quartz veins in India are mined at a depth of over 3.2 km. declination called dipping lines; wedging out of the vein along its strike; declination angles - the angles formed by the lines of declination with the line of strike. In veins, as well as in strata, a distinction is made between geological and working capacity, i.e., its smallest value at which the exploitation of a vein deposit becomes possible.
Vein deposits sometimes consist of one vein, and more often of groups - bundles or families of veins. Ore fields formed by vein deposits are called vein fields.
Lenses and lenticular deposits morphologically, they belong to formations that are transitional between isometric and flat bodies.
The bodies of minerals elongated along one axis are called pipes, tubes, or tubular deposits. The morphology and conditions of their occurrence are determined by the angle of immersion, or diving, the length in the direction of immersion and the cross section. Diving angle tube mineral is measured between its axis and the horizontal plane. It can vary widely: from 90° for vertical pipes to 0° for horizontal tubular deposits. The cross section and axial length of the pipes are also quite variable. For example, the cross section of diamond-bearing kimberlite pipes in Siberia ranges from 100 to 1000 m.
Among deposits of liquid and gaseous minerals(oil, water, combustible gas), in accordance with the classification of I. Brod and N. Eremenko, according to morphological features, reservoir, massive and lenticular deposits can be distinguished.
Reservoir deposits liquid and gaseous minerals are confined to a reservoir of permeable rocks, enclosed among impermeable or low permeable layers, to some extent tectonically dislocated. Such deposits are usually the largest, reaching more than 80 km in length along strike and up to 70 km in width.
massive deposits are accumulations of liquid or gas in ledges of permeable rocks (structural, erosive, reef), overlain by poorly permeable sediments. They can be both small and large in size, reaching 50 km 3 (Achaluki-Karabulak) and even several hundred cubic kilometers (Majid Suleiman in Iran, Kirkuk in Iraq, Abqaiq in Saudi Arabia and etc.).
Lenticular deposits associated with local zones of porous and fractured rocks, bounded on all sides by impermeable rocks.
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Introduction
deposit - any elementary, singular accumulation oil and gas.
The above classification is used in oil and gas field practice together with the genetic one, which reflects the geometry of the deposits. One of such genetic classifications is the classification of I.O. Brod, which he based on the types of natural reservoirs, the position of deposits on the structure, the relative position of oil, gas and water, reservoir, tire and screen in the “head” part of the reservoir. According to the genetic classification, I.O. Brod divided all the deposits into three groups and named them according to the types of natural reservoirs.
Group of reservoir deposits of oil and gas
This group was formed in the traps of a reservoir natural reservoir and contains four types of deposits.
Plastovo-archeddeposit. This deposit got its name from the type of natural reservoir (reservoir) and from its position on the structure (in the dome). The deposit is located in the dome, the highest part of the anticline and other structures, and was formed in the trap of folded dislocations.
Plastovaya tectonically shielded deposit formed in the trap of discontinuous dislocations of anticlines, diapiric folds, and on monoclines. It got its name from the type of natural reservoir (stratified) and from the name of the tectonic screen (discontinuous tectonic disturbance) that limits the deposit in its “head” part. As a result of the break in the continuity of the reservoir and the displacement of its blocks relative to each other by an amplitude exceeding the thickness of the reservoir, the "head" part of the reservoir was plugged with impermeable rocks with the formation of a trap of discontinuous dislocations, in which a reservoir tectonically screened deposit was subsequently formed.
The reservoir stratigraphically shielded reservoir was formed in the traps of stratigraphic (angular) unconformities of anticlines, diapiric folds and on monoclines and has a structure similar to the previous reservoir, except that the reservoir under consideration has a stratigraphic screen. Most often, stratigraphic deposits are formed under the plane of stratigraphic and angular unconformity, accompanied by erosion.
Plastovaya lithologically shielded deposit formed in lithological traps, the formation of which is due to the wedging out of a reservoir natural reservoir up its uprising or a sharp change from a reservoir to a non-reservoir. Layered lithologically shielded deposits are widespread both within anticlines and within diapiric folds, reef and erosion massifs, and monoclines.
massive deposits .
massive deposit v structural (tectonic) ledge lies in the vaults of anticlines, brachyanticlines, dome-shaped uplifts, united in a common concept - a structural (tectonic) ledge. Lithologically considered reservoir, most often confined to reservoirs of thick carbonate strata, which have good porosity and permeability due to fractures and caverns (secondary porosity).
massive deposit v biogenic (reef) ledge formed in the arch of a reef ledge (reef) formed by living organisms and composed of carbonate skeletons (remains) of marine fauna and flora - various organogenic limestones (coral limestone, shell limestone, etc.).
Group lithologically limited deposits. This group of deposits is formed in irregularly shaped reservoirs lithologically limited on all sides. Lithologically limited deposits are found in nature much less often than stratal and massive ones, the reservoir has an irregular shape and is usually composed of sands, silts, sandstones, siltstones, less often other rocks (carbonate, metamorphic) and is surrounded on all sides by rocks practically impermeable to oil and gas, in which these fluids cannot circulate. The form of lithologically limited deposits can be very diverse: lenticular, sleeve-like and cord-like, nest-like. The described deposits are controlled by lithologically limited reservoirs of the appropriate shape. Lithologically limited deposits on all sides are rare in nature and, most often, have modest hydrocarbon reserves, their energy potential is also low.
Reservoir-arched deposits in the fields of Kazakhstan
1) Border-- an oil field in the northern part of the Caspian depression. It is located 90 km northwest of the city of Uralsk. Identified in 1993 during testing of parametric well P-4.
The reserves are 30 million tons of oil. The deposit is confined to the sandstone layers of the Pashian horizon, deposit type reservoir vaulted . The trap, according to seismic data, was formed by an anticline included in the Border Uplifted Zone of northwestern orientation with a presumed tectonic screening along the rise. The reservoirs are sandstones with well logging porosity of 7-14% with an average porosity of 10.0%. Clays and mudstones of the Timan horizon with a thickness of about 5 m act as a cover. mm). Oil with a density of 805 kg/m3 contains (%% wt.): fractions boiling up to 200°C - 43, boiling up to 330°C - 70, mercaptans - 0.01, sulfides and asphaltenes - traces. The sulfur content was not determined. The plantar waters were not opened. The deposit is in the exploration stage. The dimensions of the structure are 4.7x6.7 k, the amplitude is 175 m. The reservoir thickness is 10 m, the effective oil-saturated thickness is 8.4 m. The water-oil contact of the deposit is estimated at 191 m.
