The formation of a rational worldview in modern times. Question: New European worldview, main characteristics. Rationalism is in philosophy

Questions:

1. Basic questions of modern philosophy.

2. The image of science in the modern era.

3. Features of scientific knowledge of the New Age.

1. Basic questions of modern philosophy.

New times are a time of great changes that have occurred in the life of society and each individual. The world is changing, things are happening scientific discoveries, time becomes dynamic, everything is in a hurry... The very worldview and perception of the world is changing. Therefore, the very way a person interacts with the world is changing.

The era of modern times is associated primarily with the scientific revolution of the 17th century. But how does this revolution proceed? What did it entail? How does it even become possible to overcome, overthrow and abandon previous, centuries-old foundations?

The main feature of the medieval, theological worldview was the idea of ​​the world as a cosmos created by God and which has been in an unchanged state since then. Everything in the world is stable and should not change! Any change is a movement into the abyss, threatening the destruction of the entire human race.

The whole life of a medieval person proceeds under this slogan. It is no coincidence that medieval society is called traditional. What does this mean? And this is expressed, first of all, in the fact that the basis of such a society is tradition, something unchangeable, something inherited from our ancestors and time-tested. Therefore, any development inevitably faced enormous opposition. Development is movement towards the end, towards the end of the world.

The main feature of the medieval worldview was the idea of ​​the central position of the Earth in solar system. And since man was the most “perfect” creature on Earth, he was assigned a central position in the universe.

Copernicus Bacon Descartes

Bruno Galileo Newton

1543 1600 1687

The revolution began with Nicolaus Copernicus places the Sun at the center of the world instead of the Earth. We don’t see anything surprising in this today. This seems completely obvious to us. But for that time it was a scientific feat that Copernicus opposed the traditional and church-supported idea. He declared heliocentrism an “optical illusion,” thereby casting doubt on man’s position in this world.

What happened for a person living in that era? By removing the Earth from the center of the universe, Copernicus also changed man's place in space. The revolution in astronomy entailed a revolution in consciousness. People who realized that their planet was just one of the planets, revolving around one of billions of stars, now assessed their place in the cosmic system completely differently than their predecessors, who considered the Earth the only center of divine creation. If the Earth is not the center of the world, then man is not the center of the universe. By changing the idea of ​​the position of the Earth, Copernicus removed man from the center of the universe. The man found himself thrown out of the familiar world towards a threatening reality.

His theory, formulated on a highly mathematical level, became the point of terrible contradictions in the field of religion and philosophy, which determined the direction of subsequent European thought.

N. Copernicus laid the foundation with his theory scientific revolution. The starting point is considered to be the year of death of this great scientist and the publication of his work “On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres,” i.e. 1543.

Developing the ideas of Copernicus, the Italian philosopher Giordano Bruno deals the next mighty blow to medieval cosmology. Bruno's most important contribution to science was his doctrine of the innumerability and population of worlds in the universe. The hypothesis about the population of countless worlds deprived not only the Earth, but also man of a privileged position.

Each time, turning to the era of modern times, it is necessary to remember that all the activities of scientists and philosophers took place under conditions of strict control by the church, which occupied a leading position. Therefore, it is not surprising that all the works of advanced, progressive, and therefore “undesirable” authors were included in the list of prohibited books. But the Vatican cracked down not only on books, but also on their authors. In 1600 the brilliant D. Bruno was burned.

But no matter how strong the resistance of the traditional idea was, it could not kill the new one. The new worldview gradually developed and strengthened.

The next step in the development of science was made Galileo Galilei , whose significance is determined by two great discoveries belonging to him:

creates dynamics and discovers the basic laws of mechanical motion

· substantiated with his new discoveries (using a telescope) the heliocentric system of Copernicus

Galileo was a follower of the Copernican theory. His courageous defense of this theory in the face of the papal Inquisition, which tried to force Galileo to renounce it, is an example of the struggle for advanced science.

The revolution of the New Age is, first of all, a revolution in human consciousness, in his thinking. This is a transitional, contradictory era, an era when old values ​​​​are broken, and there is nothing to put in their place! A completely incomprehensible, unknown, hostile world opens up before a person.

Specific features of the worldview of the New Age:

1. for the first time a person realizes that he has not been given the ability to accurately receive absolute truth in his experience

2. for the first time, the confidence (characteristic of the man of the Middle Ages) that he is a “miracle of nature”, “the crown of creation”, that he can become a “second god” is destroyed

3. for the first time a person realizes that he is just a man confronting a huge world

The science of modern times becomes social in its essence; it makes it possible to define and study a world that has undergone dramatic changes compared to the image of the Middle Ages.

Of course, in the Middle Ages there was also a certain knowledge, for example, alchemy, astrology, etc. But it must be remembered that this knowledge was not available to society as a whole; there was a limited number of people who were initiated into this knowledge and could use it.

And this depended not only on the fact that they were protected from prying eyes, but also on the fact that without personal spiritual strength and spiritual development a person could not use them. Knowledge of the Middle Ages is knowledge not of the real, actual world, but of the other world, knowledge of how to interact with it.

New European reality is the reality of the physical world, in which the method makes it possible for another person to repeat the experiment and come to the same results as the first researcher.

Part 2 RESULT

Ch-3

That is why we are talking about changing the image of the world, but this change consists precisely in a change in the view of the world, which leads to a change in ideas about man, about science, scientific research, about the relationship between science and society, between scientific knowledge and religious faith.

New times are a time of fundamental changes in the being of man and his way of life. Before modern times, man did not have the status of an active, active being:

1. in Antiquity, man is captured by space, ancient culture is an impersonal culture.

2. in the Middle Ages, God is the only creative principle, while man is an imperfect likeness.

A man of modern times, having lost his support in the world, is forced to fight for his life. Man takes the central place, the place of God, the world becomes dependent on man. It was in modern times that for the first time man became the king and master of the earth. Some researchers see the source of this in religion: pagan religions connect man with nature, but Christianity frees man from this connection with nature.

Only Protestantism puts a person in the S position:

· the actual state of existence of a person changes. The scientific revolution confronted man with the need to see his calling to be active S.

· a person acquires freedom, since only freedom is a property of S.

The concept of S and O was first introduced by Rene Descartes. S is understood as a person who cognizes the external world (O) and influences it. That is, cognition is the process of mastering the Object by the Subject.

What lies at the basis of the idea of ​​a person as an active, active being? There are several criteria for this view:

1. Man as a subject is the foundation, the source from which the rest of the world is formed. Man is the center of the world in which he lives: that is, the whole world depends on him, is created by man, and man disposes of it.

2. The nature of a person’s relationship to the world is the nature of domination, conquest, subordination. Passive properties are properties of an object, active properties are properties of a subject.

Starting from the New Age, a person realizes that everything that he obeys in his life was created by him. Everything obligatory and necessary is generated by man himself. Everything depends on the person. This or that decision was made according to his will - and this is freedom. It is not divine providence that determines human life, but the following depend on the people themselves:

· the purpose of their existence;

· norms of morality and law;

· power relations and legislation;

· the entire objective world in which the life of society takes place.

Along with the introduction of the term S, for the first time in the history of philosophy the whole world appears as O. By O we mean everything towards which the activity of S is directed. This is the world processed and conquered by S. This attitude is offensive, imperious, conquering.

THE MODERN WORLDVIEW was the fruit of a stunning confluence of events, ideas and historical figures which, despite their apparent mutual hostility, gave birth to a surprisingly compelling view of the Universe and man's place in it. This worldview had a radically new character and was fraught with paradoxical consequences. These same factors both reflected and accelerated the fundamental changes taking place in Western character. And now, in order to understand the essence of the historical emergence of modern thinking, let us move on to consider the complex interweaving of cultural eras known as the Renaissance, Reformation and Scientific Revolution.

REVIVAL

The Renaissance is manifested equally in the diversity of its phenomena and in their unpredictable nature. In a period of time equal to the life of one generation, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael created their masterpieces, Columbus discovered the New World, Luther rebelled against the Catholic Church and began the Reformation, and Copernicus hypothesized the heliocentricity of the Universe and marked the beginning of the Scientific Revolution. If we compare the Renaissance man with his medieval predecessor, it seems as if he suddenly, as if by jumping over several steps, rose to almost the status of superman. Man now began to boldly penetrate the secrets of nature, both with the help of science and with his art, doing this with unsurpassed mathematical grace, empirical accuracy and truly divine power aesthetic impact. He immeasurably expanded the boundaries of the hitherto known world, discovered new continents and circumnavigated the entire globe. He dared to challenge traditional authority and assert a truth that was based on his own judgment. He was able to appreciate the treasures of classical culture and at the same time was free to break out of old boundaries in order to rush towards completely new horizons. Polyphonic music, tragedy and comedy, poetry, painting, architecture and sculpture - all rose to a new level of complexity and beauty. Everywhere individual genius and independence asserted themselves. It seemed that not a single aspect of knowledge, creativity or research could be hidden from a person.

With the advent of the Renaissance human life in this world, it again acquired its inherent direct, independent value, a certain exciting existential significance, which balanced and even completely replaced the previous medieval point of view, which focused all attention on the afterlife fate of the human soul. Man was no longer as insignificant as before, in comparison with God, the Church or nature. The dignity of man, proclaimed through the mouth of Pico della Mirandola, justified itself in the most diverse spheres of human activity. The Renaissance tirelessly generated new examples of possible achievements of the human spirit - starting with Petrarch, Boccaccio, Bruni and Alberti, then Erasmus, More, Machiavelli and Montaigne, right up to its final outbursts - Shakespeare, Cervantes, Francis Bacon and Galileo. History has not seen such a vibrant flowering of human consciousness and culture since the “Greek miracle” in antiquity, at the very dawn of Western civilization. Truly, Western man was experiencing a rebirth.

