Table new states of Europe in history 11. Formation of nation states in Europe. Political map of Europe with country names in Russian

The vector of movement towards “Greater Europe”, declared in February 2015 by the “Normandy Four” at a meeting in Minsk, implies the construction of a common humanitarian and economic space “from Lisbon to Vladivostok”. With the practical implementation of this project, the problem of overcoming the challenges of separatism, which are intensifying in a number of European states, will inevitably arise. Whether the local nationalist movements, acting under the slogans of self-determination of “their” territories, will become actors of a radical change of borders on the map of Europe, ”the near future can demonstrate.

In Spain, entire regions are already ruled by politicians demonstrating a desire for greater independence from Madrid. Secessionists are strong, especially in Catalonia and the Basque Country. But their political positions are gaining ground in Galicia, Andalusia, Valencia and the Canary Islands.

Catalonia

Among the main reasons for their independence from Spain, the Catalans cite cultural and linguistic differences with the rest of the subjects of the crown. The Catalans are very proud of these differences, diligently emphasizing that they are only partly Spanish, and all attempts in history to "Spanishize" them have ended in failure.

Since 1978, Catalonia has existed as an autonomous community - one of 17 regions in Spain with their own government and parliament. However, compared to other areas, Catalans are much more independent: most areas of public life, from education to courts and police, are in their hands. However, the region is deprived of the right to dispose of its income, and all tax revenues are directed to the general state treasury. As one of the most prosperous regions of Spain, Catalonia regularly becomes a donor of less prosperous neighbors, and an increasing number of residents of the region are confident that becoming citizens of a state separate from Spain, they will significantly improve their well-being.

The splash of separatist sentiments in Catalonia was provoked by an unsuccessful attempt by its authorities to achieve legal registration of regional privileges. In 2010, when the Spanish Constitutional Court returned the new version of the Catalan regional statute (constitution), adopted four years earlier. At the same time, the court canceled the privileged position of the Catalan language and took away tax autonomy from the region. Since then, the number of supporters of independence from Spain in Catalonia has grown steadily.

Separatist sentiments were also fueled by the nationalist rhetoric of Arthur Mas, who headed the regional government in 2010. Under his leadership, the Catalan authorities have repeatedly started talking about a referendum and even adopted a symbolic declaration of independence. However, all the initiatives of the nationalists were suppressed in Madrid: the central authorities fear that by allowing one region to disconnect, they will provoke the collapse of the entire state.

Supporters of Catalan independence intend to secede from Spain, but at the same time want to remain in the European Union and keep the euro as a currency. Polls show that the number of Catalans in favor of secession will fall to 37% if they have to leave the EU. The economy can become another important obstacle to independence. Although the Catalan economy accounts for 19% of Spain's GDP and is highly self-sufficient, some large companies have already announced that if independence is declared, they will leave the region and, therefore, the region's ability to maintain economic prosperity will be reduced.

Nevertheless, more than 80% of the participants in the survey, which took place in Catalonia on November 9, 2014, supported the separation of this cultural and historical region from Spain. The event that took place is equated by many with a full-fledged referendum. But still, this is not yet a full-fledged legal act, but only an intensification of the political bargaining of the regional Catalan and central Spanish authorities, although the results of the peaceful expression of the will of the Catalans have become significant far beyond the borders of Catalonia and Spain itself. In order to prevent a spontaneous development of events, the central Spanish authorities will now have to not only take into account the position of the Catalan leaders on many issues, but also find agreements with them on a basis acceptable to both sides.

Basque Country

Another Spanish region, the Basque Country, demonstrates a critical level of separatism, some of whose inhabitants have been seeking independence with arms in hand for decades. Along with Spain, although to a lesser extent, France was involved in the conflict, where a small region - the Northern Basque Country - is located in the department of the Pyrenees-Atlantiques.

The Basque nationalist movement began in the 19th century, when they were stripped of their autonomy for the first time in hundreds of years. Under the Franco regime, it became radicalized and embarked on the path of armed struggle, which the radical wing of the Basque nationalists - ETA, waged with varying success even after the establishment of democracy in Spain. Over the past decades, ETA has declared a ceasefire several times, but has always broken peace promises. However, after harsh police operations, since 2011, ETA militants have not committed a single terrorist attack.

But the goal of the Basque nationalists is still the independence of the Basque Country, including the French territories. The desire to secede, but above all from Spain, is also demonstrated by the leaders who do not support the ideas of political violence, representing the political forces of the region. They put forward their demands for isolation, despite the fact that the conditions of Basque autonomy are broader than in the case of Catalonia. Today the separatists hold two thirds of the seats in the parliament of the Basque Country. But in the legal field, the Basques are not as active as the Catalans. In 2008, the chairman of the regional parliament, Juan José Ibarecce, tried to organize a referendum, which was supposed to determine whether to start a dialogue on the Basque right to self-determination. But the plebiscite was banned in Madrid.

Many prominent Spanish politicians believe that the secession of both Catalonia and the Basque Country will spell the end of Spain as a state, since then the domino principle will work. Without Catalonia and the Basque Country, Spain's economy will decline by a quarter and per capita income by 5%.

Scottish question

Scotland's separatist aspirations are centered primarily on economic interests. The main source of income that Edinburgh is unwilling to share with London is the Brent oil field in the North Sea, discovered in the early 1970s. It was then that the Scots began to seriously think about strengthening control over tax flows.

But Edinburgh's 1979 attempt to create a parliament with which it would be possible to win back at least some of the finances was successful only in 1999, and the ideas of separatism developed as latent currents of regional politics. Separatist rhetoric reached a new level in 2007 when its new first minister (prime minister) Alex Salmond, leader of the Scottish National Party (SNP), announced plans to make Scotland independent. In his opinion, the withdrawal of Scotland from the United Kingdom will only benefit its residents, primarily in the form of increased income. A. Salmondi and his supporters were able to get down to real preparations for the referendum only in 2011, when SNP won a majority in the local parliament.

In London, the plans of the leader of the Scottish nationalists were perceived extremely negatively, however, in the end, they decided not to interfere with them. The vote was scheduled for September 18, 2014, and took place in an extremely tense atmosphere for all British politics. Massive informational pressure was exerted on Scottish voters, in which even Elizabeth II herself took part. In the end, supporters of keeping Scotland within the UK won support from local voters, however, the number of votes against unity indicates that the idea of ​​independence for the region is "frozen" rather than rejected.

Supporters and opponents of independence put forward their arguments. Nationalists argue that by overthrowing the yoke of the British Eurosceptics, they will ensure a bright future for an independent Scotland, because they will manage the oil in the North Sea themselves. SNP promises that state pension payments will begin a year ahead of schedule and that approximately 200,000 families will be able to increase child benefits. Proponents of independence are trying to win over businessmen with promises of tax cuts in order to boost the Scottish economy and attract investment from abroad. An important place in their arguments is occupied by the promise of the withdrawal of nuclear submarines from the base in Clyde.

Opponents of independence argue with nationalists on all counts. They, for example, are confident that Scots will live poorer, that prices will rise in the country for everything from food to services. They point out that the Scots are now doing better than the British, because the average Scottish man has £ 1,200 more in payments of all kinds than the English.

London, if Scotland leaves the United Kingdom, will also face heavy losses. It is extremely difficult to imagine all of them now, but the main ones are: the loss of oil billions, the need to open a new base for submarines, which will also cost billions; and the change of name and flag, from which the blue color will disappear, lie on the surface.

In Brussels, Scotland's independence is viewed negatively and is not particularly hidden. The European Union has already warned Edinburgh that if Scotland leaves the UK, then it will have to forget about automatic accession to the EU, let alone the entry into the Eurozone. It will resolve all procedural issues in a general manner in the same way as, for example, the same Turkey or Serbia.

Szekei region (Romania)

Szekei are Romanian Hungarians living in Transylvania, which became part of Romania after the First World War. They do not demand the creation of an independent state, but seek to legalize the status of autonomy, which is currently absent. Moreover, the three counties in which they live do not even form a semblance of a single administrative unit. In their demands, the Szekei are guided by the situation that developed in 1952, when the ruling Communist Party granted them autonomy, which existed for about 16 years (until 1968) and was abolished during the administrative reform of N. Ceausescu.

Since 2003, the Szekeys have been trying to organize a referendum on the creation of an autonomy under the code name Szekeysky Krai. They began to act especially actively in 2013, on the eve of a new territorial reform. As it turned out, Bucharest nevertheless decided to separate the Szekei counties into a separate administrative unit, however, there is still no talk of any self-government and financial independence. In addition, in accordance with the reform project, one Romanian-speaking uezd (district) will also be included in the Hungarian-speaking region, which will significantly complicate the picture of the composition of the local population, and the prospects for further registration of autonomization will be blocked.

South Tyrol

The Italian province of South Tyrol (officially the Autonomous Province of Bolzano-Bozen - South Tyrol) was part of Austria-Hungary until 1919. Most of the inhabitants of South Tyrol speak dialects of German.

In 1972, the territory received the status of autonomy with the right to resolve many issues at the local level. This step for some time removed the intensity of separatist aspirations. However, with the deepening of the crisis in the Italian economy, the slogans of non-dependence on Rome in South Tyrol became more and more loud. Tyrol no longer receives the tax revenues it owes. Secession from Italy in South Tyrol was seriously discussed only in the 2000s at the initiative of the nationalist party "South Tyrol Freedom" (STF), but it did not offer a ready-made program of transformations and organized a series of polls and consultative referendums, which resulted in the following: that most Tyroleans want disengagement, their ultimate goals differ.

On the issue of gaining sovereignty, the opinions of the Tyroleans diverge between several scenarios: 1 - to remain in Italy with the rights of even wider autonomy; 2 - to become an independent state; 3 - return to Austria again; or 4 - try your luck by becoming the new cantons of Switzerland. While none of the options can win the support of the absolute majority, local politics are determined by moderate forces that advocate maintaining the status quo under the leadership of the People's Party of South Tyrol, who are not taking any steps towards secession. However, given the results of the parliamentary elections in Italy (2014), supporters of disengagement are gradually gaining weight in Tyrol, and the current authorities will have to compromise and support the separatist agenda.

Tyroleans pride themselves on one of the highest living standards in the Old World. South Tyrol is visited annually by over 5 million tourists, Tyrolean power plants provide energy to almost the entire north of Italy. Now the Tyroleans, not without reason, fear the loss of the privileges and subsidies they were entitled to under the 1972 autonomy agreement. They clearly do not want to live like the rest of Italians. Especially in the south of the peninsula.

Passions for freedom are skillfully inflamed by nationalist parties, which have more than 20% of the seats in the provincial parliament. Anti-Italian sentiment in South Tyrol has flared with renewed vigor after the government of Mario Monti began a program of austerity and cost cuts. Rome has demanded that South Tyrol cut spending by almost 1 billion euros, despite the fact that the requirement is contrary to the agreement, which says that 90% of taxes collected in the province must be returned in the form of subsidies. Difficult negotiations on the division of revenues are now underway with the government of Enrico Letta, who, in terms of relations with the regions, repeats the policy of his predecessor.

Flanders and Wallonia

The division of the Dutch-speaking and French-speaking regions has long been debated in Belgium, and if the hopes of the nationalists, at least on one side, are fulfilled, an entire state will disappear from the map of Europe.