2)Makat-- an oil field in Kazakhstan. It is located in the Makat district of the Atyrau region (administrative center - Makat), 100 km east of the city of Atyrau. The deposit was discovered in 1913.
Oil deposits of the Lower Cretaceous, Middle Jurassic and Permo-Triassic, where Neocomian and gas-oil horizons are identified.
deposits reservoir, arched, tectonically shielded.
The density of oil is 803--895 kg/m3. Oils are low-sulfur (0.25-0.28%), low-paraffin (0.25-0.8%).
3) Tazhigali-- The gas and oil field is located in the Atyrau region of Kazakhstan, 80 km southwest of the Kulsary railway station. The deposit was discovered in 1956. Tectonically, it is a three-winged salt dome structure.
The oil content is associated with the Cretaceous and Jurassic deposits of the western and eastern wings. There are four horizons and one horizon in the Middle Jurassic in the Cretaceous deposits. The Neocomian horizon is gas-oil, the rest are oil.
The depth of productive horizons varies from 382 to 1002 m . deposits reservoir, arched, tectonically shielded with heights of 10-40 m. Oil-bearing layers are composed of terrigenous rocks, porous reservoirs.
Gas composition: methane 59.8-62.4%, ethane 7%, propane 5.3%, nitrogen + rare 14.8-29.2%, hydrogen 0.4%.
The deposit is in conservation.
4) Karazhanbas-- an oil field in the Mangistau region of Kazakhstan, on the Buzachi peninsula. Refers to the North-Buzashinsky oil and gas region.
Discovered in 1974. Deposits at a depth of 228-466 m. Oil flow rates 1.2-76.8 m3/day. Oil density is 939-944 kg/m3, sulfur content is 1.6-2.2. characteristic feature oils is the presence of vanadium and nickel in them. Initial oil reserves are estimated at 70 million tons. Structurally, it is represented by two semi-arches: southwestern and northeastern, bounded from the south and southwest by tectonic faults. Two deposits were identified in the Bathonian stage of the Middle Jurassic. deposits reservoir, vaulted tectonically shielded. The depth of their occurrence is 548-659 m.
The production center is the city of Aktau.
The field is currently being developed by Karazhanbasmunai JSC (office in Aktau). The shareholders of Karazhanbasmunai are CITIC and the Kazakh oil company Exploration Production KazMunaiGas, 50% each, respectively. Oil production in 2008 amounted to 2 million tons.
5) Gasfieldroadside located in the Sozak district of the Shymkent region, 260 km south of the city of Zhezkazgan. Exploratory drilling began in 1972, when drilling well 3 from a depth of 2456 m from Famennian sandstones, an emergency fountain of hydrocarbon gas was obtained with a flow rate of up to 1628 thousand m3/day. It is confined to the near-fault brachyanticlinal fold of sublatitudinal strike. The deposit consists of two reservoir-arch, tectonically screened deposits confined to sandstones and siltstones of the Famennian age and fractured limestones of the Serpukhovian stage. The depth of the Famennian deposit in the arch is 2400 m. values from 3 to 18%, permeability - 0.038 µm2. The gas saturation coefficient is 0.7. Formation pressure 25.8 MPa, formation temperature 86°C. The gas flow rate at the choke with a diameter of 4.9 mm was 74.4 thousand m3/day. The deposit is covered by halogen sediments of Famennian age, up to 450 m thick. The Nizhneserpukhovskaya deposit was discovered at a depth of 1178 m. 4 m. Reservoirs are represented by dense fractured fine- and medium-crystalline limestones with low matrix porosity. Capacitive-filtration properties are due to the development of fracturing. The porosity is 3.78%. The highest values of reservoir properties and gas flow rates are observed in the sublatitudinal fault zone, which complicates the crest part of the fold. Initial flow rate - 96 thousand m3/day. on a fitting with a diameter of 22.6 mm. The initial formation pressure is 15.1 MPa, the formation temperature is 59°C. The deposit is covered by coeval sulfate-terrigenous (anhydrites, mudstones) deposits up to 298 m thick. The gases of the Famennian deposit are characterized by the following composition, %: 0.12, isobutane 0.02, n-butane 0.012-0.04, pentane + higher 0.06, nitrogen + rare 27.6-34.2, helium 0.21, carbon dioxide 0.3-0.85 . The regime of deposits is elastic-gas-water-pressure.
Reservoir-tectonically screened deposits
1) FieldUzen
Discovered in 1961. It is confined to a slightly disturbed large brachyantclinal fold of northwest strike, complicated by a series of local dome-shaped uplifts. The gas content of the Lower and Upper Cretaceous has been proved; oil and gas potential of the Upper and Middle Jurassic. In the Cretaceous complex, 12 gas-bearing horizons have been identified; in the Jurassic -13 oil-bearing and oil-and-gas bearing (Fig. 70). The total height of the productive floor is 1500 m.
Deposits by type are predominantly stratal, arched, however, in the Jurassic strata, there are separate tectonically screened and lithological deposits.
Productive horizons are represented by sandy and sandy-siltstone formations with a porosity of 30.6% and a permeability of 0.2-0.4 Darcy.
The effective thickness of sand beds and packs in the Jurassic sequence ranges from 3-167 m. Oil rates varied from 1 to 81 m "/day. Gas 8-230 thousand m" / day. Initial reservoir pressure 11.2-19.4 MPa, temperature 57-84”C. Oil density 844-874 kg/m 3 , sulfur content 0.16-0.2%, paraffin 16-22.6%
2) Kalamkas. The Kalamkas oil and gas field was discovered in 1976. It is confined to a slightly disturbed latitudinal brachyanticlinal fold, within which the gas content of 6 layers in the Neocomian, two in the Aptian and 7 gas-oil and oil horizons in the Upper and Middle Jurassic was proved (Fig. 39). The productivity of the section has been proven in the interval of 550-900 m. In the process of production drilling, 5 additional stratigraphic deposits were additionally identified, associated mainly with the Upper Jurassic strata (Fig. 39). All other deposits are bedded, arched, slightly disturbed with elements of lithological and tectonic shielding. The main seal over the Jurassic deposits is a 50-meter clay unit at the base of the Neocomian.
Productive reservoirs are represented by sandy and silty rocks with a porosity of 23-29%, a permeability of 0.105-1.468 Darcy, and an effective thickness of 4.2-10.3 m.
The gas-oil contact is established for all Jurassic horizons at almost the same level, the water-oil contact also does not change sharply across the horizons, and therefore the productive Jurassic part can be considered as a single massive reservoir deposit.