It would, however, be completely erroneous to see in the Renaissance only the brilliance and radiance of light, for it was preceded by many cruel disasters and catastrophes, and its apogee came at a time of continuous unrest. In the middle of the 14th century, a black tornado of bubonic plague swept across Europe, taking with it about a third of the entire population of the continent and putting under mortal threat the balance of economics and culture on which the entire civilization of the high Middle Ages relied. Many people thought that the wrath of God had fallen on the earth. The Hundred Years' War between England and France turned into an endless destructive conflict, and at the same time Italy was torn apart by incessant invasions and internecine wars. Pirates, bandits and hired thugs prowled everywhere. The religious struggle took on an international scale. For entire decades and almost everywhere, economic life fell into decline. Universities have suffered severe sclerosis. All new diseases spread from port cities literally paralyzed Europe. Black magic and devil worship, mass flagellations, dances of death in cemeteries, black masses, the Inquisition, torture and public burnings of heretics ruled the roost. Church conspiracies became commonplace, leading to such events as, for example, a murder committed with the knowledge and consent of the pope right at the altar of the Florence Cathedral during the Holy Mass on Easter Sunday. Murders, violence, robberies were committed at every step, the danger of famine arose every year and pestilence. At any moment, Europe was threatened with invasion by Turkish hordes. The end of the world was expected everywhere. The Church itself - this most important of the cultural institutions of the West - was seen by many as the focus of decadence and corruption, and its structure and purpose had long been devoid of spiritual integrity and purity. It was against this background of massive cultural decay, violence and death that “ new life", that is, the Renaissance.

Just as several centuries ago, during the medieval cultural revolution, technical inventions played a major role in the formation of a new era. By this time, in the West, four such inventions (all of them appeared much earlier in the East) had been introduced into everyday use, at the same time giving rise to countless cultural branches. These were: a magnetic compass, which allowed sailors to rush to any direction of the world, promising Europe new discoveries; gunpowder, which now served to overthrow the old feudal order and raise national consciousness; mechanical watches, with the advent of which a decisive change occurred in man’s attitude to time, nature and work, because from now on the routine of human activity was no longer so heavily weighted by natural rhythms; and, finally, the printing press, which led to a real boom in enlightenment, because with its help both ancient classics and modern works became available to the reading public, whose ranks expanded significantly: thus, the monopoly on learning, which had long been in the hands of the clergy, came to an end .

All these inventions contributed to powerful transformations in many areas of life and their final secularization. Accompanied by the appearance of artillery, the rise of isolated and, at the same time, internally interconnected nation states meant not only the demolition of old feudal structures, but also the powerful armament of secular forces that opposed themselves to the Catholic Church. In the field of thought, the emergence of the printing press had a similar effect: it contributed to the rapid spread of new and often rebellious ideas throughout Europe. Without printed appeals, the Reformation would not have gone beyond the limits of a relatively narrow theological debate in a remote German province, and the Scientific Revolution, based entirely on the international communication of many scientists, would have been simply impossible. In addition, the spread of the printed word and the growth of literacy contributed to the formation of a new character that bore the imprint of personal rather than collective forms of communication and experience, thereby encouraging the development of individualism. Silent reading and solitary reflection helped the individual to free himself from traditional ways of thinking and from collective supervision of thinking: for each reader now had personal access to many different points of view and forms of experience. "Similar progressive consequences resulted from the emergence of mechanical watches, which, with their clearly calibrated system of gears and gears, became the prototype of all modern machines and accelerated the emergence of various achievements in the field of mechanics and mechanical engineering. It is equally important that such a triumph of mechanics formed the basis of the conceptual model and metaphors for the emerging science of a new era - as well as for all modern thinking - largely shaping the modern view of the Cosmos and nature, man, the ideal society and even God. Likewise, the “great discoveries” made possible thanks to the magnetic compass brought new trends in the intellectual sphere, simultaneously reflecting and encouraging further Scientific research the natural World, confirming and strengthening the new self-awareness of the West, which stood on the approaches to the heroic frontiers of civilized history. The discoveries made by explorers of new lands, which unexpectedly revealed the mistakes and sometimes ignorance of ancient geographers, gave rise to a new consciousness of their own awareness and even superiority over the teachers of antiquity, who previously seemed unsurpassed, thereby undermining all traditional authorities. One of the “exposed” geographers turned out to be Ptolemy, which immediately affected his reputation as an astronomer. The expeditions of the seafarers required, in turn, more accurate astronomical knowledge and more knowledgeable astronomers (Copernicus would soon appear among them). The discovery of new continents provided new opportunities for economic and political expansion, which caused fundamental changes in the European social order. These discoveries also brought acquaintance with new cultures, religions, and a completely different way of life, enriching the European consciousness with a hitherto unknown sense of the relativity of customary values, which replaced the previous confidence in the absoluteness of their own traditional ideas. The horizons of the West - geographical, mental, social, economic, political - changed their shape in an unprecedented way and expanded uncontrollably.

Along with all these achievements, high level Psychological development also reached, which was reflected in the European character, which developed in the special cultural and political atmosphere of Italy during the Renaissance, and has now undergone significant transformations. In the 14th and 15th centuries, the Italian city-states - Florence, Milan, Venice, Urbino and others - were in many respects the outstanding centers of urban culture in Europe. Energetic merchant entrepreneurship, thriving trade throughout the Mediterranean, and constant contacts with the oldest civilizations of the East provided them with a powerful influx of wealth, causing economic and cultural growth. In addition, the weakening of the papal power of Rome as a result of the continuous struggle with the disintegrating Holy Roman Empire, along with the rise of nation-states in the north, led to a situation of extreme political instability in Italy. The small size of the Italian city-states, their independence, successful trade and cultural vitality all prepared the way for the flowering of a spirit of courageous, creative, and often ruthless individualism. If more early times the life of the state was determined by the structures of power and law and order, sanctified by tradition or supreme authority, now the most significant were personal abilities, prudence of political actions and deliberate strategy. The state itself began to be understood as something that is manipulated by the human will and the human mind, which comprehended its internal mechanism: all this makes it possible to see in the Italian city-states a prototype of the modern state.

The value which came to be attached to individualism and personal genius largely determined the corresponding character of Italian humanism, whose consciousness of personal worth also rested on the abilities of the individual and whose ideal was the free man, gifted with a versatile genius. The medieval ideal of a Christian man, whose personal individuality was almost completely dissolved in the community of Christian souls, began to recede under the onslaught of more “pagan” heroic ideas: the ideal of man now appeared as an adventurer, a genius, a rebel. The implementation of such a multifaceted “ego” could be achieved not in a hermitic distance from the world, but in a life full of intense action, in serving one’s city-state, in the pursuit of science and art, in trade and business activities and in social activities. Previously irreconcilable differences now coexisted peacefully side by side: worldly activity with the contemplation of eternal truths; service to the state, family and oneself - with devotion to God and the Church; earthly pleasures - with spiritual joy; material prosperity - with virtue. Having abandoned the ideal of monastic non-covetousness, the man of the Renaissance rushed towards a luxurious life, which could be achieved through personal efforts: thus, in the age of humanism, scientists and artists, having become accustomed to the new cultural climate, rolled around like cheese in butter, living in full allowance with the Italian trade and aristocratic elite .

A complex set of influences, in which political dynamism, economic prosperity, extensive scientific activity, sensual art and a peculiar affinity with ancient and eastern Mediterranean cultures were intertwined, gave rise to and then constantly encouraged a new secular spirit that conquered ever larger areas throughout Italy, penetrating even to the holy of holies - to the Vatican. In the eyes of pious people, the main features of Italian life were paganism and immorality. This was manifested not only in the coldly prepared atrocities and intrigues played out on the political stage, but also in the imperturbably worldly character of the Renaissance man's interest in nature, knowledge, beauty and luxury - simply the birthplaces of ourselves. Thus, it is from the origins of the dynamic culture of Renaissance Italy that the development of a new Western understanding of the human personality begins. A personality marked by individualism, secularism, willpower, diversity of interests and aspirations, innovative creativity and a willingness to break any fetters that had fettered human activity for centuries - soon began to establish itself throughout Europe, laying the foundations of a modern character.

However, despite all the secularism of the Renaissance, the Roman Catholic Church quite palpably reached the zenith of its glory precisely in this era. St. Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, and the Stanza della Senbiatura in the Vatican remain stunning monuments to this day, immortalizing the pre-sunset hours of the Church as the sovereign mistress of Western culture. It captures a truly impressive image of the Catholic Church, as if contemplating itself in a giant mirror: from the creation of the world and biblical drama (the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel), including the philosophy and science of classical Greece (the School of Athens), poetry and artistic creativity (Parnassus) ) and the theology that crowns everything else with the supreme pantheon of Roman Catholic Christianity (“Disputa”, “Triumph of the Church”). A whole chain of centuries, the entire history of the Western soul, found its imperishable embodiment here. Under the patronage of Pope Julius II (a very energetic man, although he had little resemblance to a spiritual figure), such great masters as Raphael, Bramante and Michelangelo created painting, sculpture, drawings and building designs, glorifying the majestic worldview of Catholicism with their creations of unsurpassed beauty and power. Thus, the Mother Church - the mediator between God and man, the progenitor of Western culture - has now collected and reunited all its heterogeneous elements: Judaism and Hellenism, scholasticism and humanism, Platonism and Aristotelianism, pagan myth and biblical revelation. A new “sum” was created, which chose as its language the language of the pictorial imagery of the Renaissance and fused all the components of Western culture in a truly transcendental synthesis. It seemed as if the Church, instinctively sensing its coming mortal spasms, called from its depths all the forces of its own cultural self-awareness and found truly God-like artists in order to forever capture its sublime image.