Basically, we are talking about Flemish nationalists who want to get rid of the need to provide for the economically less developed Wallonia. The situation is aggravated by the extremely sharp linguistic distinction within Belgium, which leaves an imprint on almost all spheres of life. The situation is aggravated by the fact that representatives of the north and south of the country are not able to agree on the formation of a parliament, in which both linguistic communities must be represented. Because of this intractability, following the 2010 elections, the country spent a record long time without a permanent government - 541 days. The guarantor, albeit fragile, but still, the unity of Belgium in recent years was King Albert II, who recently abdicated in favor of his son Philip. To keep the country from disintegration, he resorted to shuttle diplomacy more than once or twice, persuading the Flemings and Walloons to cooperate.

If Flanders declares its independence, Belgium will not only come to an end - in its place, most likely, chaos will begin. Wallonia may fall into pieces, which will be distributed between France, Germany and Luxembourg. The Germans, however, are likely to go to the German-speaking community located in the east of Wallonia. In addition, the prospects for Brussels, which are almost equally divided between the Dutch and French-speaking communities, remain unclear.

The trends observed in Europe as a whole are such that it is hardly necessary to talk about the imminent appearance of new states there. Scotland and Flanders are the closest to independence, but for various reasons, even their chances of gaining sovereignty are not very high. As for the rest of Europe, the threat to their unity is most likely even less.

Separatists of the European North

Dreams of independence are gaining more and more popularity in Greenland, some of whose residents are striving for a future without Denmark, relying on income from minerals. Greenland has wide autonomy and has its own parliament and government, as well as it owns its richest natural resources... Large deposits of rare earth metals are of particular interest. According to geologists, the largest island on the planet may have 9.16% of the world's reserves. In addition to them, Greenland has large reserves of hydrocarbons, diamonds, gold, metal ores, etc.

Denmark proclaimed Greenland as its colony in 1776. And although two centuries later, in 1979, Nuuk received internal autonomy, the Danish Queen Margrethe II remains the head of the island. In November 2008, 76% of Greenlanders voted for self-government. On May 22, the law on full self-government of Greenland was approved by the Danish parliament. The Greenlanders now have jurisdiction over the courts, the police and the coast guard. Copenhagen retained control over defense, foreign policy, and foreign exchange. Only now the Danes need to consult with the Greenlanders when making decisions that will affect their island.

Under a new agreement between Copenhagen and Nuuk, the first 75 million kronor earned by the Greenlanders must go to the island's budget, and everything that exceeds this amount will be divided in half with Denmark. But economists believe that without Copenhagen's subsidies, which now amount to 3.6 billion Danish kroner ($ 655 million), that is, almost two-thirds of the budget of the autonomous region of the Danish kingdom, Nuuk will not be able to survive. Greenlanders will not be able to rise to their feet and become truly independent not earlier than in 25 years, and then on condition that they are able to open 24 large mines or quarries for mining, each of which costs 5 billion crowns. The shortage of labor will be a very big problem, since the population of Greenland is only 57 thousand people.

Of course, such studies should be treated with a certain degree of skepticism, or at least fully trusted. independent experts... Obviously, this point of view is also shared by the Greenlandic Prime Minister Alec Hammond, who, in response to a request from journalists to comment on the results of the study, said that she still dreams of Greenland gaining independence during her lifetime.

The results of the Catalan referendum inspire independence supporters in all Spanish regions, Scottish, Flemish, North Italian, Bavarian autonomists and separatists in the EU countries. "The specter of separatism is haunting Europe," wrote the American magazine Th e National Interest. The author of the article, Gordon N. Bardos emphasized that “if the European Union does not get out of the current crisis that threatens its existence, then, as history shows, these movements can grow even stronger and achieve new successes, transforming the Europe that we have known for the past twenty years ". Contrary to popular assessments, European separatists want not only money, but also independence.

But the stability of the European borders is threatened not only by the separatists, but also by the challenges associated with the nationalism of the state format. Currently, there are officially ten sluggish territorial disputes in Europe, in which the claims of each side are supported by the sympathies of the population. This allows resorting not only to legal or historical arguments, but also to manipulate the national feelings of citizens of European countries.

Now, when the European Union is facing economic difficulties, territorial disputes in the European space threaten to manifest themselves with renewed vigor. Such points of latent nationalism, which can be actualized at a prompt from high offices, are: Lake Constance (Switzerland, Austria and Germany), Mont Blanc (Italy and France), Gibraltar (Spain and Great Britain), Piran Bay (Slovenia and Croatia), Aegean dispute (Greece and Turkey), Sharengrad Island (Croatia and Serbia), Olivensa (Portugal and Spain), Loch Foyle Bay (Ireland and Great Britain), Dollart Bay (Netherlands and Germany), Northern Kosovo (Serbia and the Republic of Kosovo).

The large-scale experiment of supranational unification in Europe has become an obvious challenge to the notion that the nation state is the main actor in modern world politics. The resurgence of nationalism has become an important component of the difficulties facing the European Union today. Attempts to solve the debt problems of the eurozone are very much complicated by national stereotypes, when northern Europeans consider southerners to be lazy, and southerners condemn the arrogance of northerners. The strengthening of national sentiments in Europe is manifested at all levels and in the most different forms, up to sports tournaments and the Eurovision Song Contest.

In general, the transfer of a number of state powers from national capitals to Brussels only for a very short time softened the nationalist sentiments of European separatists and at the same time created a certain legality for the actions of peoples actively seeking the right to self-determination. No matter how successful the European experiment may be in terms of economics and prevention of regional wars, it is still far from creating a common European identity capable of supplanting ideas of nationality based on a common language, culture and historical traditions. As the experience of Latin America shows, even a very deep cultural and linguistic affinity of the peoples of different countries cannot compensate for the feeling of belonging to the state-nation.

In general, national movements today have become not only a permanent player on the field of world politics, but also form a specific range of problems, in the solution of which all other actors are involved - primarily states and multilateral institutions.

Teacher: Zaitseva V.A.

Summary of the lesson on the history of Universal for conducting in 11 grades

Topic: Formation of nation states in Europe

Lesson type: Combined lesson

Purpose: Educational: together with the trainees to find out the events that took place after the collapse of three empires: Russian, Austro-Hungarian and German; developing: to develop the ability to work with the text of the textbook, think logically, compare the events that took place in the newly formed states; educational: to foster a sense of patriotism against the background of the fact that it was after the revolution in Russia that the model of building Soviet society became relevant in many young states of post-war Europe.

Methods: frontal survey, analysis of current events, synchronization and chronology of facts, logical thinking, clarity, work with a map, with textbook text and excerpts from historical sources, the method of innovative technologies.

Equipment: History textbook. General history. Grade 11: textbook for educational organizations: basic level / A.A. Ulunyan, E.Yu. Sergeev; ed. A.O. Chubaryan. - M .: Education, 2014. - 287 p; workbooks, handouts; multimedia board.

During the classes:

Organizing time

Homework survey (according to clauses 1-2). The number of questions is taken on the basis of 15 students:

1. The prerequisite for the First World War was: .. (the formation of 2 blocks of the Triple Alliance and the Entente).
2. Austria-Hungary, Germany, Italy ... - (states that were part of the Triple Alliance)
3. Russia, Great Britain and ... - states ... (France, which were part of the Entente)
4. June 28, 1914 ... (assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand)
5. Franz Ferdinand - heir to the throne ... (Austria-Hungary)
6. Gavrilo Principle - a representative of which state? ... (Serbia)
7. The first World War began ... (28 July 1918)
8. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia ... (28 July 1918)
9. Which state and when declared war on Russia during the First World War? (Germany, August 1, 1918)
10. Which states declared their sovereignty before 1917? (USA, Belgium, Spain, Netherlands, Norway, Luxembourg, etc.)
11. What did the "Schlieffen plan" imply? (capture of Paris in 42 days)
12. In September 1914 - the battle ... (on the river Marne)
13. Which bloc did Japan side with? (Entente)
14. During what battle were the novelties of fire equipment first used: flamethrowers, airplanes, tanks (river Somma)
15. During which battle were poison gases first used? (r. Ypres)
16. The number of victims on both sides at the end of the Battle of Verdun ... (approx. 1 million)
17. One of the largest naval battles of the war, which took place withMay 31 on June 1st city ​​... (Jutland)
18. The number of states that took part in the First World War ... (38)
19. The main result of the First World War: ... (collapse of 4 empires)
20. How on initial stage war did the population react to the outbreak of the First World War? (supported the national idea, the rise of the patriotic spirit)
21. Why were democratic freedoms in states limited in the first weeks of the war? (impossible in a war)
22. What did the states that declared neutrality suffer from and what did they benefit from? (from the flow of refugees from the demand for food, uniforms and other needs of the war)
23. How did trade unions promote the ideology of war? (restrained workers' strikes, using their authority)
24. Which 2 organizations provided the bulk of assistance to refugees? (IWC and ARA)
25. In what conditions were the captive lower ranks of the soldiers kept? (struggle for survival: unsanitary conditions, lack of adequate nutrition, epidemics)
26. Why were the captured officers kept in better conditions than the captured soldiers' lower ranks? (were informed; ransom is possible)
27. On the territory of which state did the Social Democrats hold conferences? (Switzerland)
28. What are the main members of the Social Democratic Conference in Switzerland? (V. Lenin, Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg)
29. From what period does the massive anti-war social upsurge begin? (Spring 1916)
30. Name the years of the First World War (1914-1918)

New material:

1. Collapse of empires
2. Education of Czechoslovakia
3. Formation of Yugoslavia
4. Reconstruction of the Polish state
5. Formation of the Austrian Republic
6. Creation of the Hungarian independent state
7. Formation of new states on the territory of the former Russian Empire
8. Education of Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia
9. Establishment of the Weimar Republic in Germany.

Updating the topic. On the screen, there is an image of some of the postage stamps of the states that will be studied in the lesson. Students should carefully examine each image by peering and interrogating it. Based on this, they come to the conclusion that today in the lesson we will study the new post-war states that were formed during the collapse of the Russian, German and Austro-Hungarian empires.

1. Collapse of empires

Teacher's word.

In the wake of the revolution in Russia, revolutions spread to other European countries.

The collapse of the empire on the territory of Austria was different from that of Russia and Germany. Back in the summer of 1918, the Entente countries created national organizations of Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Ukrainians and South Slavic peoples. They advocated the independence of their administrative-territorial entities.

In Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland - a civil war - a response to events in revolutionary Russia.

Independent work of students with the text of the paragraph: P.37-46.