Initial oil flow rates 26.4-62.1 m "/day on a 7 mm choke; initial pressure 6.5-9.6 MPa. temperature 39-44" C. The density of oil is 902-914 kg/m", the sulfur content in oil is up to 2%. The oil contains industrial concentrations of vanadium and nickel.
Geological section Kalamkas
Structural map
3) DepositDunga
It was discovered in 1968 and confined to the periclinal part of the Beke-Bashkuduk meganticline, which is complicated by submridional faults (Fig. 73).
The productivity of the Upper Jurassic Callovian and Aptian sediments, represented by sandstones with a porosity of 16-21% and a permeability of 0.01 Darcy, has been established.
Deposits by the nature of saturation are oil and gas in the Callovian. oil in the Aptian deposits. By the type of traps, the deposits are bedded, arched, tectonically shielded. The effective thickness of the productive Jurassic formations is 4.2-6.5 m.
4) FieldKarakuduk
Discovered in 1971. Associated with a slightly disturbed anticlinal fold. The oil-bearing capacity of the Middle and Upper Jurassic has been proven, where 9 productive horizons have been established (Fig. 102). Oil deposits are stratal, arched, tectonically and lithologically shielded. Sandy fields I s-reservoirs are characterized by porosity of 13-24%. permeability 3-20 Md and effective thicknesses 9.6-45 m. Density of oil 808-866 kg/m\ Initial reservoir pressure 25.3-29.7 M Pa. temperature 78-111 °C. Oil flow rates 25.3-155 m "/day on a 9 mm choke
5) DepositAryskum
Opened in 1985, in the Kzyl-Orda region, 120 km north of the Zhusaly railway station, 320 km from the Omsk-Pavlodar-Chimkent oil pipeline.
It is confined to the northwest-trending near-fault anticline fold with an amplitude of 120 m. The gas deposit with an oil rim is associated with the lower Neocomian, in which two productive horizons M-1 and M-P are distinguished (Fig. 138). The M-P horizon is industrially productive. Single gas emissions were noted when drilling wells from the Upper Jurassic.
The deposit is bedded, arched, tectonically eroded with a total height of 108 m, including an oil rim of 27 m. The reservoir is represented by weakly cemented gravelstones, sandstones, sands and siltstones with a porosity of 17.4% and a permeability of 0.054 microns.
The coefficient of oil saturation is 0.66, gas saturation is 0.69. Initial formation pressure 10.49 MPa, temperature 44°C.
The initial oil flow rates at the 7.7 mm choke reached 61 m3/day, gas - 70 thousand mUd.
The density of oil in the oil rim is 854 kg/m". The sulfur content is up to 0.46%, paraffin 9.7-27.2%, asphaltenes and resins up to 16.65%.
Free gas contains methane 93.9%, ethane 2.0%, propane 1.4%, butane 0.65%, helium 0.01%, nitrogen 0.54%.
Formation-lithological screened
1) Bolganmola
The deposit was discovered in 1964. The Bolganmol structure (Fig. 28) is a semi-arched uplift screened along the rise and laterally adjoining the salt core (Fig. 28). The deposit is stratal, lithologically limited. Productive deposits were exposed at a depth of 1828 m.
The reservoirs are sandstones and siltstones of the Lower Triassic with a porosity of up to 20%. The effective oil-saturated thickness is 3 m.
The flow rate of oil with an admixture of water was 7 m"/day at a dynamic level of 1140 m. fractions boiling up to 200°C -17.5%.
2) DepositTyubedzhik
It was discovered in 1981. It is confined to a slightly disturbed brachanticlinal fold, in the Lower Cretaceous deposits of which 2 oil reservoirs of reservoir dome type with elements of tectonic and lithological screening were found (Fig. 68).
Reservoirs are represented by sandstones and clayey siltstones with porosity up to 27% and effective thickness up to 6 m.
Initial oil flow rates are 2.4-7.2 m 3 /day by overflow. Oil with a density of 911 kg/m 5 , sweet, slightly paraffinic, resinous (13.7%).
3) DepositZhetybai
Discovered in 1961. Associated with a slightly disturbed brachanticlinal fold with a northwestern orientation. The oil and gas content of the Upper and Middle Jurassic was proved, in which 13 productive horizons were established. represented by intercalation of sandstones, siltstones and clays (Fig. 69). The total height of the productive stage is 700 m. the screens are shielded. By the nature of saturation, one deposit is gas-condensate, the rest are gas-oil and oil. The porosity of reservoirs is 16-22%. permeability 0.06-0.239 Darcy.
Initial formation pressures are 17.5-25.0 MPa, temperature is 78-103°C. Oil density 830-870 kg/m 3 , sulfur content 0.1-0.28%. paraffin 17.2-25%. The content of stable condensate in the gas condensate deposit of horizon I is 76 g/m3.
4) DepositKonys
Opened in 1989 in the Terenozek district of the Kzyl-Orda region, 140 km north of the railway. station Zhusaly, 150 km northwest of the city of Kyzyl-Orda. The deposit is confined to a brachnanticline of submeridional strike, complicated by two domes (Fig. 137). Along the top of horizon M-II, the northern dome is contoured by isohypse - 1070 m;
The western flank of the southern arch is connected by a narrow and shallow trough with the semi-arch, limited from the north and west by tectonic faults. This part of the structure is called South Konys.
Two deposits were revealed in the opened section. The oil and gas deposit is associated with horizon M-I the Aryskum suite of the lower part of the Neocomian deposits, and the oil suite (horizon Yu-0) - with the Upper Jurassic.
The deposits are layered, arched, lithologically shielded.
The productive horizon M-11 lies at a depth of 963 m. Lithologically, it is represented by sandstones and siltstones. Overall Height oil deposit 30 m, gas deposit 45 m. Oil-saturated reservoir thickness 32.2 m, I azo saturation 25 m. Oil saturation coefficient 0.68, gas saturation 0.65. GNK and VNK are installed at elevations - 1060 and -1088 m.
The reservoir is terrigenous, porous with a porosity of 19.6%, a permeability of 0.015 µm2. The Yu-0 horizon is represented by sandstones with a porosity of 21-24%. The effective and oil-saturated thickness of the reservoir is 4.55 m, oil saturation coefficient is 0.57. The height of the deposit is 50 m.
Oils with a density of 830 kg/m3, low sulfur (0.16-0.19%), highly paraffinic (12-15%), resinous (9.3-10.7%).