At the same time, the magnificent flowering of the Catholic Church in a century that had so decisively stepped towards “this world” was one of the paradoxes very typical of the Renaissance. For the unique position that the Renaissance occupies in the history of culture is not last resort explained by its ability to balance and synthesize many opposites: Christianity and paganism, novelty and antiquity, secular and sacred, art and science, science and religion, poetry and politics. The Renaissance was both an independent era and a transitional stage. Combining the features of the Middle Ages and the New Age, it remained a highly religious century (Ficino, Michelangelo, Erasmus, More, Savonarola, Luther, Loyola, Teresa of Avila, Juan de la Cruz) and at the same time - it cannot be denied - it was already becoming worldly (Machiavelli, Cellini, Castiglione, Montaigne, Bacon, the Medici and Borgia families, most of the Popes of the Renaissance). And at the same time when scientific consciousness arose and flourished, religious passions flared up, and often both lines entered into the most intricate interaction.

The combination of contradictions characteristic of the Renaissance, already anticipated by Petrarch's ideal of "docta pietas", was now being put into practice by such religious humanist thinkers as Erasmus of Rotterdam and his friend Thomas More. The Christian humanists of the Renaissance brought irony and moderation, worldly activity and classical erudition to the service of the Christian ideal, doing so with a skill undreamed of by the sages of the Middle Ages. The dogmatic piety of a more primitive era was replaced by an enlightened ecumenical evangelism. Naive religious prejudices were supplanted by critical religious rationality. The philosopher Plato and the Apostle Paul were brought together to forge through modern efforts a new “philosophy of Christ” (philosophia Christi).

But perhaps most clearly the contradictions and integrity of this era were reflected in art. At the dawn of the Quattrocento, out of twenty paintings, only one was painted on a non-religious subject. A hundred years later their number increased fivefold. Even on the walls of the Vatican Palace, images of the Madonna and the Child Christ were side by side with paintings representing nudes and pagan gods. The human body, glorified in all its beauty and harmonious proportionality of forms, at the same time is often illustrated with religious subjects or testifies to the creative wisdom of God. Renaissance art was based on the exact imitation of nature, rising to incredible technical skill in the realistic rendering of nature. At the same time, it achieved extraordinary spiritual power, which made it possible to capture in paintings the divine presence, creatures of the religious and mythological pantheons, as well as great contemporaries. It must be said that the gift of conveying the divine would be unthinkable without technical innovations - geometric division of space, linear perspective, aerial perspective, anatomical knowledge, chiaroscuro and sfumato techniques, born of the desire for realism and empirical accuracy. In turn, these advances in painting and drawing contributed to further scientific advances in anatomy and medicine, foreshadowing the global dominance of mathematics over the physical world that the Scientific Revolution would bring with it. Not the least role in the emergence of modern views was played by the fact that the art of the Renaissance depicted in a certain unified space a world consisting of rationally interconnected geometric bodies, a world seen from one, objective point.

The Renaissance had a special passion for deliberately “blurring the lines,” not recognizing strict distinctions between different areas of human knowledge or experience. The first example of this kind is the personality of Leonardo da Vinci, equally devoted to the search for knowledge and the search for beauty, an artist sophisticated in many arts, who with an insatiable greed embarked on scientific research on a truly unimaginable scale. The experiments and observations he made in the name of understanding the world more fully and consciously helped new scientific insights to the same extent as art: in his “science of painting” Leonardo pursued both goals simultaneously. His art was an incomprehensible miracle of combining spirituality with extreme technical skill. The unique feature of the Renaissance was precisely that the man whose brush belonged to “The Last Supper” and “Madonna of the Grotto” formulated in his diaries three fundamental principles - empiricism, mathematics and mechanics - which were to dominate modern scientific thinking.

In the same way, Copernicus and Kepler, under the influence of Neoplatonic and Pythagorean ideas, sought solutions to astronomical problems that would satisfy aesthetic requirements, and such a strategy directly led them to the discovery of the heliocentricity of the Universe. No less important was the strong religious orientation, usually combined with Platonic themes, - it had a significant influence on most of the major figures in the Scientific Revolution, right up to Newton. For at the heart of this activity lay an almost unconscious idea of ​​​​a mythical golden age, when everything in the world was known and understood, about the Garden of Eden, about the times of classical antiquity, about the era of great sages that had sunk into the past. Man's falling away from the original state of grace and enlightenment resulted in a fatal loss of knowledge. Therefore, the acquisition of knowledge was again endowed with religious meaning. And just as in classical Athens the religion, art and myth of the ancient Greeks united and interacted with the new, also Greek spirit of rationalism and science, the Renaissance managed to again achieve this paradoxical union and balance.

Despite the fact that in many respects the Renaissance was a direct outgrowth of the rich, magnificent culture of the high Middle Ages, one thing is clear: between the mid-15th and early 17th centuries there was an undeniable quantitative leap in the cultural evolution of the West. Looking back, we can highlight whole line various favorable factors: the rediscovery of antiquity, the vigorous development of trade, the increasing role of the individual in city-states, technical inventions, and so on. However, even after listing all these “reasons” that determined the Renaissance, there remains a vague feeling that the true power and essence of the Renaissance immeasurably exceeds any of these factors - and even all of them combined. Historical evidence suggests that at the same time in many areas a new consciousness began to loudly declare itself, expansive, rebellious, seething with creative energy, individualistic, ambitious and often unprincipled, inquisitive, self-confident, attached to this life and this world, vigilant and skeptical, filled with inspiration and verve, and that this newborn consciousness had its own meaning (raison d'etre). The impulse that gave it life was much stronger than any combination of political, social, technological, religious, philosophical or artistic factors. It is no coincidence and another; if medieval scientists divided the entire history of mankind into two periods - before and after the Nativity of Christ (very vaguely drawing the line between their own time and the Roman era when Jesus Christ lived) - then the historians of the Renaissance introduced a radically different view of the past (perhaps akin to a new sense of artistic perspective). For the first time, history began to be perceived and defined as a tripartite structure, incorporating antiquity, the Middle Ages and the Modern Age, thereby drawing a sharp boundary between the classical and medieval periods and placing the Renaissance at the forefront of the Modern Age.

The movement of events and figures on the Renaissance stage occurred with amazing speed, even synchronously. Columbus and Leonardo were born in the same quinquennium (1450-55), which saw the advent of Gutenberg's printing press, the fall of Constantinople, which brought an influx of Greek scholars to Italy, and the end of the Hundred Years' War, during which the national identities of England and France emerged. In the two decades (1468-88), which saw the peak of the Neoplatonic revival at the Florentine Academy under Lorenzo the Magnificent, Copernicus, Luther, Castiglione, Raphael, Dürer, Michelangelo, Giorgione, Machiavelli, Caesar Borgia, Zwingli, Pizarro, Magellan and More saw the light of day. . At the same time the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella united Aragon and Castile, and from this union the people of Spain were born; the Tudor dynasty ascended to the English throne; Leonardo took his first steps in his career as an artist, performing the figure of an angel in Verrocchio’s “The Baptism of Christ,” and then creating his own painting, “The Adoration of the Magi”; Botticelli wrote "Spring" and "The Birth of Venus"; Ficino expounded his Platonic Theology and produced the first complete translation of Plato in the West; Erasmus received the rudiments of a humanistic education in the Netherlands, and Pico della Mirandola composed his “Speech on the Dignity of Man,” a manifesto of the humanistic Renaissance. There was more than “reasons” at work here. It was a spontaneous and uncontrollable revolution of consciousness that affected almost all aspects of Western culture. Against the backdrop of high drama, in painful tremors, he was born new person Renaissance, "shrouded in a cloud of glory."

REFORMATION

From the moment when the spirit of Renaissance individualism - in the person of Martin Luther, a German Augustinian monk - penetrated the realm of theology and shook the foundations of the religious beliefs of the Church, the historical wind of the Protestant Reformation burst into Europe. The Renaissance managed to bring both classical culture and Christianity into the framework of a single worldview - albeit at times incoherent, but extremely capacious. However, the steady moral decay of the papacy in the south was now causing a new wave of harsh religiosity in the north. Cultural syncretism and the softening of previous positions, which with the advent of the Renaissance was evidenced by the Church's acceptance of Greco-Roman pagan culture (including the colossal costs of trusteeship that this acceptance required), accelerated the collapse of the absolute religious authority of the Church. Luther, who possessed the thunderous moral power of an Old Testament prophet, boldly challenged the Roman Catholic papacy, which had long turned a blind eye to the original Christian faith revealed through the biblical Revelation. From the rebellious spark carved by Luther, an irresistible flame of cultural reaction was ignited, carried through the entire 16th century. While decisively reaffirming the original origins of Christianity, it simultaneously undermined the former unity of Western Christianity.