Populating the table:

Formed state	Date of formation	Incoming lands	Head of state	Reforms
Czechoslovakia		Czech Republic, Slovakia	Tomasz Masaryk	Cancellation of titles of nobility and privileges; freedom of speech, freedom of the press; the law on social insurance and assistance to the unemployed; agrarian reform
Yugoslavia		Croatia, Serbia, Slovenia, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Macedonia	Prince Alexander Karageorgievich	Social and economic reforms
Polish state		part of the GermanPosen province , part Pomerania , Danzig (Gdansk) received the status of a "free city".	Jozef Pilsudski	Yu. Pilsudski had to fulfill his duties until the adoption of a permanent constitution. Since 1926 - reorganization regime
Austrian republic		Austria	Karl Seitz	Cancellation of titles of nobility and privileges; large enterprises were partially nationalized; 8-hour working day introduced; labor legislation adopted with broad social guarantees
Hungarian independent state		Hungary. After the Trianon Peace Treaty lost a significant part of the land	Mihai Karoji (Hungarian People's Republic) Bela Kun (Hungarian Soviet Republic) Miklos Horthy (Kingdom of Hungary)	Agrarian reform Political, economic and social reforms modeled on Soviet Russia Merged two leading parties into a new United Party, began dialogue with the Social Democrats, and carried out limited land reform
New states on the territory of the former Russian Empire		Ukrainian People's Republic Moldavian People's Republic Belarusian People's Republic Transcaucasian Democratic Republic	Democracy advocates	Maximum centralization and militarization of government
Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia		Latvia Lithuania Estonian republic	Karlis ulmanis Antanas Smetona August Rey	Agrarian reform Land nationalization
Finland	December 1918	Finland	Karl Mannerheim	Instability of the political system
Weimar Republic in Germany		Germany (10 free states)	Friedrich Ebert	The introduction of universal suffrage, the proclamation of democratic freedoms, the establishment of an 8-hour working day; nationalization of large industrial enterprises; empowerment of trade unions

After filling out the table by the class, it is proposed to check it using a map from a textbook entitled "Territorial Changes in Europe in 1918-1923". The teacher names the state, and the students look for the territories that were part of it on the map; they name the figures who stood at the origins of the states and briefly characterize the reforms that took place in it.

Reflection ... A student is called, who evaluates the work of classmates in the classroom and concludes that the states formed as a result of the fall of European empires after the First World War were weak; many of them fell under the pro-Soviet influence and the reforms carried out in them were similar to the reforms carried out in Soviet Russia.

Homework:P.3, p.47-48 analyze an excerpt from the source "Congress of representatives of the peoples and regions of Russia."

Stone Age.

About 1.5 million years ago - The first archanthropus appeared in Europe

600-150 thousand years ago - The era of the Lower Paleolithic

150-40 thousand years ago - Middle Paleolithic era

40-35 thousand years ago - The first Cro-Magnons - people of the modern type

40-10 thousand years ago - The era of the late Paleolithic

10-5 thousand years BC - Warming since the last ice age

6-3 thousand years BC - The Neolithic era. People are moving to a productive economy (cattle breeding and arable farming)

Bronze Age.

XIX-XVIII centuries BC. - The origin of the first kingdoms on the island of Crete.

XVII-XV centuries BC. - Cretan civilization.

XVII-XIII centuries BC. - Archean ancient Greek kingdoms.

XV-XIII centuries BC. - The origin and development of the Mycenaean civilization.

OK. 1470 BC - The decline of the Mycenaean civilization began.

1240-1230 BC. - War for Troy.

End of XIII-XII centuries BC. - End of the Mycenaean civilization.

Iron Age.

The beginning of the 1st millennium BC - The Iron Age began in Europe.

Ser. VIII-end of VI centuries. BC. - Greek Archaic. The era of Greek colonization.

776 BC - The origin of the Olympic Games.

753 BC - Founding of Rome.

VII-II centuries. BC. - Settlement of the Eastern European steppes by Scythians

616 BC - The capture of Rome by the Etruscans from Lydia.

594-593 biennium BC. - Athenian rule of Solon.

451-450 biennium BC. - The basic laws of the Roman Republic have been adopted.

447-432 biennium BC. - Erection of the Parthenon in Athens.

443-429 biennium BC. - The years of Pericles' reign in Athens.

431-404 BC. - War of Athens and Sparta (Peloponnesian).

405-367 BC. - The reign of the Greek tyrant Dionysius the Elder.

359-336 BC. - Board of Philip the Great.

343-290 biennium BC. - Samnite Wars.

340-338 BC. - Second Latin War. The victory of Rome and the abolition of the Latin Union.

338-337 biennium BC. - Corinthian Congress. Establishment of the hegemony of Macedonia in Greece. Formation of the Panhellenic Union.

336-323 biennium BC. - Board of Alexander the Great.

334-324 BC. - Eastern campaign of Alexander the Great.

323-322 BC. - The Lamian War of Greece with Macedonia.

323 BC - Partition of the state of Alexander the Great.

306-305 BC. - Treaty of Rome with Carthage on the division of spheres of influence.

301 BC - Battle of Ipsus. The second section of the state of Alexander the Great.

The turn of the IV-III centuries. BC. - Celtic tribal formations in Western Ireland.

280-275 biennium BC. - The war of the Romans with Pyrrhus, king of Epirus.

OK. 280-146 biennium BC. - Achaean Union

279 BC - "Pyrrhic victory" over the Romans at Ausculus.

267-262 biennium BC. - The Khremonides war. Siege of Athens by Antigonos Gonatus.

265 BC - The conquest of Italy by the Romans.

264-241 biennium BC. - The first Punic war between Rome and Carthage. Establishment of Rome in Sicily.

238 BC - The conquest of Sardinia and Corsica by Rome.

225-222 biennium BC. - War of Rome with the Gauls. Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul.

219 BC - Second Illyrian War. The capture of Sagunta by Hannibal.

218-201 biennium BC. - Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage.

218 BC - Hannibal's victories over the Romans at Titinus and Trebia.

216 BC - The defeat of the Romans at Cannes.

215-205 BC. - The First Macedonian War, the struggle of the Greek cities for independence.

200-197 biennium BC. - Second Macedonian War.

II century BC – II century. AD - Zarubinets culture in Eastern Europe.

192-188 biennium BC. - The Syrian war between Rome and Antiochus III the Great.

171-167 biennium BC. - Third Macedonian War.

149-146 BC. - Third Punic War. Siege and destruction of Carthage.

148 BC - The transformation of Macedonia into a Roman province.

146 BC - Achaean war of Greece against Rome. Taking and burning of Corinth. End of Greek independence.

133 BC - Tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus in Rome. Agrarian law of Gracchus and his murder.

133 BC - Accession by the Romans of the Pergamon kingdom.

123-122 biennium BC. - Tribunat of Gaius Gracchus.

111-63 biennium BC. - The reign of the Pontic king Mithridates IV Eupator. His conquest of the Bosporus kingdom.

100-44 years BC. - Guy Julius Caesar.

89-84 biennium BC. - The first Mithridatic war between Rome and the Pontine kingdom.

88-82 years BC. - Civil war between the Marcians and the Sullans.

83-81 biennium BC. - The second Mithridates war.

82-79 years BC. - Dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla, proscraction, restoration of the authority of the Senate.

74-63 years BC. - The third Mitraditov war.

73-71 years. BC. - Rise of Spartacus

69 BC - The conquest of the capital of Armenia Tigranokert by Lucullus.

65 BC - Pompey's victory over Mithridates IV and Tigranes II.

64 BC - Establishment of the authority of Rome over all of Asia Minor. Formation of the provinces of Bithynia, Pontus and Syria.

63 BC - Consulate of Mark Tullius Cicero.

63-62 years BC. - Catiline's conspiracy, his defeat and death.

60 BC - The first triumvirate: Pompey, Crassus, Caesar.

59 BC - Consulate of Caesar.

58-51 BC - The conquest of Gaul by Caesar.

55-54 BC - Campaigns of Caesar to Britain.

53 BC - The defeat and death of Crassus in the battle with the Parthians at Karakh.

49-45 BC - Civil war between Caesar and Pompey.

44 BC - Lifetime dictatorship of Caesar. Assassination of Caesar.

44-31 years BC. - Civil wars.

34 BC - Accession of the Armenian Kingdom to Rome.

32 BC - War of Octavian against Egypt.

30 BC - Suicide of Antony and Cleopatra.

End of the 1st century BC. - the beginning of the 1st century AD - Unification of the Germanic tribes under the rule of Marobod.

The Roman Empire.

27 BC-14 AD - Principate of Augustus (Guy Julius Caesar Octavian)

19 BC - Completion of the conquest of Spain by Rome.

12-9 years BC. - Hikes Druse to Germany, the formation of the Roman province of Germany. Conquest of Pannonia.

OK. 4 BC-65 AD - Lucius Anaeus Seneca, Roman Stoic philosopher.

0 year - the Nativity of Jesus Christ. The beginning of a new era.

6 AD - The transformation of Judea into a Roman province.

10g. - The law on the execution of all slaves in the event of the murder of one of them master.

14-68 years - Board Yuliev - Klavdiev.

33 AD - Crucifixion of Jesus Christ on Calvary on the outskirts of Jerusalem. The beginning of the preaching of Christianity by the Apostles.

43 AD - Claudius's campaign to Britain and the conquest of its southern part by the Romans.

77-83 years - Campaigns of Yuri Agricola to Britain, the conquest of Northern Britain.

79 AD - the eruption of Vesuvius. Death of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabius.

OK. 90 y.-c. 160 - Claudius Ptolemy - ancient Greek astronomer and geographer.

96-122 years. - Board of Antonines.

II century - The displacement of the Sarmatians from the Northern Black Sea region by the Alans.

II-V centuries - Widespread heresies in Christianity (Manichaeism, Arianism, Nestorianism, etc.)

101-106 biennium - Wars of Trajan with Decebalus. Conquest of Dacia.

106 AD - the conquest of the Nabataean kingdom by the Romans, the formation of the provinces of Arabia, Adiabene, Ctesiphon.

115 AD - Formation of the provinces of Mesopotamia and Assyria.

167-180 - The Marcomannic wars of the Romans with the barbarian tribes of the Marcomanians, Dacians, Sarmatians, etc.

185-187 biennium - Unrest in Northern Italy, Gaul, Spain, Danube regions, Africa, Egypt.

193-235 biennium - Dynasty of the Severs.

213 - Wars of the Romans with the Germans and the Danube tribes.

250, 257 - Edicts against Christians. Persecution of Christians.

251 - The defeat of the Romans in the battle with the Goths, the death of Emperor Decius.

OK. 260 - The conquest of the ancient cities of the Northern Black Sea region by the Goths; the addition of the unions of the Ostrogoths and Visigoths.

260s - Barbarian invasions into the Roman Empire.

284-305 - Board of Diocletian. Military, monetary, tax and administrative reforms.

293 - Establishment of the tetrarchy of the board of four.

III-IV centuries - Settlement is ready in the Northern Black Sea region.

III-IV centuries - Chernyakhovsk culture in Eastern Europe.

306-337 biennium - The reign of Constantine the Great.

313 - Edict of Milan on the freedom to practice Christianity.

325 AD - First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea

330 AD - Foundation of Constantinople.

337 - Resumption of the onslaught of the Germanic and Sarmatian tribes. Death of Constantine the Great. The division of the empire into East and West.

350-375 - Kingdom of Germanarich in the Northern Black Sea region.

354-430 biennium - Aurelius Augustine theologian, philosopher, Father of the Church.

361 - Edict of Emperor Julian the Apostate on the restoration of paganism.

364-375 - Section of the empire.

Great migration of peoples.

375 - The defeat of the Goths by the Huns in the Northern Black Sea region. Getaway ready to Danube

378 - The defeat of the Romans in the battle with the Goths at Adrianople.

381 - Second Ecumenical Council of Constantinople.

395 - Final division of the empire into Western and Eastern.