Reservoir pressure 11.2-11.35 MPa, temperature 56°C. Oil flow rates are 70.1-72.7 m "/day on a 7 mm choke.
Associated gas is methane (83.2-95.3%) and contains 4.58-16.6% heavy hydrocarbons. It also contains a small amount of hydrogen sulfide (0.02%), nitrogen (0.01-0.2%) and carbon dioxide.
The gas cap is ethane, its composition, %: methane 91.43; ethane 5.17; heavy 3.31, the content of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide - traces. Within the boundaries of the Southern Koiys, the gas contains condensate with a density of 700 kg/m5, its content is 98 g/m3. The condensate contains 0.02% sulfur and 2.6% paraffin.
5) Place-eoirakts
Opened in 1971. Located 135 km north of the city of Taraz. In the Lower Carboniferous strata, the structure is characterized by a dome shape with dimensions of 9x9 km and an amplitude of 120 m; in the Lower Permian, this is an asymmetric brachianticline of meridional orientation with dimensions of 21x10 km and an amplitude of 160 m (Fig. 155).
The field contains three gas reservoirs of reservoir-arched and lithologically screened type in Tournaisian, Lower Visean and Lower Permian deposits.
Reservoirs are represented by sandstones and siltstones with porosity of 11.3-18.6% and permeability up to 3 md.
Reservoir pressure 10-28.2 MPa. temperature 42-72°C.
Gas flow rates reached a maximum of 128 thousand m "/day at a washer of 19.1 mm. Heavy gases, mainly hydrocarbons in the Carboniferous strata (over 90% of the hydrocarbon fraction) and nitrogen-hydrocarbons in the Lower Permian, where the concentration of methane over the area varies within 24- 75%.
Reservoir-stratigraphically shielded
1) Karazhanbas
The deposit was discovered in 1974. It is confined to a faulted sublatitudinal brachianticline fold. The oil content of the Neocomian (five oil deposits) and the Bathonian stage of the Middle Jurassic (two oil horizons) has been proven.
Deposits in the Neocomian are bedded, arched, disturbed, and also stratigraphically shielded; in the Jurassic - bedded, lithologically shielded (Fig. 38). The reservoirs are sandy and silty formations with a porosity of 27-29%, a permeability of 0.013-0.351 Darcy and an oil-saturated thickness of 2-14.6 m.
Initial flow rates 1.2-76.8 m"/day, initial reservoir pressure 3-5.75 MPa. temperature 25-37°C. Oil density 939-944 kg/m", sulfur content 1.6-2.2% , paraffin 0.7-1.4%. The oil is highly resinous, contains vanadium pentoxide up to 350 g/t.
Geological section of the Karazhanbas deposit
Structural maps
2) Zhanatan
Discovered in 1992. In tectonic terms, it is an anticline fold of subsredian strike with dimensions of 17x6.2 km and an amplitude of more than 450 m (Fig. 45),
The productivity of terrigenous Lower Carboniferous deposits has been established. The reservoirs are sandstones and siltstones with a porosity of 7-16% and a permeability of 0.042-0.00048 microns. The effective oil-saturated thickness is 6.6-33 m, the oil saturation coefficient is 0.7. 8.3 mUday Oil has a density of 852 kg/m3, contains 0.32% sulfur, up to 13% paraffin and 3% resins and asphaltenes.
A brief review of the identified deposits testifies to their diversity both in the subsalt-pre-Kungur Paleozoic and in post-salt deposits. This diversity is due to the types of traps, characteristics of reservoirs and field parameters of deposits, phase state of hydrocarbons, quantitative concentrations of associated components - metals, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur, oil and gas reserves. The differentiation of deposits is clearly visible not only within the basin as a whole, but also within the boundaries of geological regions and even regions.
3) DepositKyzylkia
It was discovered in 1986. It is located in the Kzyl-Orda region, 40 km west of the Kumkol deposit.
It is confined to an anticline fold of submeridiopal strike, complicated in the central and southern parts by raising the basement above the level of productive horizons (Fig. 139).
A gas-oil deposit was established in the Lower Neocomian (M-I), as well as minor oil inflows from the weathering crust of the basement were obtained. The reservoir is layered, stratigraphically and lithologically screened, 85 m high.
Oil and gas saturated thickness varies from 2.7 m to 5.2 m. Oil saturation 0.79. gas saturation 0.75.
The maximum oil flow rate at a 7 mm choke reached 158.4 m"/day, gas flow rate - 42 thousand m"/day. on 6 m fitting.
Initial reservoir pressure 15.3-15.8 MPa, temperature 60-62°C.
Oil with a density of 805 kg / m ". The content of methane in the gas is 79.45%, nitrogen 8.6%, heavy hydrocarbons up to 10%
massive deposits
1) Tengiz(kaz. Te?iz) - an oil and gas field in the Atyrau region of Kazakhstan, 350 km southeast of the city of Atyrau. Refers to the Caspian oil and gas province. Opened in 1979.
The pioneers of the Tengiz field are Zholdaskali Dosmukhambetov, Bulekbay Sagingaliyev, Bulat Yelamanov, Asabay Khismetov, Kumar Balzhanov, Valentin Avrov, Makhash Balgimbayev, Oryngazy Iskaziyev who were awarded the State Prize of the Republic of Kazakhstan.
On April 6, 1991, an oil and gas complex was put into operation - the Tengiz oil and gas processing plant and field, which marked the beginning of industrial production at this field.
Hydrocarbon deposits are located at a depth of 3.8--5.4 km. deposit massive, reef buildings. The oil content is associated with deposits of the Middle-Lower Carboniferous and Devonian ages.
The oil saturation coefficient is 0.82. The initial GOR is 487 me/me, the initial oil flow rate is 500 m³/day with a 10 mm choke. Initial reservoir pressure 84.24 MPa, temperature 105°C. The density of oil is 789 kg/m 3 . The oil is sulfurous 0.7%, paraffinic 3.69%, low-tar 1.14%, contains 0.13% asphaltenes.
The recoverable reserves of the field are estimated at 750 million to 1 billion 125 million tons of oil. The predicted volume of geological reserves is 3 billion 133 million tons of oil. Associated gas reserves are estimated at 1.8 trillion. mi.
2)Royal- the oil field is located in the Atyrau region of Kazakhstan, 150 km southeast of the city of Atyrau and 20 km northeast of the oil giant - the Tengiz field. Prospecting and exploratory drilling started in 1982, which became the year of discovery of the field.