The immediate trigger for the Reformation was the papacy's attempt to finance the architectural and artistic masterpieces of the High Renaissance through the sale of spiritual indulgences, a theologically dubious means. Tetzel, a wandering monk who undertook the sale of indulgences in Germany, was authorized by Pope Leo X himself (belonging to the Medici family) to raise money for the construction of St. Peter's Cathedral (Tetzel's mission forced Luther to proclaim his 95 theses in 1517). An indulgence was a papal letter, a certificate of remission of sins, issued for special merits to the Church or for money. Indulgence replaced the sacrament of repentance: this church practice was influenced by the pre-Christian ancient German custom of replacing physical punishment for a crime with a monetary ransom. To grant an indulgence to a sinner, the Church resorted to a treasury of good deeds performed by saints, and in return the recipient gave a monetary donation to the Church. The amicable agreement with the congregation that this practice led to allowed the Church to raise funds for equipment crusades, the construction of cathedrals and the construction of hospitals. And if at first indulgences absolved sins of the present, earthly life and freed from penalties in this life imposed by the Church, then by the time of Luther they were already endowed with the right to free from punishment in the afterlife imposed by God himself, up to deliverance from being in purgatory. Since indulgences could forgive even sins that had not yet been committed, the sacrament of repentance itself was profaned.

However, in addition to indulgences, which became the last straw that overflowed the cup of patience, the Protestant revolution was determined by many serious reasons: the long-term secularization of the church hierarchy, which undermined its spiritual integrity and at the same time dragged it into political, diplomatic and military troubles; the poverty and piety of the church flock in contrast to the hierarchy of clergy, often completely alien to the Christian faith, but receiving social and economic privileges; strengthening of secular monarchical power; the rise of national consciousness and local (German-wide) uprisings against the universal ambitions of the Roman Papacy and the Holy Roman Empire of the Habsburgs. However, there was a more obvious reason, namely the overly generous patronage provided by the Church high culture, and it sheds light on the hidden factor behind the Reformation, and explains the anti-Hellenic fervor with which Luther sought to purify Christianity and return it to its original evangelical foundations. For the Reformation, not least of all, was a purist “Jewish” reaction to the Hellenic (and Roman) spirit that permeated the culture of the Renaissance, scholastic philosophy, and, in general, all of post-apostolic Christianity. However, perhaps the most important element The Reformation had an emerging spirit of rebellious and willful individualism, and especially a growing need for intellectual and spiritual independence, which had now reached the decisive point where it was possible to take a strong position of opposition to the highest cultural authority of the West - the Roman Catholic Church.

Luther desperately sought hope for the atonement of human sins - despite everything that testified to the contrary: despite the inevitability of God's punishment, despite his own sinfulness. He did not manage to find this grace in his soul or his deeds, nor did he find it in the Church - neither in its sacred sacraments, nor in its hierarchy, nor, of course, in papal indulgences. In the end, it was faith in the redemptive power of God, sealed through Jesus Christ in the gospel revelation - and faith alone - that gave Luther his saving confidence: on this one stone he built the new church of reformed Christianity. The opposite position was taken by Erasmus, a zealous and critical humanist who, on the contrary, wanted to save the unity of the Church and its evangelical mission by carrying out reform within it. However, the church hierarchy, absorbed in completely different concerns, remained indifferent and did not listen to its well-wishers. Then Luther, with decisive irreconcilability, declared the need for a final break with the papal Church, in which from now on he saw the stronghold of the Antichrist, and the establishment of a truly Christian Church independent of it.

Pope Leo X saw Luther's rebellion as just another “monastic squabble” and for a long time did not treat it with the seriousness that it deserved. When Luther, nearly three years after putting forward his 95 Theses, finally received a papal bull excommunicating him, he publicly burned it. At a meeting of the Imperial Landtag of the Holy Roman Habsburg Empire, Charles V personally declared that the truth cannot be on the side of one single monk who denies all the value of the previous thousand-year period of Christianity. Wanting to preserve the unity of the Christian Church and faced with Luther's stubborn refusal to recant, he imposed an imperial ban on Luther's doctrine and declared him a heretic. However, Luther's theological rebellion, having found support among the rebellious German princes and knights, resulted in major unrest that quickly emerged from the national shores of Germany. Looking back, we see that the fusion of the Christian religion with the ancient Roman state created in the post-Constantinian era turned out to be a double-edged sword, contributing to both the cultural ascent of the Church and its decline. The unity that towered over the entire European culture, which was preserved by the Church for a millennium, fell apart completely and irrevocably.

However, it was Luther's personal religious dilemma that was the sine qua non without which the Reformation would not have begun. Luther, endowed with a piercing sense of God-forsakenness and fear of the Almighty, understood that the entire person was corrupted and in need of God’s mercy, and that individual sins should not simply be forgiven, which, one by one, could be atoned for by virtuous deeds performed at the direction of the Church. Individual sins are only symptoms of a dangerous disease that has settled in the human soul and needs healing. Redemption cannot be purchased - either gradually, by performing good deeds, or immediately, through penances imposed by the Church, not to mention shameful indulgences. Only Christ can save the whole person, and only a person’s faith in Christ can justify him before God. Only in this way can the righteous and terrible anger of the Lord, who rightly condemns sinners to eternal destruction, be transformed into the merciful forgiveness of the Lord, who, according to His will, rewards those faithful to him with eternal bliss. Luther read with jubilation in the Epistle of the Apostle Paul to the Romans that salvation is not given to man by merit, but God of his own free will bestows it on those who have faith. The source of this saving faith is the Holy Scripture, which testifies to how God’s mercy revealed itself in Christ, who suffered on the cross for the sake of all mankind. Only in Him can a Christian find the way to salvation. The Catholic Church with its cynical “bazaar” practice of “distributing” God’s grace, “distributing” left and right the virtues of saints, remission of sins and salvation not only of the living, but also of the dead in afterlife- in exchange for money, often not used for religious purposes - and, at the same time, with her statement about papal infallibility, she was simply a hypocrite and an impostor. It was no longer possible to honor this Church as a sacred instrument of Christian truth.

All those additions that were imposed on Christianity by the Roman Church and were not confirmed by the New Testament were now thoroughly discussed, criticized, and often openly rejected by Protestants: all this centuries-old layering of sacred sacraments, rituals and works of art, complex organizational structures, the priestly hierarchy and its spiritual powers, the natural-rational theology of the scholastics, the belief in purgatory, papal infallibility, the celibacy of the Clergy, the transubstantiation of the Eucharist, the treasury of the virtues of the saints, the popular veneration of the Virgin Mary and, finally, the Mother Church herself.

* An indispensable condition.- Lat.

All this has become hostile and alien to the primary need of every Christian, faith in the redemptive grace of Christ: salvation comes only through faith. A Christian believer must free himself from the deadening grip of the old system: for only by accepting the full burden of direct responsibility before God can he be honored with the grace of God. The only source of theology with

The next historical type of worldview is conventionally called the New Time; it replaced the previous one through the Renaissance and Reformation. These eras are transitional. The modern era is usually called the period that began in Europe around the 17th century. and continues to the present day. It was in the New Age that a new type of worldview arose, which, in part, we already have. There was an unprecedented breakthrough in the development of science and technology, a fundamental change in the very nature of scientific and philosophical thinking.

Analysis according to three criteria gives the following picture. The relationship between man and nature: science and rationalism have eliminated the insurmountable gap between the world of man and nature. But the consumer attitude towards nature remains. As a result, man proclaimed himself the king of nature, and accordingly nature must serve him. The almighty human mind will reveal all the secrets of nature and use them for its own benefit. Nature is not a temple, but a workshop - the famous phrase of Turgenevsky Bazarov is the slogan of the era. The relationship between man and society: man is the first cell, the basis of society. Society is needed only to ensure the conflict-free coexistence of self-sufficient individuals. Society itself is burdensome for a particular individual, but you need to negotiate with other people, and society is a mediator here. At the heart of society is a social contract between self-sufficient individuals. The relationship between person and person: each individual person is an individual. He has innate rights, his own interests and needs. He is the center of the universe (the navel of the earth), everything begins with him, exists for his sake, and is measured by him. Each individual person put himself in the place of God: man is a creator. Therefore, relationships with other people can only be like a “war of all against all” or “man is a wolf to man.” Of course, this formula was rethought by the end of the era, but the fundamental approach remained unchanged.

The formation of the new European worldview and Western philosophy of the New Age was influenced by various factors. Frequent and distant voyages: this led to an expansion of horizons and the scope of world exploration. The fact was revealed that many peoples on earth live outside the state structure, in a state of nature. This led to a rethinking of the theory of the origin of the state, and the divinity of royal power. They were replaced by the theory of “social contract”. Science lost its contemplative character; scientific theories began to be built on the basis of the experimental method. Thanks to the development of science, there was a change in pictures of the world - the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic picture of the world was replaced by the Newtonian-Cartesian one (Newton and Descartes), which dominated from the 18th to the 20th centuries (partly still exists today).

The dominant component of the worldview field of the New Age is the new anthropocentrism that appeared during the Renaissance. The Renaissance brought God back to earth to people. The very nature of the mechanical picture of the world led to the gradual displacement of God from the scientific explanation of nature; God was forced out of the existing world, and in materialistic teachings he was completely discarded. If in the Middle Ages God was at the center of the worldview, man was nothing, built into a structure, beholden to God, obliged to a master. Now in the center is a person, an individual. It is obligatory - the goal and reason of the universe, its first brick. It is self-sufficient, human activity is motivated by utility and profitability for the individual himself. There was a process of secularization of society, this led to the separation of church and state and the removal of the sphere of education from the direct influence of the church.