IV-VIII centuries - Tushemlinsky archaeological culture on the Upper Dnieper (Balts)

V-VIII centuries. - Monuments of Prague culture (Slavs) in Eastern Europe.

410 - The capture of Rome by Alaric.

418 - Formation of the Visigothic kingdom in Gaul with the capital in Toulouse.

431 - Third Ecumenical Council of Ephesus. Condemnation of the heresy Nestorius.

434-453 - Attila's rule over the Huns.

449 - The beginning of the conquest of Britain by the Anglo-Saxons.

451 - Battle of the Catalaunian Fields. Defeat of the Huns.

452 - Attila's campaign to Northern Italy.

453 - The disintegration of the state of Attila.

463 - Penetration of the Proto-Bulgarians and Savirs into the Northern Black Sea region.

470-80s - Movement of the Ostrogoths from Pannonia to Italy, the creation of the Ostrogothic kingdom.

476 - Deposition of Romulus Augustulus by barbarian leader Odoacer. Fall of the Western Roman Empire.

481-511 biennium - Clovis is the king of the Franks.

486 - The emergence of the Frankish state in Northern Gaul.

493-526 biennium - The heyday of the Ostrogothic kingdom (capital in Ravenna) under Theodoric the Great.

Early Middle Ages.

The beginning of the 6th century - Recording of "Salichskaya Pravda"

VI-VIII centuries. - The culture of the Pskov long burial mounds (Balts)

VI-VII centuries - Prague-Penkovsky monuments (Slavic tribe of Antes) on the Dniester and Dnieper.

529 - The emergence of the first monastic order- Order of the Benedictines.

534 - Submission of the Burgundian Kingdom by the Franks.

535-555 - War of Byzantium with the Ostrogoths, the annexation of Italy with Rome and Equal to Byzantium.

550s - Campaigns of the Slavs and Bulgarians to the northern provinces of the Byzantine Empire.

557 - Defeat of the Antes by the Turkic tribes of Avars.

561 - Avar invasion of Germany.

560-796 - Avar Kaganate.

568 - The beginning of the invasion of Italy by the Lombards.

597 - The beginning of the Christianization of England.

End of the 6th century-7th century - Settlement by Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula.

End of the 6th century - The disintegration of the Frankish kingdom.

623-662 - The first Slavic state Itself.

711-714 biennium - The conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by the Arabs.

715-741 biennium - Karl Martell - mayor of the state of the Franks.

732 - Karl Martell's victory over the Arabs at Pustye.

740 - The victory of the Byzantine emperor Leo I the Isaurian over the Arabs, the beginning of the expulsion of the Arabs from Asia Minor.

756 - the formation of the secular state of the popes.

768-814 biennium - The reign of Charlemagne.

772-804 - Wars of Charlemagne with the Saxons.

774 - Conquest of the Lombard Kingdom by Charles the Great.

793 - The beginning of the Norman expansion into Europe.

800 - Crowning of Charlemagne with the imperial title.

812 - The campaign of Charlemagne to subjugate the Lyutich Slavs in the interfluve of the Elbe and the Oder.

812-813 biennium - Campaigns of Charlemagne against the Arabs in Corsica.

829 - Unification of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in the Kingdom of England.

843 - Treaty of Verdun. Partition of the empire of Charlemagne.

845 - The capture of Paris by the Normans.

855 - The state of Lothair collapsed. Formation of the kingdoms Italy, Provence, Lorraine.

863 - Creation of the Slavic alphabet by the enlighteners Cyril and Methodius.

End of the 9th century - Resettlement of Hungarians in Pannonia.

End of the 9th - beginning of the 10th centuries - Formation of the Czech state.

911 - Formation of the Duchy of Normandy

919-1024 - Saxon dynasty in Germany.

936-973 biennium - Board of Otto I in Germany. Formation of the Holy Roman Empire.

987-1328 biennium - The Capetian dynasty in France.

988 - Adoption of Christianity in Russia.

990s-1022 - Board of Olof Schoetkonung in Sweden.

Late X-early XI centuries - Formation of the united kingdoms in Denmark, Sweden and Norway.

OK. 1000 - Formation of the Hungarian Kingdom.

1016-1035 - The reign of Cnut the Great - King of England, Denmark and Norway.

1024-1125 biennium - Franconian dynasty in Germany.

1032-1034 - Accession of Burgundy to the Holy Roman Empire.

1054 - Division of the Christian Church into Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodoxy)

1066 - Battle of Hastings, Norman conquest of England.

1066-1087 - The reign of William I the Conqueror in England.

1071 - Conquest of southern Italy by the Normans.

1075-1122 biennium - Struggle for investiture between popes and German kings.

1076-1077 biennium - Defeat of the German Emperor Henry IV in the fight against Gregory VII

1085 - Reconquest of Toledo during the Reconquista on the Iberian Peninsula.

1095 - Call of Pope Urban II to conquer Palestine.

1096-1099 - The 1st Crusade, accompanied by the plundering of the crusaders of Constantinople and other cities of the Empire. Formation of the states of the crusaders in the Middle East.

Developed Middle Ages.

1100 - "Liberties Charter" in England.

1130 - Unification of the southern Italian Norman states into the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

1137 - Unification of Catalonia and Aragon in the Kingdom of Aragon.

1138-1254 biennium - The Hohenstaufen dynasty in Germany.

1143-1155 - Antipope uprising in Rome.

1147 - The conquest of Lisbon from the Arabs.

1152-1190 - The reign of the German Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa.

1154-1399 - The Plantagenet dynasty in England.

1169-1171 - The beginning of the English conquest of Ireland.

1176 - The defeat of Manuel I Comnenus by the Seljuk Turks at Miriocephalus, which stopped the Byzantine advance in Asia Minor.

1180-1223 biennium - The reign of Philip II Augustus in France.

1189-1192 - The 3rd Crusade, in which the German emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, the French king Philip I Augustus and the English king Richard I the Lionheart took part.

1199-1204 - 4th Crusade convened by Pope Innocent III

End of XI-beginning of XII centuries - The emergence of the Inquisition.

OK. 1200 - Foundation of the University of Paris.

1202 - Formation of the Order of the Swordsmen in the Baltic States

1202-1294 - 4th Crusade. The capture and destruction of Constantinople by the crusaders.

1212 - The crusade of children, which ended with the death and capture of most of its participants by the Muslims.

1215 - Establishment of the Dominican monastic order.

1215 - "Magna Carta" in England.

1217-1221 - 5th Crusade led by Andrew II of Hungary, Austrian and Bavarian knights.

1228-1229 biennium - 6th Crusade led by Emperor Frederick II Hohenstaufen.

1229 - Treaty of Frederick II with Sultan Al-Kamil on the return to Christians of Jerusalem, Nazareth, Bethlehem and other holy places.

1230-1263 - Board of Mindaugas in Lithuania. Formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

1241-1242 - Invasion of the Mongols in Poland, Hungary and the Czech Republic.

1248-1254 biennium - 7th Crusade of the French king Louis IX, the capture of Damietta, then the defeat and capture of the king.

1249 - Completion of the Reconquista in Portugal.

1250-1364 - The Folkung dynasty in Sweden.

1251 - Peasant uprising of "shepherds" in France.

1254 - Formation of the Rhine Union of Cities in Germany.

1261 - Restoration of the Byzantine Empire by the Nicene Emperor Michael VIII.

1261-1453 - The Palaeologus dynasty in Byzantium.

1265 - Establishment of the English Parliament.

1272-1307 - The reign of Edward I in England.

1274 - Union of Lyons between the Catholic and Orthodox churches.

1282 - "Sicilian Vespers" - popular uprising in Sicily against French oppression.

1285-1314 - The reign of Philip IV the Fair in France.

1291 - Formation of the Confederation of Swiss Cantons (Swiss Union)

1293 - "The establishment of justice" in Florence - deprivation of political rights of the feudal lords.

1296-1314 - Scotland's struggle for independence.

The beginning of the XIV century. - Formation of the principality of Wallachia.

1302 - Beginning of the States General in France.

1304-1307 - The Dolcino uprising in Northern Italy.

1309-1378 - The Avignon Captivity of the Popes.

1315 - The victory of the Swiss over the troops of the Habsburgs at Morgarten. Swiss independence begins.

1319-1363 - The reign of Magnus Eriksson - King of Sweden, Norway and Finland. "Magna Carta of Sweden".

1323 - Recognition by the British of Robert the Bruce as King of Scotland.

1327-1377 - The reign of Edward III in England.

1328-1589 - The Valois dynasty in France.

1331-1355 - The reign of King Stephen Dusan in Serbia, who conquered Macedonia, Thessaly and Albania from Byzantium.

1337-1453 - Hundred Years War between England and France.

1347-1378 - The reign of the German Emperor and King of Bohemia Charles IV.

1348-1353 biennium - The plague epidemic ("black death") in Western, Central and Eastern Europe. Death of 25 million inhabitants.

1348 - Foundation of the Prague University.

1356 - "Golden Bull" of Emperor Charles IV, which consolidated the independence of the Electors.

1356 - The defeat of the French by the British, led by Prince Edward of Wales (Black Prince), the capture of King John the Good.

1359 - Formation of the principality of Moldavia.

1367-1370 - War of the Germanic peoples (Hansa) with Denmark.

1382-1387 - Revolt of the Tukins in Northern Italy.

1385 - Kreva Union of Lithuania and Poland.

1385 - Battle of Aljubarrota. Portuguese victory over the Castilians and their supporters.

1389 - Battle of the Kosovo field. The defeat of the Serbian army by the Turks.

1393 - The conquest of the Bulgarian kingdom of Tarnovo by the Turks.

1396 - The defeat of the European knighthood by the Turks near Nikopol on the Danube.

1397 - Kalmar Union of Sweden, Norway and Denmark.

1410 - Battle of Grunwald. Defeat of the Teutonic Order by the combined forces of Lithuanians, Poles, Czechs and Russians.

1411-1435 - Civil War in France, Armagnacs and Bourguignons.

1414-1418 - Constance Cathedral.

1415 - Burning of Jan Hus.

1415-1701 - The Hohenzollern dynasty in Brandenburg.

1419-1434 - Hussite wars.

1428-1429 - The siege of Orleans by the British.

1431 - Burning of Jeanne D'Arc in Rouen.

1434 - Establishment of the Medici tyranny in Florence.

1435 biennium - The beginning of the Riksdag in Sweden.

1438 - Securing the throne of the Holy Roman Empire for the Habsburgs.

OK. 1445 - Johannes Gutenberg's invention of printing.

1450 - "Eternal Union" of Norway and Denmark.

1453 - The capture of Constantinople by the Turkish Sultan Mehmed II Fatih. Fall of the Byzantine Empire.

1453 - End of the Hundred Years War.

1455-1485 - War of the Scarlet and White Roses in England.

1459 - The capture of Serbia by the Turks.

1461-1485 - York dynasty in England.

1463 - The capture of Bosnia by the Turks.

1466 - Peace of Torun, recognition by the Teutonic Order of vassal dependence on Poland.

1468 - Establishment of estates in Denmark begins.

1474-1477 - Burgundy War in France.

1475 - Establishment of Turkish suzerainty over the Crimean Khanate.

1476 - Establishment of Turkish suzerainty over Wallachia.