Productive horizons are established in the post-salt and sub-salt complexes. The oil deposit of the post-salt complex in the Upper Cretaceous deposits is associated with a salt-dome structure. The productivity of the presalt complex is confined to the Paleozoic anticline fold of the tectonic-sedimentary type.
The Paleozoic oil pool is associated with the Artinian rocks of the Lower Permian and Cabonate deposits of the Carboniferous. Occurs at a depth of 3952 m. OWC was taken at -4800 m. deposit massive. The productive stratum is composed of limestones.
The oil is very heavy, density 965 kg/m3, sulphurous (2%), low paraffin (0.52%), contains 2.2% asphaltenes.
The field is under exploration for pre-salt deposits. The deposit of the post-salt complex is mothballed.
The total geological reserves are 188 million tons of oil.
3) Kenkiyak-- an oil field in the Temir district of the Aktobe region of Kazakhstan, 220 km south of Aktobe. It belongs to the East Emba oil and gas region. There is an airport in the area of the deposit.
The oil is predominantly light with a density of 821–850 kg/m3, contains 0.24–1.24% sulfur, 1.53–6.76% paraffins, and 1.2–8.5% resins. The Dokungur pay stage is characterized by abnormally high reservoir pressure, which is 67.6 MPa in the Lower Permian and 79.6 MPa in the Carboniferous. Reservoir temperature reaches maximum values of 98 °C. Oil flow rates 18.4-150 m3/day . deposit massive.
Oil deposits in the post-salt strata are being developed at the field. The pre-salt part of the section has been completed by exploration.
The total productive stage at the field covers the interval from 160 to 4300 m. The section is represented by interbedding sandstones of varying degrees of cementation, siltstones, gravelstones, clays and mudstones. The deposits of the Middle Carboniferous are represented by limestones. The structures of the post-salt and sub-salt complexes differ sharply.
1958 -- post-salt structure revealed
1959 - a field was discovered, confined to a salt dome (9 oil horizons were identified in the post-salt section)
1971 - deposits were discovered in the Lower Permian deposits (5 productive horizons were identified)
1979 -- Massive oil reservoir discovered in Middle Carboniferous carbonate
4) KarachaganmTo, Karashyganak, Kaz. ?arashi?ana?- black bay - oil and gas condensate field of Kazakhstan, located in the West Kazakhstan region, near the city of Aksai. Refers to the Caspian oil and gas province.
Opened in 1979. Industrial development began in the mid-1980s by the Orenburggazprom production association of the USSR Ministry of Gas Industry. In 1989, the Ministry was transformed into the State Gas Concern Gazprom, and in 1993 into the Russian Joint Stock Company Gazprom.
The Karashyganak uplift is represented by a reef structure up to 1.7 km high. deposit oil and gas condensate, massive. The height of the gas condensate part reaches 1420 m, the thickness of the oil layer is 200 m. Productive deposits are from the Upper Devonian to the Lower Perm. The gas pressure in the reservoir is 600 atmospheres.
5) Tolkyn. It was discovered in 1992. Structurally, it is a southwest-northeast-trending anticline measuring 6x2.1 km with an amplitude of 110 m (Fig. 40).
The section is represented by terrigenous-carbonate sequence of the Middle Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic and terrigenous deposits of the Jurassic, Cretaceous and Cenozoic.
An oil and gas deposit 150 m high was discovered in the rocks of the Artinsk stage of the Lower Permian. The deposit is massive.
The reservoir of the productive horizon is mixed, carbonate with an open porosity of 13% and a permeability of 0.0149 µm 2 . The total thickness of the productive horizon is 147 m. Effective 132 m, oil-saturated 10.4 m, gas-saturated 122 m. The oil and gas saturation coefficients are 0.62 and 0.38, respectively.
Initial formation pressure 43.2 MPa, temperature 105°C. Oil flow rate 46 m "/day, gas 189.7 thousand m" / day. on 8 mm fitting.
The oil is light, with a density of 840 kg/m 3 , low-sulfur 0.23%, slightly paraffinic 1.1%, contains a small amount of 3.1% asphaltenes and silica gel resins. The gas content of reservoir oil is 346 m "/m".
Dissolved gas composition, in %: methane 48.6, ethane 13. propane 10.9, nozobutane 5.4, n-butane 8.7.
The gas cap gas has an air density of 0.76. Its composition is dominated by methane 89.74%
Tolkyn oil and gas condensate fieldStructural map
Lithologically limited
1) Deposittasbulat
Discovered in 1965. Associated with a slightly disturbed sublatitudinal brachiantclinal fold. The productivity of the Olenek Stage of the Lower Triassic, Middle and Upper Jurassic has been proven (Fig. 72). The productive deposits of the Triassic are represented by carbonate-herrnogenic rocks, in which three deposits have been identified: "A" - oil, 5 m high; "B" - oil and gas condensate with the height of the gas part of 207 m and the oil part of 47 m; "B" - gas condensate with a height of 46 m.
In the Jurassic stratum, represented by the interbedding of sandy-silty rocks with clays, deposits have been established in horizons Yu-1. Yu-II. Yu-Sh, Yu-IV. Yu-V. Yu-VI, Yu-IX. Yu-H. Yu-XI. Deposits of the Yu-IX and Yu-Kh horizons are classified as lithologically shielded. the rest - to the type of reservoir, arched.
The porosity of the Jurassic reservoirs is 14-19%, the permeability is 0.018-0.042 Darcy. Effective thicknesses are 4-44 m. Oil flow rates are 8-90 m"/day, condensate rates are 28.8-38.4 m"/day.
The initial reservoir pressure is 19-23.2 MPa. temperature 83-103°C. Oil with a density of 834-865 kg / m3, paraffin up to 36.7%. Methane in gas 84%, heavy hydrocarbons 12.5-15%. stable condensate 64.5-78.1 g/m" in the Jurassic and 111 g/m" in the Triassic.
Conclusion
deposit field oil gas
A natural reservoir is a broader concept than a reservoir, because it is formed by the ratio of the reservoir to the enclosing poorly permeable rocks (tires), has a certain shape and capacity, a single hydrodynamic system and reservoir energy.