The next dominant feature of modern times is rationalism. The human mind and intellect ensure the dominant position of man in this world. There is nothing in nature and society that human rationality cannot comprehend and influence. Belief in the limitless power of human reason and science is affirmed. It seemed that the application of human reason and scientific methodology to all spheres of existence would make it possible to understand all the secrets of nature and carry out the reconstruction of social life on reasonable, natural principles.

Within the framework of the general period of the New Age, it is customary to distinguish several stages in the development of Western philosophy:

1. European philosophy of the early modern era. – from 1600 to the second English revolution in 1688

2. European and North American philosophy of the Enlightenment - from 1688 to the Great French Revolution in 1789.

3. German classical philosophy (Romantic era) - from the 1770s. to midday XIX century

4. Modern Western philosophy - since the 1830s, the end is not defined, since there is no generally accepted opinion about our current stage of development (the second half of the twentieth century to this day).

Characteristic feature consciousness of the New Age can be called bourgeois humanism. It differs from Renaissance humanism. The following features of bourgeois humanism can be distinguished; they also characterize the entire worldview as a whole:

1. Anthropocentrism.

2. Individualism. Man is not a microcosm of antiquity, man is humanity, the crown of nature. Man is an individual, humanism is the doctrine of the rights of a free individual. He opposes himself to society, thinks of himself from the “I”.

3. Consciousness is bourgeois, that is, it is associated with the class that creates new economic schemes.

4. The idea of ​​predestination is at the peak of its development. There are people of ends and people of means... A person’s task is to determine who you are.

5. In ethical terms - the emancipation of human passions. Sin is not acknowledged. Good is what is good for me, evil is what harms me. The individual, man, is the measure of all things. This is social egoism, dividing the world into two unequal halves.

6. Boundless faith in reason. Therefore, the main branch of philosophy is epistemology, that is, the development of knowledge, methods of knowledge, analysis of the process of knowledge. Two educational programs are being developed: empiricism (experience is the basis of knowledge), founder Fr. Bacon; rationalism (reason is the basis of knowledge), founder R. Descartes.

Thus, the public consciousness of the new European historical type worldview gradually comes to the conclusion that man is, first of all, not a rational, but a socially sensitive being. Without a social environment a person cannot become a person. And Robinson remained a man because he retained in himself those social connections, relationships, feelings, and skills that were in him before the shipwreck. Thus, all the prerequisites have been created for the transition to a new type of worldview. Marxism started this. His philosophical concept is fundamentally new paradigm in philosophy, and a fundamentally new ideological basis.

Hello, dear readers! Welcome to the blog!

The philosophy of the New Time – briefly the most important thing. We continue our acquaintance with philosophy in a short, simple presentation. In previous articles you learned about the following periods of philosophy:

So, let's turn to the philosophy of the New Time.

Philosophy of the New Time - briefly the most important thing

The 17th-18th centuries is the period to which modern philosophy belongs. This was a time when human civilization made a qualitative leap in the development of many scientific disciplines, which in turn had a huge impact on philosophy.

In the philosophy of modern times, the idea that the human mind has no limits to its power, and science has unlimited possibilities in its knowledge of the surrounding world and man, has become increasingly dominant.

Particularly characteristic of this period of development of philosophy is the tendency to explain everything from the point of view of materialism. This was due to the fact that natural science was a priority at that time and had a strong influence on all spheres of social life.

The main directions of philosophy of the New Time are empiricism and rationalism

The philosophical thought of that time was characterized by several distinct directions:

• empiricism,
• rationalism,
• philosophy of education,
• French materialism..

Is empiricism in philosophy?

Empiricism is a direction in philosophy that recognizes only experience and sensory perception in knowledge and downplays the role of theoretical generalizations.

Empiricism opposed rationalism and mysticism. Formed in English philosophy of the 17th century, led by Fr. Bacon (1561-1626), Hobbes, Locke.

Is rationalism in philosophy?

Rationalism is a direction in philosophy that recognizes only reason as the only source of knowledge, denying knowledge through experience and sensory perception.

The word "rationalism" comes from the Latin word for reason - ratio. Rationalism was formed under the leadership of Descartes (1596-1650), Leibniz, and Spinoza.

Philosophy of enlightenment of the 18th century

The philosophy of enlightenment of the 18th century was formed during the Age of Enlightenment. This was one of the important periods of European history, associated with the development of philosophical, scientific and social thought. It was based on freethinking and rationalism.

The Age of Enlightenment began in England under the influence of the scientific revolution of the 17th century and spread to France, Germany and Russia. Its representatives are Voltaire, Montesquieu, Diderot, Rousseau.

18th century French materialism

French materialism of the 18th century is a trend in philosophy that revived Epicureanism and interest in the philosophy of antiquity.

Formed in France in the 17th and 18th centuries. Its representatives are Lametra, Holbach, Helvetius.

Problems of New Time Philosophy

The problem of being and substance occupied a special place in the philosophy of modern times; in the opinion of philosophers, it was here that the whole essence of the world and the ability to control it lay.

Substance and its properties were the focus of attention of philosophers, since, in their opinion, the task of philosophy was to make man the master of natural forces. Therefore, the basic task was to study substance as the basic category of all things.

As a result, several trends in the study of substance have emerged in philosophy. The first of them was founded by Bacon, who believed that substance is the basis of all things. The second was founded by Locke. He, in turn, tried to comprehend substance from the point of view of epistemology.

Locke believed that concepts are based on the external world, and the objects that we see have only quantitative characteristics, and differ from each other only in primary qualities. In his opinion, matter does not have any variety. Objects differ only in their figures, rest and movement.

Hume sharply criticized the idea that substance has any material basis. In his opinion, there is only the “idea” of substance, and it was under this that he subsumed the association of perception.

Representatives of this direction made a significant breakthrough in the study and further development of the theory of knowledge, where the main subjects of study were the problems of the scientific approach in philosophy and methods for man to study the reality around him, as well as the connection between external and internal experience in combination with the problems of obtaining true knowledge.

As a result of the study of all the above problems, the main directions in the philosophy of the New Age arose - empiricism and rationalism. The founder of empiricism was F. Bacon. Rationalism was represented by Descartes and Spinoza.

The main ideas of modern philosophy

The main ideas were the principles of the independently reflective subject and methodological doubt. It also developed the method of intellectual intuition and the inductive-empirical method of understanding the world.

In addition, methods of jurisprudence and ways to protect the freedom of people were developed. The main goal was the intention to embody the ideas of freedom from religion, to build a vision of the world based on scientific knowledge.

The main ideas of the philosophy of the New Time:

Books on New Age philosophy

• V. Hösle. Geniuses of modern philosophy
• P.D.Shashkevich. Empiricism and rationalism in modern philosophy

Philosophy of the New Time. VIDEO LECTURE

Summary

I hope the article " The philosophy of the New Time - briefly the most important thing" turned out to be useful for you. We can say that the philosophy of the New Time has become significant driving force in the development of all human civilization, prepared the basis for improving philosophical scientific paradigm and justified the methods of rational cognition.

The following article is devoted to the topic “German classical philosophy”.

I wish everyonean unquenchable thirst for knowledge of yourself and the world around you, inspiration in all your affairs!

The era of modern times marked the next stage in the development of mankind. Its prerequisite was the unique socio-economic relations that developed in Western Europe from the 15th to the 18th centuries. AD It's about becoming bourgeois relations. Before this period, Western European civilization differed from others (Byzantium, the Islamic world, India, China, etc.) insignificantly; despite the uniqueness of cultural phenomena, the economic basis of developed medieval civilizations was one or another version of feudalism. Therefore, when any of the states reached the forefront in their development (for example, the Arab world in the 7-9 centuries AD), this gap was not fundamental. In modern times the picture changed; The socio-economic evolution of the countries of Western Europe led to the fact that other states of the world were in real danger of losing their independence and becoming European colonies.

The leadership of Western European civilization was also manifested in the field of humanitarian knowledge, in particular in the field of philosophical thought, since new European realities required an adequate ideological response. If in ancient times or in the Middle Ages philosophy developed in several centers, then in modern times theoretical innovations are developed mainly by Western European philosophy; outside its spiritual area, a certain philosophical stagnation is felt.

Cultural reasons occurring since the 15th century. Changes in Western Europe are complex and varied. The ancient heritage plays a huge role here, the influence of which is enhanced by active intellectual migration. In the process of conquering Byzantium by the Turks, the

Educated Byzantine subjects - scientists, artists, theologians, etc. - left the Believers for Europe. They mainly settle in Italy. As a result of their translation activities, a colossal interest in antiquity, primarily in its humanistic heritage, appears. The desire to copy ancient models becomes the main thing in the Renaissance - initial stage New time.

However, the ancient heritage serves only as a kind of catalyst for the ongoing processes. The Christian worldview, which dominated throughout the Middle Ages, plays an equally important role in the formation of the mental foundations of the New Age. Ideas of individualization of the soul, personal responsibility of a person, equality of people, etc. became widespread precisely in the medieval period. Despite the pronounced religious overtones (man's responsibility before God, the equality of people before God, etc.), these ideas are gradually becoming natural for other forms of social consciousness. The legal and political culture of modern times is unthinkable without them; it is enough to recall the slogans of bourgeois revolutions.

Thus, the worldview of the New Age is formed on the basis of a peculiar synthesis of the spiritual achievements of antiquity and the Middle Ages. This synthesis is due to new socio-economic conditions. The development of capitalism led to the dominance in ethical theory of such moral principles as individualism, rationalism and utilitarianism.