1478 - The fall of the independence of Novgorod.

1478-1479 - The conquest of Albania by the Turks.

1479 - Unification of Aragon and Castile, the emergence of a single Spanish state.

1485 - The beginning of the Tudor dynasty in England.

1491 - Accession of Brittany to France.

1492 - Conquest of the Emirate of Granada by Spain, end of the Reconquista.

1492 - Discovery of America by H. Columbus.

1494-1498 - Republic of D. Savanarola in Florence.

1494-1559 - Italian Wars.

1497-1498 - Vasco Da Gama expedition around Africa to India.

1499 - Separation of the Swiss Union from the Holy Roman Empire.

Late Middle Ages.

1501-1504 - The conquest of the Kingdom of Naples by Spain.

1514 - The uprising of Gyeri Doji in Hungary.

1514 - The conquest of Smolensk by the Russian troops from Lithuania.

1516-1700 - The Habsburg dynasty in Spain.

1517 - Presentation by Martin Luther with 95 theses against indulgences. The beginning of the Reformation.

1523 - Dissolution of the Castilian Union between Denmark and Sweden.

1523-1560 - The reign of Gustav I Vasa in Sweden.

1524-1525 - Peasant uprising in Germany.

1525 - Secularization of the Teutonic Order.

1526 - The defeat of the Hungarian troops by the Turks at the Battle of Mohacs, the formation of the monarchy of the Austrian Habsburgs in Central Europe.

1527-1539 - Reformation in Sweden.

1530 - "Augsburg Confession"

1532 - The final annexation of Brittany to France. Completion of the unification of the country.

1533-1584 - The reign in Russia of Ivan IV the Terrible (from 1547 - the tsar)

1534 - "Act of Suprematism" in England - recognition of the king as the head of the English church.

1534 - Founding of the Jesuit Order.

1534-1535 - Anabaptist commune in Munstrey (Germany)

1536-1542 - Joining Wales to England.

1537-1574 - The reign of Duke Cosimo I of the Medici in Florence.

1541 - Partition of Hungary between the Ottoman Empire and the Austrian Habsburgs.

1545-1563 - Cathedral of Trent.

1555 - Religious world of Augsburg.

1556-1598 - The reign of King Philip II in Spain.

1557-1559 - War of England in alliance with Spain against Frania.

1558-1583 - The Livonian War of Russia with the Livonian Order, the Commonwealth and Sweden.

1558-1603 - The reign of Elizabeth I Tudor in England.

1559 - The first "index of forbidden books" in Rome.

1560-1598 - Religious wars in France.

1562 - The beginning of the English slave trade in America.

1566-1609 - Dutch bourgeois revolution, the struggle against Spanish rule.

1569 - Union of Lublin between Lithuania and Poland. Formation of the Commonwealth.

1572 - "St. Bartholomew's Night" in France.

1572-1584 - Board of the first stathauter of the Netherlands, William I of Orange.

1572-1573 - Expeditions of the English corsair Francis Drake to the Spanish West Indies.

1575 - State bankruptcy of Spain.

1579 - Arras Union of the southern provinces of the Netherlands and the Utrecht Union of the northern provinces of the Netherlands.

1581 - The annexation of Portugal to Spain.

1585 - The capture of Antwerp by the Spanish troops.

1587 - Execution of the Scottish Queen Mary Stuart in England.

1588 - The campaign of the Spanish fleet ("Invincible Armada") against England and its death.

1588 - "Lithuanian Statute"

1588-1648 - The reign of King Christian IV in Denmark.

1589-1792, 1814-1815, 1815-1830 - The Bourbon dynasty in France.

1592-1598 - The uprising of the "Crocans" in France.

1596 - Brest Union Orthodox Church in Ukraine and the Catholic Church.

1600 - Burning of Giordano Bruno in Italy.

1600 - Founding of the English East India Company.

1601 - Conflict of parliament with Queen Elizabeth I in England over the distribution of privileges and monopolies. Statute on the Charity of the Poor. Mutiny in Essex.

1603 - Accession to the English throne of King James I of Scotland Stuart. Union between England and Scotland.

1603-1649, 1660-1714 - The Stuart dynasty in England.

1604 - Founding of the first East India Company in France. French colonization of the Atlantic coast of North America begins.

1606-1609 - Rokosz (mutiny) Zebrzydowski in Poland.

1608 - Foundation of the Evangelical Union by Protestant princes in the Holy Roman Empire.

1609 - Expulsion of the Moriscos (Moorish Christians of Aquitaine and Granada) from Spain.

1609 - The formation of the Catholic League in the Holy Roman Empire by Maximilian of Bavaria. Struggle for domination in the duchies of Cleves and Julich, left after the death of Duke Johann Wilhelm.

1610 - Assassination of King Henry IV of France.

1610-1617 - Russian-Swedish war.

1611 - Beginning of colonization of Wexford, Longford and other counties of Ireland.

1611-1613 - Kalmar War between Sweden and Denmark.

1611-1617 - Regency of Marie de Medici in France under the minor Louis XIII.

1611-1632 - the reign of King Gustav II Adolf in Sweden.

1617-1629 - The Swedish-Polish war for domination in the Baltic, which ended with the establishment of Swedish domination in the Baltic.

1618 - Inclusion of the Duchy of Prussia into Brandenburg.

1618-1648 - Thirty Years War.

1619 - Treaty of the Union of the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II with the Catholic League.

1620 - Demonstration against King Louis XIII Maria de Medici and the rebellious princes. King's victory at the Pont-de-Se.

1621 - Renewal of the Spanish-Dutch war.

1624-1642 - Board in France by Cardinal de Richelieu.

1625 - Anglo-Spanish War.

1628 - Presentation of the "Petition of Rights" by the British Parliament to King Charles I

1628-1631 - Franco-Austrian War of the Mantuan Succession.

1629 - The Edict of Mercy was published by Louis XIII, depriving the Huguenots of political rights, but preserving their freedom of religion.

1629 - Deprivation of the Protestant cities and principalities of the Holy Roman Empire of secularized lands and properties.

1629-1640 - Non-parliamentary reign of Charles I.

1632 - Defeat of the Austrian commander A. Wallenstein from the Swedes at Lutzen. Death of the Swedish king Gustav II Adolf at the battle of Lutzen.

1634 - The defeat of the Swedish troops at Nördlingen.

1635 - Separate peace between the Saxon Elector Johann Georg and the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II.

1635-1659 - Franco-Spanish War.

1640 - "Short Parliament" in England and its dissolution by the king. "Long Parliament" and the beginning of the English Revolution.

1640 - Separation of Portugal from Spain.

1640-1652 - The uprising in Catalonia.

1640-1668 - Portuguese War of Independence.

1642 - The capture of Leipzig by the Swedish army.

1642-1646 - The English Civil War.

1643-1661 (intermittently) - The reign of Cardinal Giulio Mazarin in France.

1646-1648 - Revolt in Naples and Sicily against Spanish rule.

1648 - Peace of Westphalia.

1648 - English Civil War.

New Time.

1649 - Execution of King Charles I of England, abolition of the royal rank and the House of Lords in England.

1649-1650 - Hike O. Cromwell to Ireland.

1649-1653 - Republican rule in England.

1650-1651 - Hike O. Cromwell to Scotland, the annexation of Scotland.

1651-1653 - "Fronde of Princes" in France.

1652-1653 - Peasant uprisings in Sweden.

1653 - Defeat of the "Long Parliament" by O. Cromwell

1653-1658 - Protectorate of O. Cromwell in England.

1654-1656, 1658-1667 - Russian-Polish war.

1655-1659 - The Anglo-French-Spanish War, which ended with the Iberian Peace, which gave large territorial gains to France at the expense of Spain.

1657 - The end of the vassal dependence of East Prussia from Poland.

1658 - Formation of the Rhine Union (Holy Roman Empire, France, Sweden) against the Habsburgs.

1659 - Formal restoration of the republic in England.

1660 - War of Sweden against Denmark and Brandenburg.

1660 - Restoration of the Stuarts (Charles II) in England.

1662 - Sale of Dunkirk by England to France, West Indies campaign.

1665 - "Great Plague" in England.

1665-1667 - Anglo-Dutch War.

1667 - A secret treaty between the English king Charles II and the French king Louis XIV.

1667-1668 - The devolutionary war between France and Spain, the transition of France to the Flanders cities.

1672-1679 - War of France and Sweden against the coalition of Holland, Spain, Holy Roman Empire, Brandenburg and Denmark.

1674 - Revolt against Spanish rule in Sicily.

1675 - Peasant uprising of the "red caps" in Brittany (France)

1675-1682 - Activities of the "Green Ribbon Club" in England - the center of future Whigs.

1679 - Adoption of the Personal Integrity Act by the British Parliament.

1683 - Siege of Vienna by the Turkish army, lifting of the siege and defeat of the Turks by the Polish king Jan III Sobieski.

1683-1684 - Franco-Spanish War.

1684 - Treaty of Regensburg, recognition of the territorial acquisitions of France by the Holy Roman Empire and Spain.

1685 - Revolt of the Duke of Monmouth in England.

1685 - Adoption of the "Potsdam Ejikt", allowing the Huguenots to settle in Brandenburg and Prussia and providing them with benefits.

1685-1688 - Accession to the throne of King James II of England and his measures aimed at the restoration of Catholicism and the unlimited power of the king.

1686 - Creation of the Augsburg League between the Holy Roman Empire and Spain in order to stop the expansion of France.

1688 - "Glorious Revolution" in England. Flight of Jacob II Stuart and proclamation of William III of Orange, Stadhaler of the Netherlands, as king. Founding Parliament - Convention, Bill of Rights

1688-1697 - War of France with the Augsburg League (Holy Roman Empire, Spain, England, Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony)

1689-1690 - Disembarkation of Jacob II Stuart and French troops in Ireland, their defeat.

1697 - Peace of Riswick between France and the Augsburg League. The return by France of territories captured during the war. Recognition of William III by Louis XIV as King of England.

1700-1721 - Northern Russia against Sweden.

1701 - Proclamation of Prussia as a kingdom.

1701-1714 - War of Spanish Succession between France, Austria and England.

1702-1705 - the peasant war of the Kamisars in France.

1702-1714 - The reign of Queen Anne Stewart of England.

1704 - The capture of the Strait of Gibraltar by England.

1705 - Establishment of the Vienna Academy of Arts.

1705-1706 - Peasant uprising in Bavaria.

1705-1711 - Bashkir uprising.

1706 - Capture of Madrid by Austrian troops.

1707 - The Act of the Unification of England and Scotland, the formation of Great Britain.

1708 - The victory of the British over the French at Oudenaard, the capture of the island of Menorca by England.

1709 - Foundation of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin.

1709 - The defeat of the Swedish army near Poltava.

1710 - Opening of the first porcelain manufactory in Europe in Meissen (Germany)

1711-1740 - The reign of Charles VI of Habsburg in Austria. Secret negotiations between England and France, weakening of the anti-French coalition.

1712-1715 - Cossack-peasant uprisings in Poland.

1713 - Peace of Utrecht in the War of the Spanish Succession between England, Holland, Prussia and France. Philip V of Anjou is recognized as King of Spain with the renunciation of the rights to the French crown; England received Gibraltar, possession in North America and on the island of Menorca and the right of the slave trade in the Spanish colonies.