According to the ratio of the reservoir with the poorly permeable rocks limiting it, I.O. Brod proposed to distinguish three main types of natural reservoirs: reservoir, massive and lithologically limited from all sides.
deposit - any elementary, singular accumulation oil and gas. Deposits are formed in traps of various types, taking their shape. In petroleum geology, various classifications of deposits have been developed. One of such classifications is the classification of oil and gas deposits according to the phase state of hydrocarbons in them. N.A. Eremenko identified five types of such deposits:
oil with and without dissolved gas;
oil with a gas cap and condensate;
gas with condensate and oil rim;
gas condensate (has a condensate outlet of more than 30 cm3/m3);
gas (contains mainly "dry" gas - methane).
massive deposits formed in massive homogeneous and heterogeneous reservoirs . The types of deposits of this group are named by I.O. Brod according to the type of natural reservoir (massive) and according to the type of local ledge: structural (tectonic), biogenic (reef) and erosional, in which the deposits under consideration occur.
List of used literature
1) Daukeev S.Zh., Uzhenov B.S., Abdulin A.A., Deep structure and mineral resources of Kazakhstan, 2007.
2) Zheltov Yu.P. Development of oil fields: Textbook for universities. Moscow: Nedra, 1986.
3) Tanirbergenov A.G. Training and metodology complex student disciplines. Almaty: KazNTU, 2004.
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1. PRINCIPLES OF OPEN DEVELOPMENT OF DEPOSITS OF MINERAL RESOURCES .. 4
1.1 Types of developed fields and deposits. 4
1.2. Types of open pit mining. 7
1.3 Types and sizes of quarry fields. 9
1.4 Open pit mining periods. 12
1.5 The concept of the mode and stages of mining. 14
2. THEORY OF OPENING WORKING HORIZONS.. 18
2.1. The procedure for the formation of cargo flows. eighteen
2.2. Prerequisites for the formation of cargo flows. twenty
2.3. Initial stages of mining development. 22
2.4. Revealing mine workings. 23
2.5. Ways of opening the working horizons of a quarry. 25
2.6. The routes of opening workings. 27
2.7. Forms of routes of capital workings. 29
2.8. Schemes and systems of revealing routes. 31
2.9. Schemes for the development of quarry railway tracks. 33
2.10. Quarry road schemes and their main parameters 35
2.11. Sliding and semi-stationary ramps.. 37
2.12. Trenching for road and conveyor transport 40
2.13. Conducting trenches. 41
2.14. Volumes of capital trenches and half-tranches (according to prof. E.F. Sheshko) 46
2.15. Cutting trenches and pits.. 51
3. SYSTEMS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 54
3.1. Classification of open pit mining systems. 54
3.2. Classifications of mining systems according to the direction of movement and the method of stripping operations. 59
3.3. Dividing a quarry field into excavation layers. 60
3.4. Height and stability of ledges. 62
3.5. Structures and stability of quarry walls. 66
3.6. Choice of development system. 68
3.7. Basic principles and patterns of formation of the working area of a quarry. 68
3.6. Longitudinal and transverse development systems. 75
3.7. Fan and ring mining systems. 76
4. SYSTEMS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF HORIZONTAL AND SLOW FIELDS. TECHNOLOGICAL SCHEMES. 79
4.1 Opening of working horizons in continuous mining systems 79
4.2. Opening methods. 84
4.3. Conditions for the use of deep development systems. 86
4.4. Options for the development of mining operations. 89
4.5. Designs and parameters of berms. 92
5. OPENING OF WORKING HORIZONS IN DEEP DEVELOPMENT SYSTEMS.. 93
5.1. Opening by external capital trenches. 93
5.2. Simple, dead-end and loop tracks.. 96
5.3. Spiral tracks.. 102
5.4. Characteristics of schemes and systems of revealing traces. 106
6. MINING AND GEOMETRIC ANALYSIS OF CARRIER FIELDS.. 110
6.1. Mining and geometric analysis of quarry fields with horizontal and flat deposits. 112
6.2 Mining and geometric analysis of quarry fields for steeply dipping and inclined deposits with difficult occurrence conditions according to the method of A.I. Arsentiev * 114
6.3 Converting graphs of mining and geometric analysis into a calendar graph. 117
6.4. Building a rational mining schedule 122
6.5. Determining the area of possible regulation of the mountain regime schedule 125
6.5. Technological methods of regulating the mode of mining operations 129
6.6. Determination of a rational direction for the development of mining operations in a quarry in the development of homogeneous deposits according to the method of A.I. Arsentiev 138
7. THEORY OF INTEGRATED MECHANIZATION OF OPEN MINING 142
7.1. General information. 142
7.2. Principles of complex mechanization. 143
7.3. Technological classification of equipment complexes. 145
7.4. Structural classification of mechanization links. 151
7.5. Fundamentals of assembly of mining and transport equipment 154
8. TECHNOLOGICAL COMPLEXES FOR EXTRACTION OF BUILDING ROCKS.. 156
8.1. Technological complexes for the extraction and processing of sand and gravel rocks. 156
8.2. Technological complexes for the production of crushed stone. 160
8.3. Technological complexes for the extraction of natural stone. 165
LITERATURE.. 167
1. PRINCIPLES OF OPEN MINING OF MINERAL DEPOSITS
Types of developed fields and deposits
The objects of open mining are mineral deposits. On the basis of industry, open mining of coal and ore deposits, deposits of building rocks, cement raw materials, mining and chemical raw materials, etc.
Developed mineral deposits occur in very diverse natural conditions.
The types of deposits differ primarily in their characteristic geometric features.
1. Mineral deposits in form can be: isometric - developed more or less equally in all directions (massive deposits, stocks, nests, etc., Fig. 1.1, v, a);
plate-like - elongated mainly in two directions with a relatively small thickness (layers and reservoir-like deposits, Fig. 1.1, a, b, d, f);
tubular and columnar - elongated mainly in one direction;
intermediate and transitional between the indicated forms (lenses, veins, saddle-shaped deposits, folds, bends, tectonically disturbed formations) (Fig. 1.1, a, f).
The shape of deposits predetermines the shape of quarry fields.
2. Relief of the deposit surface it can be flat (Fig. 1.1, a), in the form of a slope of a hill (Fig. 1.1, b), in the form of a hill (see Fig. 1.1, c), hilly (Fig. 1.1, G) and finally, the deposit may be under water. The order of development and possible means of mechanization depend on the surface topography.
3. Depending on the position relative to the dominant surface level and depth deposits are distinguished:
surface type - directly exposed to the surface or located under deposits of small thickness (up to 20-30 m, Fig. 1.1, a)
deep type - located significantly below the dominant surface level, the thickness of the barren rocks can be from 40 to 250 m (Fig. 1.1, e, e) such deposits can be developed in an open or underground way, which is economically justified;
high-altitude type - located above the dominant level of the surface (Fig. 1.1, b, c) deposits can be objects of open or underground mining; high-altitude-depth type - partially located above and below the dominant surface (Fig. 1.1, g).