2.7.2. Periodization

Conventionally, the development of modern ethics can be divided into several stages.

1. From the 15th to the 16th centuries. - ethics of the Renaissance, or Renaissance (mainly the region of Italy).

2. From the 17th to the 18th centuries. - ethics of the Enlightenment (Holland, England and France).

3. Late 18th - early 19th centuries. - a historically short period of German philosophical and ethical classics.

2.7.3. Ethical views during the Renaissance

The thinkers of the Renaissance did not limit their activities to philosophical frameworks; they widely applied their encyclopedic knowledge in almost all spheres of life, so their names are well known: Dante Alighieri, Nikolai Kuzansky, Niko-.

barking Copernicus, Thomas More, Niccolò Machiavelli, Michel Montaigne, Giordano Bruno, Jacob Boehme, Galileo Galilei and etc.

The philosophy of these thinkers is based on modifications of Aristotelianism, Platonism and Epicureanism. They create pantheistic essentially a picture of the world. The peculiarity of their worldview is the identification of God and nature and, as a consequence, the deification of nature. The God of the Renaissance is impersonal, his demands merge with natural laws. The semantic emphasis in the teachings is on nature, and not on God, i.e. pantheism gradually moves from the mystical version (N. Kuzansky) to the naturalistic one (D. Bruno). At the end of the Renaissance, the natural philosophical attitude to the world becomes a defining trend.

Another important feature of this era was anthropocentrism(humanism). A kind of anthropocentrism was also characteristic of the medieval consciousness, but it was focused on the otherworldly existence of man. Renaissance thinkers were interested in the earthly aspect of human activity. The naturalistic approach of the Renaissance undoubtedly stimulates the study of human nature, its natural, fundamentally selfish desires and aspirations. There is a moral rehabilitation of the individual “earthly” individual. The concepts of “self-preservation”, “philautia” (i.e. self-love), etc. become ethical categories. The central problem of ethics is the status of man. Thinkers talk about both physical beauty and the spirituality of a person - about his moral greatness and dignity. The spiritual qualities of an individual consist in his ability to overcome his animal state, barbarism, and in the ability for moral self-improvement. Proof of a person’s dignity and the greatness of his mind is culture (science, crafts, art, etc.). It is characteristic that the concept of “creativity,” which was the prerogative of God, has been used in relation to man since the Renaissance. Man, as it were, will improve the world created by God. Rejecting ideas about the miserable earthly human fate typical of the Middle Ages, Renaissance thinkers talk about enjoying a meaningful life. Such pleasure is not hedonistic, since human destiny lies in creative activity, and duty lies in knowledge. The moral task is to develop your abilities to the maximum, to realize your potential in great deeds. This requirement is particularly acute in teachings that deny the immortality of the soul. Associated with this approach is the concept of “heroic enthusiasm” by Giordano Bruno, a thinker who shocked the imagination of his contemporaries by going to the stake for his ideas.

Renaissance humanists paid great attention to social order. Their views on the role of man in society are varied. Thus, Niccolo Machiavelli examines in detail the social reality of his time. Based on ideas about the inherently evil nature of man, he gives recommendations political leaders from your country. Their essence is the manipulation of base human passions, its transformation into a means of state policy. Such views subsequently became an example of political immorality and immorality. Thomas More and Tommaso Campanella see the tasks of government differently. Believing that human nature contains good qualities that will certainly be realized in the future, these thinkers model “ideal” communities in their works.

The rehabilitation of the world and man, undertaken in the ethical works of the Renaissance, became necessary step transition from medieval values ​​to modern values. The teachings of humanists, defeating medieval asceticism, became the theoretical basis for the creativity of craftsmen, artists and scientists. The concept of “universal” religion, arising from the pantheistic attitudes of these teachings, contributed to the humanistic interpretation of the moral Christian ideal and opposed both Catholic and Protestant fanaticism.

2.7.4. Ethics of Protestantism

Renaissance humanists were a small group of intellectuals who did not enter into open conflict with the church. For most of them, the attitude towards the dominant religious doctrine - Catholicism - is limited to religious indifference. However, from the 16th century. in Western Europe a powerful popular anti-church movement arises - Protestantism. Its leaders were M. Luther, J. Calvin and others. The meaning of their protest is the demand for a radical reform of the Roman Catholic Church, a return to original, apostolic Christianity.

In addition to the socio-economic and national reasons for the emergence of this movement, others should be noted. First of all, Protestantism marked a new level of social consciousness in Western Europe. Criticism of the church from this point of view was a criticism of its mediation between man and God. Man in the teachings of the reformers is spiritually independent; he has reached such a stage of development that God can turn to him directly. Thanks to this circumstance, the moral

God's exact demands on man are not distorted by intermediary authorities.

The ethics of Protestantism are consistent monotheistic. God is so much higher than the world he created that even theodicy, i.e. justifying the evil that is happening in the world with the connivance of God is blasphemy. The leaders of Protestantism talk about the moral insignificance of man, the immeasurable distance from God due to sins. However, at the same time, they also emphasize his highest personal responsibility before God. A person must personally atone for his sin through hard work, and not distribute it within the church among everyone or use someone else’s holiness to atone for it (for which the Catholic Church has the institution of indulgences). This unique version of religious individualism, combined with the redemptive cult of labor (“pray and work”), turned out to be extremely consonant with the requirements of the era; it is not without reason that many researchers point out the close connection of Protestantism with the development of capitalist relations.

2.7.5. Ethical views V the Age of Enlightenment (R. Descartes, G. Hobbes, B. Spinoza, G. Leibniz, English and French sensationalism, French materialism)

By the 17th-18th centuries. the idea of ​​the sovereignty of the moral subject becomes central. Reason acts as a means of its affirmation, which also makes it possible to explain the universally binding nature of morality.

17-18 centuries are predominantly centuries rationalistic ethics. Unlike other eras, in particular antiquity, the rationalism of the New Age is not contemplative, but active. In other words, reason is aimed at changing the “earthly” world, it is called upon to curb the egoistic nature of man, to reconcile individual aspirations with the public good, and to give a creative character to people’s lives! Hence the idea of ​​progress, typical of the era. This attitude gives rise to the illusion of the possibility of moral reconstruction of man and society through enlightenment.

The new picture of the world emerging at this time has a great influence on moral views. The static harmony of the world is replaced by dynamic harmony, and classical mechanics is established in natural science. The problem of the relationship between God and the world, which is important for the religious worldview, is also solved in a unique way. In medieval theism, God constantly and arbitrarily influences the world process, hence the miracle as a phenomenon that disrupts the natural course of things. For science, a miracle is unacceptable -

lemo. The Age of Enlightenment provides its own solution to this problem. At this time, the idea became popular that God, having created the world, withdraws from its affairs, like a watchmaker who, having adjusted and wound his watch, no longer interferes with its work. In fact, the world is viewed as an ideally tuned and therefore self-sufficient mechanism. The person himself is perceived in a similar way. Mechanism as a principle used in ethical teachings.

R. Descartes

Rationalism is most clearly represented in the works of Gene Descartes(1596-1650), who set out his ethical teaching in the works “Passion of the Soul” and “Discourse on Method”. This philosopher’s use of mechanics to explain human bodily and mental functions led to a decisive turn in the understanding of morality, its natural scientific interpretation.

The opposition of the spiritual existence of man to the bodily-sensory, the so-called psychophysical dualism, is typical of the anthropological views of the thinker. Descartes' man is a rational machine, which, optimizing its existence, adapts or, conversely, comes into conflict with the outside world. Descartes' ethics is dominated by the principle of efficiency. The mind regulates affects (feelings of joy, sadness, anger, pleasure, etc.) in such a way as to obtain the most beneficial effect at a minimum cost. So, even love, according to the thinker, is good because it is good for health. Morality, from such a mechanical point of view, performs, with the help of reason, the role of an engineer for the human machine. A person develops his own virtue as a kind of self-control for survival in the world. Without it, a person would follow the path of passions - pleasures, anger, etc. - and died. Hence the perception of bodily-sensory existence as ineffective, ignorant of its own private benefit, and therefore immoral. Thus, in addition to rationalism, Descartes’ ethics also contains an element of utilitarianism.

It should be noted that in Descartes’ teaching a person is considered outside the social context, in isolation.

The features of the construction and functioning of the social mechanism, primarily the state one, are discussed in detail by another major philosopher of modern times - Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). This philosopher outlined ethical problems in his work.

knowledge “Leviathan, or matter, form and power of the church and civil state”, “On freedom and necessity”, “Fundamentals of philosophy”. His concept affirms the bourgeois values ​​typical of the New Age - individualism, utilitarianism, rationalism. Based on the idea that nature created people equal in physical and mental abilities, Hobbes shows a selfish individual, calculatingly oriented towards power and personal gain. A person, striving for self-preservation, comes into conflict with other people. According to Hobbes, morality is the result of an expedient agreement, a contract between people. True, many thinkers, taking into account Hobbes’ ideas about the egoistic nature of man, saw in him a representative of sensationalism, i.e. adherent of the sensory source of morality.

As a supporter of the mechanistic approach, Hobbes believed that the laws of human behavior in society are as strict and necessary as natural laws. Atomizing society, the philosopher considered relationships between people as objectively causal and, thus, accessible scientific knowledge. In this view, when the subject being studied is viewed as a structure of elements with a predictable system of relationships, the type of thinking characteristic of the Enlightenment clearly manifested itself.