1714 - The victory of the Russian fleet over the Swedish at Cape Gangut.

1714 - Peace of Rashtad, ending the War of Spanish Succession; Austria relinquishes rights to the Spanish crown, but receives Belgium, the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of Naples.

1715-1716 - Jacobite uprising in Scotland.

1715-1774 - The reign of Louis XV in France.

1716 - Hike of the Swedish king Charles XII to Norway.

1718-1772 - "Era of Freedoms" in Sweden (Riksdag rule)

1718 - Treaty of Fire between Austria and Turkey, transfer to Austria of Malaya Wallachi and part of Serbia with Belgrade.

1718-1720 - Anglo-Spanish War.

1720 - The victory of the Russian fleet is necessary for the Swedish at Cape Grengam.

1720 - the Stockholm peace treaty between Prussia and Sweden, according to which Stettin and Western Pomerania ceded to Prussia.

1721 - Peace of Nishtadt between Russia and Sweden, which consolidated Russian acquisitions in the Baltic States; Finland returned to Sweden; loss of great power status by Sweden.

1725 - Franco-Prussian union treaty.

1727 The Irish are deprived of the right to elect parliament.

1727-1732 - Peasant uprising in the Black Forest (Germany)

1731 - Regulations on workshops in Austria, subordinating workshops to the authorities and prohibiting artisan strikes and apprentice unions.

1733-1735 - War of the Polish Succession.

1736-1739 - Russian-Turkish war (in alliance with Austria)

1737 - Establishment of the University of Göttingen in Germany.

1738-1765 The stay in power of Sweden "party of hats"

1739 - Creation of the Swedish Academy of Sciences.

1739-1748 - Anglo-Spanish War.

1740 - Russian-Prussian union treaty.

1740-1780 - The reign of Empress Maria Theresa in Austria.

1740-1742 - The Silesian War between Austria and Prussia for the possession of Silesia, which ended with the transfer of Silesia to Prussia.

1740-1786 - The reign of the Prussian king Frederick II the Great.

1740-1748 - War of the Austrian Succession.

1741-1743 - The Russian-Swedish war, which ended in the Abov peace, through which part of Finland withdrew to Russia.

1742 - The Swedish astronomer and physicist A. Celsius proposed a new temperature scale named after him.

1744-1745 - Second Silesian War of Austria and Prussia in Poland.

1746 - Defensive Russian-Austrian and Russian-Danish alliances.

1747 - An Anglo-Russian subsidy treaty, according to which Russia received 100,000 pounds sterling annually in service with the army.

1756-1763 - Seven Years War.

1759 - Opening of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences in Munich.

1761 - Family pact between French and Spanish Bourbons.

1765 - Foundation of the Royal Berlin - irobank and the Loan Bank.

1767 - The expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain.

1768 - Purchase by France from Genoa of the island of Corsica.

1768-1772 - Bar Confederation against Stanislav Poniatowski in Poland.

1772 - The coup d'état of Gustav III in Sweden, the adoption of a new constitution limiting the power of the Riksdag.

1772 - The first partition of Poland between Austria, Prussia and Russia.

1773 - The Pope abolishes the Jesuit Order.

1774-1792 - The reign of King Louis XVI in France.

1775-1783 - War of England with the North American colonies.

1779-1783 - Anglo-Spanish War, Spain's return to Florida and Menorca.

1780-1784 - Anglo-Dutch war for the redistribution of colonial possessions.

1783 - Treaty of Versailles. Recognition of the independence of the United States by England.

1788 - Cancellation of the military registration system in Denmark.

1788-1792 - Four-year Diet in Poland.

1788-1789 - Russian-Swedish war.

1789-1794 - The French Revolution.

1789 - Peasant unrest in Germany.

1791 - Proclamation of a new constitution by the Poles, preparation for war with Russia.

1791 - Creation of the United Irish patriotic society in Belfast.

1792-1797 - War of France with the 1st coalition.

1792 - Targowitz Confederation in Poland; the abolition of the new constitution and the halt of military preparations.

1793 - Execution of Louis XVI

1793 - Russian-English convention on general action against revolutionary France.

1793 - The second partition of Poland between Russia and Prussia.

1794 - Foundation of the Ecole Polytechnique in Paris - the first technical higher educational institution.

1794-1795 - The Polish uprising of T. Kosciuszko, suppressed by Russian troops led by A. V. Suvorov.

1795-1799 - Directory in France.

1795 - Stanislav Poniatowski's abdication from the throne and the third partition of Poland between Prussia. Russia and Austria, ending the existence of Poland as an independent state.

1796-1797 - Italian campaign of Napoleon Bonaparte.

1798-1801 - War of France with the II coalition (England, Turkey, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Russia, Austria, Portugal)

1799 - FF Ushakov's capture of the islands of Corfu, Naples and Rome. A. V. Suvorov's Swiss and Italian campaigns

1799 - Coup of the 18th Brumaire by General Napoleon Bonaparte. Transfer of power in France to the first consul Bonaparte

1799-1804 - Consulate in France.

1800 - The defeat of the Austrian troops by Napoleon Bonaparte at Marengo.

1803-1805 - War of France with the III coalition (England, Austria, Russia)

1804 - Execution of Louis Antoine, Duke of Enghien. "Civil Code of the French" (Code of Napoleon). Napoleon Bonaparte's acceptance of the title of emperor.

1805 - Victory of the English fleet over the Franco-Spanish at Trafalgar. Death of Vice Admiral G. Nelson.

1806-1807 - War of France with the IV coalition (England, Prussia, Russia)

1806 - Formation of the Rhine Union of 16 German states under the protectorate of Napoleon.

1806 - Refusal of Franz II from the crown of the Holy Roman Empire, the end of its existence.

1807 - The slave trade is banned in England.

1808-1813 - The occupation of Spain by France. Guerrilla war in Spain.

1809 - War of France with the V coalition. Schönbrunn world. Loss by Austria of Illyria, parts of Tyrol and Western Galicia. Revolt against French rule in Germany.

1812 - Napoleon's campaign to Russia. Patriotic War in Russia.

1812-1814 - War of France with the VI coalition (England, Russia, Prussia, Austria)

1814 - Treason of the French minister Ch. M. Talleyrand, the entry of the allies into Paris.

1814 - Restoration of the Jesuit Order by Pope Pius VII.

1814-1815 - Congress of Vienna. Restoration in France.

1815 - "One Hundred Days" of Napoleon.

1815 - War of France with the VII coalition. Battle of Waterloo.

1815-1830 - Restoration in France.

1821 - Military intervention of Austria in the Kingdom of Naples and Piedmont.

1821-1829 - Greek national liberation revolution.

1827 - Battle of Navarino of the united Russian-Anglo-French fleet against the Turkish fleet.

1830 - July Revolution in France.

1830-1831 - Belgian revolution. Formation of the Kingdom of Belgium.

1830-1831 - Polish uprising in the Russian Empire.

1830-1848 - The July Monarchy in France.

1832 - Parliamentary reform in England.

1834 - Vienna conference on the fight against revolutionary movements.

1837-1901 - The reign of Queen Victoria I in England.

1848 - February revolution in France. The fall of the July monarchy.

1848 - Publication of the Communist Manifesto in London.

1848-1849 - Revolution in the Austrian Empire. The suppression of the Hungarian revolution by Russian troops, and the Italian revolution by Austrian troops.

1848-1849 - The bourgeois democratic revolution in Germany.

1851 - Coup in France by Louis Napoleon, restoration of the monarchy (from 1852)

1852-1871 - Second Empire in France.

1853-1856 - Crimean War: Turkey, England, France, Sardinia against Russia.

1858 - The East India Campaign is liquidated, India is declared a possession of the crown.

1859 - Austro-Franco-Sardinian War.

1861 - Proclamation of the Italian Kingdom.

1861 - Founding of the First International in London.

1861 - Abolition of serfdom in Russia.

1864 - War of Austria and Prussia against Denmark for Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg.

1866 - Austro-Prussian ("Thirty Day") War for hegemony in Germany. Victory of Prussia.

1867 - Invasion of D. Garibaldi at the head of the "red shirts" in the Papal States.

1867-1868 - War of England against Ethiopia.

1870-1871 - Franco-Prussian War. Fall of the Second Empire.

1870-1940 - The Third Republic in France.

Recent history.

1871 - Communes in Lyon, Marseille, Paris. May "bloody week" in Paris.

1871 - Formation of a unified German Empire.

1871-1890 - Otto Bismarck - Reich Chancellor of the German Empire.

1871-1878 - "Kulturkampf" in Germany.

1873 - "Union of Three Emperors" (Austria, Germany, Russia)

1877-1878 - Russian-Turkish war.

1879 - Austro-German Union.

1880 - Dissolution of the Jesuit Order in France.

1881 - Renewal of the "Union of the Three Emperors"

1881 - The conquest of Tunisia by the French. The beginning of the colonial advance of France in Africa.

1882 - The Triple Alliance of Austria, Germany and Italy.

1882 - The occupation of Egypt by England.

1884 - Legalization of trade unions in France.

1884 - The beginning of the colonial conquests of Germany in Africa.

1885 - Construction of vehicles with internal combustion engines in Germany.

1887 - The collapse of the "Union of three emperors"

1890 - Anglo-French treaty on the delimitation of spheres of influence in Africa.

1891-1921 - Erfurt program of the German Social Democrats.

1893 - First Congress of Free Trade Unions in Auto-Hungary.

1894-1906 - The Dreyfus espionage case in France, which had a great public response.

1895 - The Lumiere brothers invented the cinema.

1895 - Anglo-Russian delimitation agreement in Central Asia.

1896 - Creation of the Irish Socialist Republican Party.

1898 - Anglo-French colonial conflict in Africa.

1899 - Anglo-French convention on the division of colonial possessions in Africa.

1899 - The Hague International Conference on the Limitation of Arms, convened at the initiative of Russia.

1899-1902 - Anglo-Boer War.

1903 - The first flight of the brothers W. and O. Wright on an airplane with an internal combustion engine designed by them.

1904 - Anglo-French agreement. The beginning of the formation of the Entente.

1907 - Anglo-Russian agreement on Asian politics. Registration of the Alliance of the Entente (England, France, Russia)

1908 - Revolution of the Young Turks in Ottoman Empire.

1908 - The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria-Hungary.

1909 - An attempt at a counter-revolutionary coup in Turkey.

1911 - General workers' strike in Great Britain.

1911-1912 - Italo-Turkish war. Capture of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica by Italy.

1912-1913 - Balkan crisis.

1912-1913 - War of Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece against Turkey. Shaking Turkey Macedonia, Thrace, Albania and Elephant.

1913 - War of Serbia, Greece, Romania and Turkey against Bulgaria.

1913-1920 - Presidency of R. Poincaré ("Poincaré War") in France.

Peace between the two world wars.

1914-1918 - World War I. Deaths of 9.5 million people.

1914 - Battle of the Marne.

1914 - The encirclement of the Russian armies in East Prussia. The offensive of Russian troops in Galicia.

1915 - Warsaw-Ivangorod operation. The advance of German troops into the depths of the Russian Empire.

1915 - Italy entered the war on the side of the Entente countries, and Bulgaria on the side of Germany and Austria.