The occurrence may or may not be consistent with the surface topography; the deposit can occupy all or part of the hill (mountain slope). The size of the quarry in depth and in plan, as well as the technical means used, especially transport, depend on the position of the deposit relative to the earth's surface.
4. According to the angle of incidence deposits are distinguished:
gently sloping, characterized by a slightly inclined (up to 8-10°) and undulating occurrence of the main part of the deposit (see Fig. 1.1, a, G); their special case is horizontal deposits;
inclined - with angles of incidence from 8-10 to 25-30 ° (see Fig. 1.1.6);
steeply inclined - with angles of incidence of more than 25-30 ° (see Fig. 1.1, g)
steep - with angles of incidence of 56-90 ° (see Fig. 1.1.5);
complex occurrence, characteristic of anticlinal and synclinal folds (see Fig. 1.1, e) and sharp geological disturbances; it is distinguished by the variable direction of the fall of the deposit.
Such a division of deposits is adopted on the basis of open-pit mining technology. So, the placement of dumps in the worked-out space of a quarry is possible when developing horizontal and gently sloping deposits (Fig. 1.2, a) and in special cases - when developing elongated sloping and steeply sloping deposits. When developing inclined deposits, according to the conditions of stability of the end walls of a quarry and the placement of opening workings, it is usually not necessary to excavate overburden rocks of the lying side of the deposit (Fig. 1.2, b). With a steep drop, it is necessary to develop the host rocks, both hanging and recumbent sides of the deposit (Fig. 1.2, v).
By power deposits are divided into:
very low power, low power, medium power; powerful; very powerful.
Such a division is associated with the dependence of the number of simultaneously mined mining ledges on the thickness of the deposit. The conditions and procedure for the development of horizontal and inclined (steep) deposits are not the same, therefore, for these deposits, the indicators of the same thickness classes and the indicators of the same thickness classes are numerically different.
simple deposits (see Fig. 1.1, b, g) with a homogeneous structure, without significant layers and inclusions; in this case, all mineral deposits are taken out together (gross mining method);
complex deposits (see Fig. 1.1, a, d), containing, along with conditioned minerals, substandard varieties of it, as well as interlayers or inclusions of waste rocks with clearly defined contacts; in this case, separate (selective) development of conditioned and substandard minerals and waste rocks is necessary;
Dispersed deposits (Fig. 1.1, h), having complex structure, in which conditioned and substandard minerals and waste rocks are distributed in the thickness of the earth's crust without a clear pattern and pronounced contacts; the choice of a separate or gross method of extracting a mineral is made after a detailed operational exploration.
5.Mineral quality in the deposit can be distributed:
Evenly, when the quality of the mineral that meets the requirements of the consumer is approximately the same within the deposit; in this case, the extraction (gross or separate) in different parts of the deposit can be carried out independently, without averaging;
uneven, when the distribution of quality is not the same in depth or in terms of the deposit; in this case, it is necessary to plan simultaneous extraction in different parts of the deposit, to have several working extraction sections and to average the quality.
6. By predominant breed types deposits can be represented:
Rocky overburden and minerals;
Heterogeneous overburden and rocky (semi-rocky) minerals and host rocks; in this case, the thick layer covering the deposits is represented by alternating soft, dense, semi-rocky and hard rocks;
Soft and dense overburden and rocky or semi-rocky minerals and wall rocks;
Semi-rocky overburden and semi-rocky or very dense minerals;
Soft overburden and heterogeneous minerals;
Soft overburden and soft or hard minerals.
These factors have a decisive influence on the choice technical means, order of conduct and the possibility of open-cast mining.
The interpretations of the term “mineral deposit” accepted in modern domestic literature usually include two components: geological and economic. The geological component implies that a "deposit" is "... a section of the earth's crust in which, as a result of certain geological processes, an accumulation of mineral matter occurred ..." (Smirnov, 1969, p. 5) or simply "... a natural accumulation of minerals" ( Geological Dictionary, 1973, vol. 1, p. 423; Instruction ..., 1987, p. 43; Krivtsov, Terentiev, 1991, p. 52-53). And this natural accumulation of mineral matter under certain conditions may be of particular interest to someone from a scientific or technical point of view. The economic component of the concept determines the conditions under which this "natural accumulation of mineral matter" can be suitable for industrial use. In other words, the quantity, quality and conditions of occurrence of the “mineral substance” must be favorable for industrial development, which could be carried out in the past, is being carried out now or may be carried out in the future, depending on changes in the economic situation in relation to a particular mineral.
From a geological standpoint, the concept under consideration can be detailed by the conditions of formation (endogenous, exogenous, hydrothermal, sedimentary, etc.), by the morphology of ore bodies (stockwork, vein, bedded, etc.), by types of minerals and other features.
From an economic standpoint, the concept of "mineral deposit" is detailed depending on the volume of reserves (unique, large, medium, small). If the "natural accumulation of mineral matter" in terms of the content and quality of the useful component does not meet the current requirements of the industry or is not yet sufficiently studied, then it is no longer considered in the category "deposit", but in the category "manifestation of minerals (ore occurrence)" ( Geological dictionary, 1973; Instruction ..., 1987; Krivtsov, Terentiev, 1991). In the process of further study or in case of a change in the market situation, an ore occurrence may pass into the category of a “deposit”. At the same time, it is characteristic that the economic parameters of the object (the volume of the ore mass and the content of the useful component in it) are in a certain dependence on the geological conditions of its formation. This makes it possible to formulate and look for ways to solve the problem concerning the localization environments and specific features of the genesis of large deposits (Rundkvist, Kravchenko, 1996).
In this paper, the term "mineral deposit" is applied to natural endogenous accumulations of mineral matter that are or have been the subject of industrial development, or may become such in the future with changes in technology and economic conditions. The main attention in the work is paid to the deposits of metallic minerals. A lot of works are devoted to the issues of typification of ore deposits, including deposits of the East of Russia. In the domestic literature, formational classifications of ore deposits have developed especially intensively in the recent past. The development of these classifications has led to the emergence of a large number of classification schemes proposed by different authors and not always in good agreement with each other. For example, only for tin deposits in the domestic literature, about 20 formational classifications have been proposed, developed by different authors using various classification features. The same can be said about deposits of other metals. Such a situation, of course, does not contribute to mutual understanding among geologists who study ore deposits, work in different regions and hold different views on certain formational classifications. Moreover, the presence of a large number of formational classifications of deposits of individual metals, as well as a significant number of complex ore objects, prevents a correct understanding of the place of the corresponding deposits and their types in the general system of ore formations.