In ethics, Hobbes adheres to Machiavelli's theory, asserting the presence of original evil in man. He evaluates the natural state of individuals as a state of war of each against all. From the law of self-preservation of the individual follows his desire for benefit. Since a person lives in society, to realize his private benefit he needs power. The struggle for power, the hatred and fear inherent in man require certain rules, otherwise relations between people can end in their mutual destruction. The rules being developed are the essence of an unspoken social contract. Reason helps in establishing these rules, the scientific approach makes them optimal (based on this idea of ​​Hobbes, bourgeois constitutions, in particular the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, will subsequently be created). Morality is considered by the philosopher as a system of norms expressing real changeable relations of utility. Hence its relativism. According to Hobbes, previously people did not know the natural reasons for their behavior (power and benefit), therefore they affirmed absolute (unchangeable, eternal) moral ideas.

B. Spinoza

Another variant of the ethical views of the New Age was rationalistic pantheism. Its prominent representative was

Benedict Spinoza(1635-77). Spinoza's main work, “Ethics,” is a doctrine of eternal and infinite substance and man as its part.

Spinoza's teaching is limited by the framework of a mechanistic worldview, although it has its own characteristics due to pantheism. The philosopher does not, like Descartes and Hobbes, consider the atomic existence of individuals to be true. In his opinion, the real purpose of man is his spiritual fusion with the divine substance. Nevertheless, Spinoza recognizes the individualism that exists in society. A person, according to the thinker, is guided in his life by an immoral desire for self-preservation and benefit. Hence, in society there is a constant struggle of private interests, general hatred and alienation. However, thanks to reason, a person can and should streamline blind affects (such as joy, sadness, lust), improve himself, and approach eternal values ​​that do not depend on social conjuncture. Affects separate, but reason, on the contrary, unites people with each other and, ultimately, with their substantial basis. Thanks to reason, a person realizes his deep unity with the world. Thus, to become moral, he must overcome his sensual egoism in intellectual love for the divine-natural substance and its various manifestations. The thinker's conclusion is closely related to the idea of ​​the unity of the human race.

Spinoza's rationalism was manifested in his understanding of such an important ethical category as freedom. In his opinion, freedom is a conscious necessity, i.e. the ability to choose based on knowledge of the laws. Hence his ideal of a sage, a man who managed to rise above his affects and in a cruel world “does not cry, does not curse, but understands.”

G. Leibniz

The German philosopher should also be included in rationalistic ethics Gottfried Leibniz(1646-1716). Developing an idealistic doctrine of the hierarchy of indivisible spiritual entities - monads (i.e., individuals), Leibniz comes to his famous theory of optimism. In his opinion, our world is the best of worlds, since God chose the best of all possible worlds. There is harmony in the world, so evil is only a necessary and private element of the universe. Explaining his position, Leibniz resorts to theodicy, a doctrine that justified God who allowed the existence of evil in the world. Hence the name of one

One of the thinker’s main works is “Theodicy” (1710). Leibniz sees the basis of moral evil in the free will of man, but weakened by sin.

In addition to the rationalist direction in ethics, represented by R. Descartes, B. Spinoza and others, in the 17-18 centuries. A sensualistic (i.e. sensual, emotional) direction also developed, recognizing feelings as the source of morality. The importance of reason was not denied (as happened later in the irrationalistic teachings of the 19th and 20th centuries) and yet it was given a secondary role.

English and French sensationalism

The English philosopher is a sensualist D. Locke(1632-1704), who identified good and evil with comfort and discomfort in a person’s relationships with other people. Thus, moral standards should simply be convenient and beneficial, they are related to usefulness, and not to truth (i.e. reason). The criterion for the optimality of a moral norm is experience. Followers of Locke D. Hume(1711-76), A. Ferguson(1722-1816), A. Smith(1723-90) believed that the basis of morality is the ability to show sympathy and altruism, opposed to egoism. At the same time, philosophers confirmed that considerations of utility are also present in moral assessments.

The sensationalist tendency in Enlightenment pantheism is represented by the names A. Shaftesbury(1671-1713), J. Rousseau(1712-78), etc. In this movement, the basis of morality is also taken not by reason, but by natural human feelings (for example, benevolence, justice, compassion, etc.). In accordance with the logic of pantheism, these social feelings are recognized as having their primacy. Individualizing feelings (such as egoism) become secondary, and therefore derivative. They arise simultaneously with property. Thinkers focus on the conflict between good human nature and civilization, leading to the decline of morals. The reconstruction of natural morality, in their opinion (this is especially clearly expressed by Rousseau), can be ensured by a political system that guarantees freedom, equality and fraternity. It is no coincidence that Rousseau, who closely linked morality and politics, was considered one of the ideologists of the French Revolution.

French materialism

The materialistic movement was represented P. Holbach(1723-89), K. Helvetia(1715-71), etc. They, on the contrary, believed that the basis of morality is precisely “self-love”, egoism, which, with the help of reason, turns into the engine of progress, as a person continuously strives to satisfy his ever-increasing needs. Moreover, in order for a person to realize himself to the maximum, appropriate social institutions are necessary, and therefore, selfishness also affects social progress. This approach led to the emergence of the theory of “reasonable egoism,” the main idea of ​​which is as follows: by pursuing his private interests, a person contributes to the public good. In other words, this idea can be expressed as follows: a morality that proposes an orientation towards the public good turns out to be useful to the individual, since it allows him to optimally realize his interest. Effective legislation is a guarantee of such harmony.

It should be noted that the diversity of ethical searches of the New Age is not limited to the legacy of the thinkers mentioned here. A lot of interesting things can be found in works close to critical sensationalism B. Mandeville(1670-1733), as well as F. La Rochefoucauld(1613-80), B. Pascal(1623-62), etc.

The results of the ethical searches of the Enlightenment

The teachings of the Enlightenment philosophers had a great influence on the development of both Western European and world culture. Their main result was the fundamental idea of ​​human rights and freedoms, the essence of which is that a person is by nature equal to another person and has inalienable rights, the latter including the right to life, dignity, inviolability of property, freedom of conscience, the pursuit of happiness, etc. d. The moral duty is to independently organize your life without violating the rights of others. It was these principles of Enlightenment ethics that became the norms of human behavior in a civilized society. Since modern times, they have become mandatory; moreover, they have been enshrined constitutionally (the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen of 1789, the US Declaration of Independence, etc.).

2.7.6. Ethics of German classical philosophy (I. Kant, I. Fichte, F. Schelling, G. Hegel)

German classical philosophy is the pinnacle of the philosophical culture of modern times. In the works of German thinkers

(I. Kant, I. Fichte, F. Schelling, G. Hegel) The ethical ideas of their predecessors were collected and creatively reworked, as a result of which the science of morality rose to a qualitatively new level, which was already reflected in the works of the first German classic - Immanuel Kant (1724-1804).

Kant set himself the task of criticizing dogmatic reason, i.e. a mind that illegitimately claims to solve any problem. Pre-Kantian philosophy, which, for example, often made mutually exclusive conclusions about the structure of being, was characterized by dogmatism. In this sense, scholastic disputes are textbook: how many angels can fit on the end of a needle, whether God is able to create a weight that he cannot lift, etc. In fact, the German thinker believes that man is fundamentally limited in his knowledge of nature and God. The work “Critique of Pure Reason” (1781), which made the philosopher famous, was devoted to exploring the boundaries of human knowledge. Kant comes to the conclusion that the real world is inaccessible to human understanding. In essence, a person knows only the products of his own consciousness. The mechanism of such cognition is simple. A person adapts his contacts with the real world into a form acceptable to himself. The images of the world that arise after adaptation in the human mind have nothing in common with the real world. The thinker calls such images phenomena (in the philosophical tradition this is the name for phenomena whose essence (or cause) is unknown to us). Nevertheless, Kant has no doubt that the real world exists, since only it, in his opinion, can stimulate the activity of consciousness. Kant writes about the real world as something impenetrable, closed to reason, as a world of things-in-themselves. A person can only assume (believe) without evidence what this world is like. Kant builds his ethical teaching on such assumptions. Thus, in his own words, he limits his critical philosophy to reason in order to make room for faith.

The real world of things-in-themselves (otherwise otherworldly, transcendental) becomes the basis of the moral teaching of I. Kant. Another famous work of the German thinker, “Critique of Practical Reason” (1788), as well as “Fundamentals of the Metaphysics of Morals” (1785) and “Religion within the Limits of Reason Only” (1793), is devoted to ethical analysis.

According to Kant, the significance of the world of things-in-themselves is so great that man has always wanted to have some idea about it. After the limits of knowledge indicated by the philosopher, it is possible

not on the basis of knowledge, but on the basis of faith. And such a representation is necessary not for cognitive activity, but for moral activity, i.e. practical.

Kant calls the ideas that arise in a believer about the world of things-in-themselves noumena. In this world there is God, immortal souls (personalities), and also freedom. The identified noumena, Kant believes, can be considered the foundations of moral activity. This is indicated by their prevalence as the highest moral ideas. Moreover, they are not the vague feeling of an individual person, but a clear conviction that unites all of humanity.

1. Idea freedom- the starting point of moral teaching: without moral choice, Kant is convinced, there is no morality.

2. Idea immortality of the soul, according to the philosopher, it is necessary because moral perfection requires eternity.

3. Idea God. Thanks to her, morality is associated with bliss. In the unity of morality and bliss lies the highest Good and justice.

In earthly (phenomenal) reality, a virtuous person is unhappy, mortal and subject to necessity. Therefore, Kant is convinced, if it were not for faith in the noumenal world, true morality would be impossible. As a result, Kant denies the ethical title to concepts based on the pursuit of sensual pleasure, happiness or personal gain. According to the thinker, these concepts come from the laws of nature, i.e. out of “necessity” and not out of free human activity.