1915 - Zimmerwald conference of left socialists against the war.

1916 - Franco-German battle for Verdun. Anglo-German battle of the Somme.

1916 - Galician operation (Brusilov breakthrough) of the Russian troops.

1916 - Romania's entry into the war, its defeat by the Germans and the formation of the Romanian front.

1916-1922 - Lloyd George David - Prime Minister of Great Britain.

1917 - February bourgeois-democratic revolution in Russia. Overthrow of the monarchy. Transfer of power to the Provisional Government.

1917 - The United States entered the war on the side of the Entente countries.

1917 - October Revolution in Russia.

1918 - Brest-Litovsk separate peace between Soviet Russia and Germany.

1918 - "Second Marne". Retreat of German troops from positions on the Marne.

1918 - Berlin Revolution. Fall of the German Empire.

1918-1919 - Bavarian Republic.

1918-1923 - National liberation revolution in the Ottoman Empire.

1919 - Hungarian Republic.

1919 - Slovak Republic.

1919 - Formation of the Comintern.

1919 - Signing of the Versailles Peace Treaty and adoption of the Weimar Constitution in Germany.

1919 - Peace Treaty in Saint Germain. Collapse of Austria-Hungary.

1919-1946 - The League of nations.

1920 - Treaty of Sevres between Turkey and the Entente countries. Transfer of a significant part of the former Ottoman Empire to England, France, Italy and Greece.

1922 - Genoa Conference on Economic and Financial Issues.

1922 - Establishment of the fascist regime in Italy.

1922 - Lausanne Peace Conference. Signing a peace treaty with Turkey.

1923 - Formation of the Workers' Socialist International.

1925 - Locarno Conference. The conclusion by Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain and Italy of the Rhine Guarantee Pact on the inviolability of the German-French and Belgian-German borders and the preservation of the demilitarized Rhine zone.

1926 - A coup d'état in Poland. Establishment of the regime of J. Pilsudski.

1928 - Signing by 15 states (France, USA, Germany, Great Britain, Japan, etc.) in Paris of the Kellogg-Briand pact on the renunciation of war as an instrument of national policy.

1931 - Adoption of the Westminster Statute by the British Parliament, granting the dominions sovereign rights in the field of foreign and domestic policy... Conversion of the British Empire into the British Commonwealth of Nations.

1931 - Spain is proclaimed a republic.

1933 - Victory of the National Socialist Workers' Party of Germany in the elections to the Reichstag, party leader - Adolf Hitler - Reich Chancellor. Establishment of a fascist regime in Germany.

1934 - "Night of the Long Knives" in Germany. Hitler proclaims himself the Fuehrer (leader) of the German nation.

1934 - The defeat of the anti-fascist uprising in Vienna and the victory of the anti-fascists in Paris.

1935 - Creation of the Popular Front in France.

1936 - Agreement on cooperation between Germany and Italy (creation of the Berlin-Rome axis)

1936 - Occupation of the Rhine Demilitarized Zone by Germany.

1936 - Victory of the Popular Front in the elections in Spain.

1936 - Abdication of the English King Edward VIII from the throne because of his love for Wallis Simpson.

1936-1939 - The Spanish Civil War.

1938 - "Kristallnacht" (Jewish pogrom) in Germany.

1938 - Munich Agreement between England, France, Germany and Italy on the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia.

1938 - Creation of the IV International in Paris.

1939 - The capture of Czechoslovakia and Klaipeda by Germany.

1939 - The occupation of Albania by Italy.

1939 - Establishment of a fascist regime led by Francisco Franco in Spain.

1939 - Signing of the Soviet-German non-aggression pact ("Molotov-Ribbentrop pact"). USSR annexation of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus.

1939-1940 - Soviet-Finnish war.

1940 - The invasion of Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg and France by German troops. Capitulation of Denmark, Holland, Belgium, Norway and France.

1940-1945, 1951-1955 - Winston Churchill - Prime Minister of Great Britain.

1940 - annexation of Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina by the USSR.

1940 Italy enters the war on the side of Germany.

1940 - The establishment of the fascist regime in Romania.

1940 - The Tripartite Pact between Germany, Italy and Japan is signed in Berlin. Creation of the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo axis.

1941 - German invasion of Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and Greece. Division of Yugoslavia between Italy, Bulgaria and Hungary. Formation of Serbia and Croatia.

1941 - German attack on the USSR along the entire line of the western border.

1941 - Soviet counteroffensive near Moscow. Failure of the myth of the invincibility of the German troops.

1942 - Washington Conference. Signing of the United Nations Declaration by representatives of 26 countries. Legal registration of the anti-Hitler coalition.

1942 - The beginning of the Holocaust - the mass extermination of Jews in Europe.

1943 - The beginning of the general offensive of the Soviet troops. The turning point in the course of the war.

1943 - The collapse of the fascist regime in Italy. Italy's surrender and her declaration of war on Germany. Formation of the fascist republic of Salo led by Mussolini in Northern Italy.

1943 - Tehran conference of the Big Three.

1944 - Restoration of the state border of the USSR. The entry of Soviet troops into Poland, Romania and Bulgaria.

1944 - Landing of the Allies in France. The opening of the second front.

1944 - the dissolution of the Comintern.

1944 - Liberation of Florence, Paris, Brussels, Antwerp, Belgrade, Warsaw.

1944 - An armistice agreement between the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition and Romania, Bulgaria, Finland and Poland.

1945 - Yalta conference of the heads of state of the "Big Three", which determined the foundations of the post-war world order.

1945 - Berlin operation. Meeting on the Elbe in the Torgau area of ​​the Soviet and allied troops.

1945 - UN Conference in San Francisco. Development and adoption of the UN Charter.

1945 - Formation of the provisional government of Austria, which restored the state independence of the country.

1945 - Execution of Mussolini and suicide of Hitler.

1945 - Signing of the act of complete and unconditional surrender of Germany. The end of the Great Patriotic War THE USSR.

1945 - Berlin (Potsdam) conference.

1945 - Americans test a nuclear bomb for the first time in an attack on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

1945 - Japan surrenders. End of World War II.

Europe after World War II.

1945 - Proclamation of the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia.

1945-1946 - International Military Tribunal in Nuremberg, which condemned the crimes of fascism.

1946 - Proclamation of the People's Republic of Bulgaria.

1946 - Speech by Winston Churchill at Fulton. The beginning of the Cold War.

1946 - Formation of the People's Republic of Albania.

1946 - Proclamation of the Republic of Hungary (since 1949 - Hungarian People's Republic)

1947 - Proclamation of the Romanian People's Republic.

1948 - Adoption by 17 European countries of a program to restore the development of Europe after World War II by providing it with US economic assistance.

1949 - Creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): USA, Great Britain, Belgium, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, France and Canada for the purpose of joint defense against the enemy under the UN Charter.

1949 - Formation of the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA): USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania and Czechoslovakia.

1949 - Adoption of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) and the proclamation of the German Democratic Republic (GDR)

1949 - Creation of the Council of Europe (CoE), an inter-parliamentary body of European countries with the aim of protecting "Western principles and ideals."

1951-1964 - Conservative rule in Great Britain, retaining most of Labor's transformations, but shrinking the size of the public sector and lowering social spending in order to strengthen the financial system.

1952 - Greece and Turkey joined NATO.

1953 - Anti-communist riots of the workers of the GDR.

1953-1958 - Algerian War.

1953-1980 - Josip Broz Tito - President of Yugoslavia.

1955 - Germany joins NATO.

1955 - Conclusion of the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance between the USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Romania and Czechoslovakia (Warsaw Pact Organization)

1956 - Anti-communist riots in Poland and Hungary. The entry of Soviet troops into Hungary.

1957 - Creation of the European Economic Community (EEC), or "Common Market" (France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg) under the Rome Treaty

198 - Adoption of the Constitution of the V Republic in France.

1958 - Creation of the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM), whose main task was to coordinate the development of nuclear energy in Western Europe.

1958-1968 - Charles de Gaulle is the President of France.

1960 - World conference in Moscow, in which representatives of 81 communist parties participate.

1961 - Soviet-American conflict. The threat of a third world war.

1961 - Construction of the Berlin Wall.

1963 - Prohibition Treaty nuclear tests in the atmosphere and under water.

1966 - Charles de Gaulle's visit to Moscow.

1968 - "Prague Spring". The invasion of Czechoslovakia by five Warsaw Pact countries.

1968 - Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons.

1968 - Conclusion by the EEC countries of an agreement on the creation of a customs union, which provided for the free movement of goods, capital, services and labor.

1972 - Opening of preliminary meetings in Helsinki for the preparation of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE)

1973 - Accession to the EEC of Great Britain, Denmark, Ireland.

1975 - the signing by 33 European states, the USA and Canada of the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE), which consolidated the principles of interstate relations between countries with different social systems.

1977 - Belgrade Conference on Monitoring the Implementation of the Helsinki Agreements.

1979 - The EEC countries concluded an agreement on the creation of the European Monetary System and on the formation of an advisory body to the European Parliament.

1979-1990 - Margaret Thatcher - Prime Minister of Great Britain.

1982 - Spain joins NATO.

1986 - Adoption by the EEC countries (since 1986 of the European Community [EU]) of a Single European Act - a program for the further development of integration. Accession to the EU of Spain, Portugal.

1986-1991 - "Perestroika" in the USSR.

1988 - Resignation of the head of the communist regime of Hungary J. Kadar.

1989 - Conducting free democratic elections in Poland.

1989 - "Velvet Revolution" in Czechoslovakia. The fall of the communist regime in the country.

1989 - Resignation of the head of the communist regime in Bulgaria T. Zhivkov.

1989 - Resignation of the head of the communist regime in the GDR E. Honecker.

1989 - Reduction of Soviet nuclear weapons in the countries of Central and of Eastern Europe... 1989 - Revolution in Romania. The arrest of the head of the communist regime N. Ceausescu, his trial and execution.

1990 - Lech Walesa, leader of the Solidarity movement, won the presidential elections in Poland.

1990 - Unification of Germany.

1990 - Paris Conference of OSCE Leadership Countries. Adoption of the Treaty on Conventional Arms in Europe, the Joint Declaration and the Charter for new Europe that consolidated the new principles of European security, taking into account the changes that have occurred in the countries of Eastern Europe since 1989.

1990 - Disintegration of the Union of Communists of Yugoslavia (SKYU). Creation of the Socialist Party of Yugoslavia (SPY), the successor to the SKY. SPY leader Slobodan Milosevic is the head of Yugoslavia.

1991 - First free democratic elections in Albania.

1991 - Formation of the European Union.

1991 - Proclamation of the state independence of Macedonia.

1991 - Proclamation of the state independence of Slovenia and Croatia. The invasion of Croatia by the Yugoslav army. The beginning of the civil war in Yugoslavia.

1991 - The collapse of the USSR and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), which included 11 of the 15 republics of the former Soviet Union.

1991 - Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact and CMEA.

1992 - Formation of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) within Serbia and Montenegro. Ethnic cleansing. Adoption of international sanctions against Yugoslavia and its exclusion from the CSCE.