At the same time, formational classifications of ore deposits did not find support in the English-language geological literature. Professing a pragmatic approach, foreign researchers, without generally abandoning the development of "monometal" classifications, largely adhere to the general classification of ore deposits by model types.
In this work, we tried to bring all the diversity of deposits in the East of Russia to a single classification scheme, using extensive domestic and foreign experience in the development of such classification schemes.
Metallic and, in part, non-metallic deposits of the East of Russia are classified according to various model types, the description of which is given below. The typification of deposits considered in this paper was based on both descriptive and genetic information, which is systematized in order to highlight the most significant properties of each specific type of deposits. The characterization of some types is based mainly on empirical data, which are recognized as significant, even if their genetic relationships are not fully understood or unknown. An example of a descriptive model deposit type is the native copper deposit type in basalts. In this case, an important empirical characteristic is the association of copper sulfides with metabasalts or greenstone rock association. Other types are more based on genetic (theoretical) information, for example, the type of skarn deposits of tungsten. Here the genetic process, as a fundamental phenomenon, is taken as the main classification attribute.
The following three main principles formed the basis for the classification of model types of ore deposits in the East of Russia given below.
(1) Ore-forming processes are closely related to rock-forming processes (Obruchev, 1928), and ore deposits arise due to the differentiation of matter as a result of its constant circulation in sedimentary, magmatic, and metamorphic cycles of formation of rocks and geological structures (Smirnov, 1969).
(2) The classification should be as simple, convenient and understandable as possible for the consumer.
(3) The classification should be such that new deposit types can be added in the future (Cox and Singer, 1986). The typification given below is based on the consolidated genetic classification of ore deposits developed by V.I. Smirnov (1969), taking into account a number of provisions and approaches used in the taxonomy of O.R. Ekstrand (Extrand, 1984), D.P. Cox and D.A. Singer (Cox, Singer, 1986). Using the basic principles and approaches briefly described above in the classification of deposits in the East of Russia given below, the deposits are grouped into five hierarchical levels of organization of metallogenic taxa, in accordance with the following main features of the objects being classified: (a) conditions for the formation of host rocks and genetically related to deposits; (b) genetic features of deposits and (c) mineral or elemental composition of ores:
Group of fields
Deposit class
Field family
Type of deposits
Model type of deposits
The model type (model) of the deposit was adopted as the main classification unit, to a certain extent corresponding to the more generally accepted concept of “ore formation” in the domestic geological literature.
Deposit models are grouped into four large groups in accordance with the main geological processes with which the deposits are associated: (1) magmatic; (2) sedimentary; (3) metamorphic; and (4) superficial. A group of exotic ore-forming processes has also been identified. Each group includes several classes. For example, the group of deposits associated with magmatic processes includes two classes: pluton and volcanogenic deposits. Each class includes several species, and so on. In the given classification, deposits related to magmatic processes are subdivided in the most detail, since such deposits are the most common in the territory under consideration. Deposits of similar genesis, such as deposits of magnesian and calcareous skarns or deposits of porphyry type, are considered as part of one species with several model types within it.
A generalized description of each of the selected model types is accompanied by a more detailed description of one or more typical objects, the description of which varies in detail depending on the amount of new data obtained by the authors in the course of research in the framework of this work. If new data that differs from those already described in the literature has not been obtained, the description is given in an abbreviated form with references to already published literary sources, in which such information is more detailed.
Field (field) is, the definition
A deposit is a concentration of various minerals on the surface or in the bowels of the Earth. Deposits can come to the surface of the Earth (discovered deposits) or be buried in bowels(closed, or "blind" deposits). According to the formation conditions, the deposits are subdivided into series (exogenous, magmatogenic, and metamorphogenic deposits), and the series, in turn, into groups, classes, and subclasses. A mineral basin is a closed area of continuous or almost continuous distribution of bedded sedimentary minerals associated with a particular rock formation. Deposits of various minerals are sought and found in various ways, systematically and often unsystematically. At present, any rational prospecting begins with the preparation of a topographic base used in the preparation of a geological map, which is then transformed into a structural-metallogenic map and a map of the area's minerals.
2. Mineral minerals (ferrous, non-ferrous, noble and rare metals, etc.).
3. Non-metallic minerals (for chemical industry, building materials, etc.).
From an economic point of view, any deposit is characterized primarily by the quality of the mineral and its quantitative reserves.
Types of mineral deposits
The following types of mineral deposits are distinguished:
1. Deposits of combustible minerals.
1.1 Oil deposit— set of deposits black gold in a certain area. It usually takes several hundred kilometers; oil platforms are used for production, which are built during the drilling process. The main parameters characterizing oil fields: the geological structure of the field area, the location of the local structure relative to structures of a higher order, the presence of various structural plans, the characteristics of productive horizons and fluid seals, the types and number of traps and deposits, phase state of hydrocarbons in deposits, reserves, their area density, etc. An oil field can combine several structural levels, which greatly complicates its exploration and development, and requires studying the relationships in terms of contours deposits with each other and with the contours of the structures. According to the number of deposits, oil fields can be single or multi-deposit, according to the phase content of hydrocarbons - oil, gas-oil, gas condensate-oil.
An example of this type of deposits is the super-giant oil and gas field in Mexico - Chicontepec (22.1 billion tons), located on the east coast of Mexico. Opened in 1926. At the new largest field black gold it is planned to drill 17,000 wells, which will significantly increase oil production abroad.
1.2 - a set of gas deposits confined to a common area of the surface and controlled by a single structural element.
Gas fields are divided into multi-layer and single-layer. In the section of a multi-layer gas field in one area, there are several gas deposits located one under the other at different depths. Some gas deposits have independent gas-water contact. In separate intervals of the section of the same gas field, there can be deposits of various types, and gas-bearing formations are represented by reservoirs of various genesis - cavernous, intergranular or fractured. The vast majority of the gas field is spatially generalized, grouped in gas accumulation zones and distributed in gas-bearing or gas-oil-bearing areas of platform (arched uplifts, intra-platform depressions, etc.), geosynclinal (intermountain depressions, middle massifs) and transitional (piedmont troughs and depressions) types. natural gas called the gas mixture formed during the decomposition of organic substances. It occurs in the earth's interior in a gaseous state in the form of separate accumulations, in the form of an oil cap of oil and gas fields, and also in a dissolved state (in black gold and in water).
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