The German philosopher's belief in the noumenal world contradicts the rough phenomenal reality, therefore, to maintain it, a more conscious (i.e., thinking-based) volitional effort is necessary. It is unselfish, therefore, Kant believes, it is good. Thus, good will is a prerequisite for morality.

If in the phenomenal world a person is forced to perform certain natural laws, then in the noumenal he can act as their creator. According to Kant, this possibility emphasizes man's responsibility as a moral legislator. The optimality of the laws of the noumenal world is ensured by the human mind, therefore these laws are not arbitrary, but necessary. “Pure”, i.e. free from the influence of passions or profit, reason is able to derive the same impeccable moral laws as mathematical ones. With their perfection they would command the respect of every rational being who would follow

they are not forced, but freely. Kant calls the moral law a categorical imperative (i.e., an unconditional requirement) and gives it the following formulation: act as if the maxim (rule) from which your action follows should, through your will, become a universal law.

He always sees a person as an end, not a means, and, therefore, considers the community of rational beings as a kingdom of ends.

It is obvious that, by deriving from reason the generally valid laws of the noumenal world, Kant, in essence, conducts a theoretical analysis of a special sphere of moral consciousness. In this sense, the work of the German philosopher is a definite milestone in the development of ethical reflection. Usually the attention of thinkers lingered not on the formal, but on the substantive side of morality. It is no coincidence that some researchers consider Kant’s teachings as evidence of the final approval of ethics in the structure of philosophical knowledge as an independent science.

The radical opposition of the phenomenal (this-worldly) world to the noumenal (otherworldly) world made it possible to declare the autonomy of morality as a sphere of human existence. Before and after the German philosopher, morality as a whole was heteronomous, i.e. the source of moral standards was sought externally: in God (religious ethics), nature (naturalistic ethics) or society (social ethics). Kant affirms its self-sufficiency.

As a result of this approach, a great responsibility falls on the person. After all, fulfilling moral requirements in the phenomenal world gives him nothing but a sense of self-respect. The requirements are so high and unnatural that they often run counter to a person’s interests, threatening his well-being, peace of mind, etc. Nevertheless, it is necessary to fulfill these requirements, overcoming your selfish tendencies. In this case, it is necessary to distinguish purposeful moral action from random coincidences. Kant emphasizes that even when a person commits a good deed, but is guided not by duty and conscience, but by the natural dictates of the heart, the act cannot be considered moral. This is where Kantian rigorism comes into play.

The work of Immanuel Kant stimulated the emergence of a number of philosophical teachings, in which the ethical component occupied an important place. One of such systems is the teaching of science. Johann Fichte(1769-1814).

Fichte continues to develop the idea of ​​the activity of the human mind, while coming to the denial of the Kantian thing-in-itself. In his opinion, the source of sensation is not some unknowable, otherworldly entity in relation to consciousness, but consciousness itself. The object of knowledge, thus, finally loses its source independent of man, turning into an integral element of self-knowledge. In this process, consciousness reveals itself as a cognizable object and a cognizing subject at the same time (“not-I” and “I”).

An example is a particular situation when, in an attempt at self-analysis, a person records only his endless mask-states, while remaining unrecognized and elusive to himself as a researcher. Objects, i.e. products of the activity of consciousness are static, so they can be studied. Consciousness itself is dynamic, it is constantly in motion and it is impossible to catch it. The endless search for oneself, the desire to exhaust all one’s objective states, is, according to Fichte, the main goal of consciousness.

This conclusion forms the basis of the thinker’s ethical teaching. In his opinion, activity as an end in itself (self-knowledge) is nothing more than autonomous, and therefore moral activity. 1 The result of such activity of consciousness is an increasingly complex objective world (nature). However, this world is just material for fulfilling one's duty. Overcoming yet another objectified state becomes an exercise in virtue. The task of consciousness is not to stop at the achieved level, but to strive for more complex forms of self-knowledge.

Moving from abstract (or divine, generic) consciousness to individual consciousness, Fichte concretizes moral tasks. In terms of the implementation of the universal moral goal, each person is indicated with his special purpose. An individual must realize his calling and, based on this, build his life. Fichte's categorical imperative takes on the following formula: “act according to your purpose.” Selfless action is good, inactivity or activity aimed at a false goal (for example, at a stage that has already been passed) is evil. A harmonious community of individuals is an effective tool for solving moral problems. Therefore, Fichte paid much more attention to various social institutions (family, state, etc.) than Kant.

F. Schelling

For creativity Friedrich Schelling(1755-1854) were influenced by the critical philosophy of Kant and especially the “scientific teaching” of Fichte. Schelling agrees with Fichte's assertion that the objective world is a product of activity higher consciousness. This increasingly complex process of self-knowledge of the spirit - from an unconscious state to an increasingly conscious one, according to Schelling, is reflected (objectified) in the development of nature - from its inorganic form, through the organic to the rational. However, unlike Kant and Fichte, the thinker does not see opposition to the subject in the object. It is no coincidence that his teaching is called the “philosophy of identity” (subject-object). As a result, Schelling believes that natural laws do not contradict moral ones; moreover, there is a genetic connection between them.

G. Hegel

Georg Hegel(1770-1831) created a detailed system of objective idealism. His work became a kind of summing up of German classical philosophy and the philosophy of modern times in general.

Hegel's system is similar to Schelling's, but it is more rational and holistic. The teaching is based on the idea of ​​the continuous development of God (Spirit, Absolute Idea). The world, according to the thinker, is the result of divine self-realization. Hegel identifies the stages of this self-realization: first abstract concepts, then nature, and finally human society. Accordingly, these stages should be studied by special philosophical sciences - logic, natural philosophy and philosophy of spirit. IN general outline Hegel's ethics are presented in the Phenomenology of Spirit.

With the doctrine of free will, Hegel precedes the study of the nature of morality and morality. Believing freedom a necessary condition and the basis of morality, the philosopher reveals the dialectical nature of the connection between freedom and necessity. He offers the already well-known formula: freedom is a conscious necessity. On this basis, the concept of three stages of development of human will is formulated (natural will, arbitrariness, rational will), which are subsequently interpreted in the doctrine of abstract law, morality and ethics.

It is interesting that Hegel separates the concepts of morality and morality. Morality, in his opinion, represents the subjective world of man. Exploring it, Hegel analyzes such categories as intent and guilt, intention and goodness, goodness and conscience. Describing the fur

nism of the implementation of morality, the thinker comes to the conclusion about the supra-individual (external) nature of moral requirements, as a result of which they conflict with a person’s personal interests and take an unconditional (imperative) form.) In addition, Hegel considers the problem of the mandatory implementation of internal moral conviction in actions , which leads him to explore the concept of morality.

Morality, according to Hegel, is the realization of the inner world of man in society. At the first stage it is the family, at the second - civil society, at the third - the state. It is clear that a person’s desires come into conflict with social laws already at the very first stage, but thereby they are corrected and get rid of personal arbitrariness. The process of the formation of morality is, in essence, the gradual subordination of individuality to state interests as the highest, embodying the goals of humanity.

The idea of ​​self-development of the spirit in the third part of the Hegelian system is transformed into the principle of historicism. Hegel shows how the divine spirit realizes itself in various social structures throughout human history. This allows him to fit morality into the social context, to identify many realities of the historical development of morality, its natural variability.

2.7.7. Are common results of the development of ethical knowledge of modern times

The ethical teachings of the New Age reflected the complex spiritual evolution of Western European society - from the early bourgeois stage of the Renaissance to mature capitalism of the early 19th century. Despite the diversity of concepts, the basis for ideas about morality was a single one (for a rare exception) ethical paradigm. It included recognition of the rights and freedoms of the egoistic individual, as well as the need for harmony between the individual and society for the realization of both personal interest and, importantly, public interest.

Harmony of interests, according to thinkers of the New Age, is achievable thanks to reason, whose capabilities in the field of optimization social relations limitless. Hence the rationalism of the ethical teachings of the New Age, and their confidence in moral progress.

However, already within the framework of German classical philosophy, elements appeared that were alien to this approach, which stimulated the development of a qualitatively new stage in the history of ethics.

1. What ethical principles are characteristic of the New Age?

2. How does the mechanistic approach manifest itself in ideas about morality?

3. What is the meaning of the concept of “reasonable egoism”?

4. What are the philosophical foundations of Kantian rhetoric?

5. What is meant by morality and what by morality in the teachings of Hegel?

6. What's it like historical meaning ethical thought of modern times?

Required literature

1. Hegel G. Op. in 14 volumes. T. 3, 7, 8.

2. Helvetia K. Op. in 2 vols. M., 1976-1977.

3. Guseinov A.A., Apresyan R. Decree. op.

4. Drobnitsky O.G. The concept of morality. M., 1974.

5. Zelenkova I.L., Belyaeva E.V. Decree. op. pp. 28-37.

6. Kant I. Fundamentals of the metaphysics of morality. Op. in 6 vols. M., 1965. T. 4.

7. Montaigne M. Experiments. Op. in 3 vols. M., 1979.

8. Spinoza B. Selected works, in 2 vols. M., 1957.

additional literature

1. Kant's ethics and modernity. Riga, 1989.

2. Kissel M.A., Emndin M.V. Hegel's ethics. L., 1966.

3. Kropotkin P.A. Decree. op. pp. 124-203.