1992 - Proclamation of the state independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The beginning of the military confrontation between Muslim Bosnians, Catholics Croats and Orthodox Serbs

1993 The disintegration of Czechoslovakia into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

1994 Creation of a political, economic, monetary union "Europe without borders". Agreements on joining the EU signed for Austria, Norway, Finland, Sweden

1995 Signing in Paris by the delegations of Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina of the Dayton Agreement on the Bosnian issue. The proclamation of Bosnia and Herzegovina as a single state and the dispatch of UN troops to it.

1995 NATO aircraft bombardment of Serb positions in Bosnia.

1996 Russia's accession to the Council of Europe

1996 Creation of the Union of Russia and Belarus

1997 Signing by Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Luxembourg, Holland and Portugal of the Schengen Agreement on visa-free regime

1998 Creation of the Kosovo Liberation Army (OAK), which launched a guerrilla struggle in Kosovo (a region of Serbia inhabited by Albanians) to separate the region from Yugoslavia. Ethnic cleansing in Kosovo

1999 NATO bombing of Serbia. The deployment of UN peacekeeping forces in Kosovo. Yugoslavia's severance of diplomatic relations with NATO countries

1999 Accession of Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic to NATO

1999 Transition of 12 EU member states to a single non-cash currency - the euro.

2000 "Velvet Revolution" in Yugoslavia. The fall of the Milosevic regime

2000 Signing of an agreement between Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan on the establishment of the Eurasian Economic Union and a collective security system for joint: repelling external aggression and conducting counter-terrorism operations

2001-2002 Participation of European NATO countries in the US counter-terrorist operation against the Taliban in Afghanistan. Support

counter-terrorist operation by all European countries, including the CIS countries.

2002. Abolition of national currencies of the EU countries. Introduction of cash euro.

Table new states of europe 11 class sergeev ulunyan

Answer: Kerensky Alexander Fedorovich 2 This man was nicknamed by his contemporaries the "chief persuader" of the Russian revolution, because he: Answer: a Task 4 1 What was the goal and program of the Kornilov movement? Question 2: What groups of the population in Russia were the main producers of bread? Svyatopolk-Mirsky, proclaiming a course of cooperation between the authorities and the zemstvos Answer: in Foreign policy.

Partial or complete copying of site materials without the written permission of the site administration is prohibited! It still exists and is called the Vatican. Prove your opinion on the facts. After discussion, each group puts forward its own version of the task.

Table new states of europe 11 class sergeev ulunyan

European countries in the 1920s - 1930s Having emerged victorious from the World War, Great Britain began to play a significant role in the political life of Europe and the world. The internal political line of the government was entirely aimed at restoring the domestic economy, burdened by the world war. Compared to other victorious countries, Great Britain was unable to get ahead in terms of its economic development, but was only able to restore its pre-war level. At the same time, as in other countries of Western Europe, the standard of living in Great Britain increased. The capitalist model of the Great Britain economy allowed industry to quickly free itself from the military-state tutelage and expand significantly. As in other Western countries, the UK saw an increase in business activity and an increase in trade. The development of the commercial and industrial base made it possible to "draw" large strata of English society into the orbit of entrepreneurship. These organizations, defending the rights of workers, during this period of time became a fairly powerful force of influence in the UK. In 1925, when the government cut government funding for the coal industry, mine owners began to cut miners' wages, shut down inefficient, inefficient, unprofitable mines, and lay off miners en masse. In response, UK trade unions declared a general strike in May 1926. The government's forceful measures against the workers almost led to a social explosion and revolution. In fact, only concession from the trade unions did not lead English society into protracted conflict. Some of the workers went on strike until 1927, without obtaining any concessions from the capitalists. As in the rest of the Western world, in France in the 1920s there was an increase in industrial production, the rise of trading companies, and an economic boom. France's economic growth was 40% of the pre-war level. It was a country whose citizens believed that all the horrors of the war were behind them, and that they should now enjoy life, because they led a measured rhythm of life, trying to forget the monstrous losses of the war, to erase all the worst from their memory. "Anything, but not war" - this was a kind of attitude of French society. The rapid industrial growth turned into a catastrophic recession associated with the World financial crisis of 1929-1933. Just like in other Western countries, where the crisis was raging, in France there was a tendency towards a fall in industrial production. In the midst of the crisis, unprofitable enterprises were closed, which led to massive layoffs and an increase in unemployment. The French, like other residents of "crisis countries", were acutely worried about the times that had come. The dissatisfaction that was growing day by day poured into ever-widening support for the so-called People's Front, which united all left and center-left political forces. As in other Western countries, in France at this time a middle class of society emerges, which largely influences politics and is the very pillar on which the economic development of the state rests. The growth of capital investment, mostly by the middle class, contributed to the growth of the economy as a whole. On the whole, the world economic crisis has revealed the main problem of capitalist society - the coming crises, which only intensify with each new repetition.

The French, like other residents of "crisis countries", were acutely worried about the times that had come. Failure of the offensive of Russian troops at the front Reason for the start of mass demonstrations Information about Russia's readiness to continue the war until victory got to the press The government was preparing an offensive to approach the end of the war and raise the patriotic spirit Retreat Russian army... Often you have to read in relation to America in the 20s. Stolypin proposed to introduce zemstvos only in those provinces of the region where a significant number of the Russian population lived. Stalin to the forced industrialization of the country. In Argentina, the furnaces of steam locomotives were stoked with grain. The Versailles-Washington system could not resolve all controversial issues of international relations, because. The program of municipalization of land: the transfer of confiscated landlord's land to the ownership of local authorities while maintaining small peasant ownership of land belongs to: the Bolsheviks. A decree was issued on November 9, 1906. Stolypin was categorically against the idea of ​​compulsory alienation of part of the landlord's lands. The question of the return of the debts of the Russian tsarist government was decided: at the Genoa conference in 1922, Makarov, and at the Battle of Tsushima 4 3.

The borders of the new republic were determined at the Paris Peace Conference. France, striving to create several large states around Germany, supported the inclusion in the new state of territories inhabited not only by Czechs and Slovaks, but also by Germans in the Sudetenland, Hungarians and Ukrainians in Transcarpathia. As a result, about a third of the country's population was made up of Germans, Hungarians and Ukrainians.

Major reforms were carried out in Czechoslovakia. The nobility lost all privileges. An 8-hour working day was established and social security introduced. Land reform eliminated large German and Hungarian landholdings. The 1920 Constitution consolidated the democratic system that had developed in Czechoslovakia. As one of the most industrialized countries in Europe, Czechoslovakia was distinguished by a relatively high standard of living and political stability.

Hungary

On October 31, 1918, the Emperor of Austria-Hungary and at the same time the King of Hungary, Charles IV, instructed the Hungarian Count M. Karolyi to form a government of democratic parties. This government was guided by the Entente and tried to keep Hungary within its pre-war borders. On November 16, 1918, Hungary was proclaimed a republic. But democracy in Hungary did not succeed. The Hungarian communists (and these were mainly prisoners of war who took part in the revolution in Russia, who joined the RCP (b) there and returned home after the Brest Peace) called for a revolution and began to create Soviets throughout the country on the Russian model.

The Entente "helped" them to come to power. In an ultimatum, her representative demanded the release of the territories that were to be transferred to Hungary's neighbors. It was about Slovakia, Croatia, which became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, as well as Transylvania, which was transferred to Romania. The ultimatum was perceived in the country as a national disaster. The Entente turned Hungary into a small state, landlocked. The government and Karolyi himself resigned. It seemed that there was only one way out of this crisis - to try to rely on the help of Soviet Russia in an attempt to defend the country's territorial integrity. This step could not have been carried out without the communists.

On March 21, 1919, they and the Social Democrats united and bloodlessly proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic. Banks, industry, transport, and large land holdings were nationalized. Communist leader Bela Kun became People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and proposed an "armed alliance" with Russia. This call was supported in Moscow. Two Red Armies tried to break through to each other, while the Hungarian armies pushed back the Czechoslovak troops and entered the Transcarpathian Ukraine. But the connection never happened. On July 24, the offensive of the Czechoslovak and Romanian armies began. On August 1, the Soviet government in Hungary resigned. Soon Romanian troops entered Budapest. Power in Hungary passed to anti-communist groups that advocated the restoration of the monarchy. Under these conditions, parliamentary elections were held in 1920.

Before the final decision on the question of monarchy, former Vice-Admiral Miklos Horthy was elected regent of Hungary. After becoming regent, Horthy concentrated considerable power in his hands, but the country retained a parliament and a multi-party system. Only the activities of the communists were banned, the leading figures of the Soviet Republic were brought to trial.

In the summer of 1920, the new government signed a peace treaty. According to it, Hungary lost 2/3 of its territory, 1/3 of its population and access to the sea. 3 million Hungarians ended up in neighboring states, and Hungary itself received 400 thousand refugees.

Austria

After the signing of a truce by Austria-Hungary, this state collapsed, all non-German regions of the country seceded. In Austria itself, on October 30, 1918, the Provisional National Assembly and the State Council, a coalition government headed by Social Democrat Karl Renner, assumed power. The Provisional National Assembly abolished the monarchy. Most politicians believed that little Austria could not survive. It was decided to seek the entry of Austria into Germany. But the great powers in Paris forbade this, not wanting to strengthen Germany. The will of the Austrians was ignored. The terms of the peace treaty that Austria was forced to sign were unusually difficult for her. It has become a stump-state. For centuries, the emerging economic ties of Austria with Hungary and the Slavic lands were artificially severed, the country lost access to the sea. Vienna, the former center of a huge empire and rivaling in grandeur and splendor with London, Paris and St. Petersburg, became the capital of a small state. Austria was prohibited from unification (Anschluss) with Germany.

Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes

The Yugoslavian peoples, which were part of Austria-Hungary, united around Serbia and created the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes on December 4, 1918. However, the Serbs sought to occupy a leading position in this state. At the same time, they did not want to reckon with the interests of other peoples, which were very different from each other, despite their common origin (Croats and Slovenes - Catholics, Macedonians, Montenegrins and the Serbs themselves - Orthodox, part of the Slavs adopted Islam, the Albanians - non-Slavs, professing in the majority Islam). This almost immediately made the national question the main source of instability in the new state. At the same time, the main contradiction was between the Serbs and Croats - the two largest peoples of the country. The authorities tried to suppress any discontent. King Alexander in January 1929 decided to dissolve parliament and ban political parties. The country became known as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which was supposed to symbolize the "national unity" of the population. In response, Croatian nationalists, the Ustasha, killed the king in 1934. Only in 1939, the ruling regime decided to make concessions on the national question: the creation of an autonomous Croatian region was announced.

Poland

Having lost its independence and divided in the 18th century, Poland fought for more than a century to restore its statehood. During the First World War, the Entente countries supported the demands of the Poles. In 1918 Poland gained independence. It was headed by Józef Pilsudski.

One of the most pressing problems of the new Poland was its borders. Poland's western borders were defined at the Paris Peace Conference. Pilsudski tried to recreate the eastern ones in the form in which they were in 1772, when the state, in addition to the Polish lands proper, included the whole of Belarus, Lithuania, part of Latvia and the Right-Bank Ukraine. Such plans could not fail to meet opposition from the peoples inhabiting these territories. They also contradicted the principle of self-determination of peoples, which was the basis for the post-war reconstruction.

In December 1919, the High Council of the Entente established the "Curzon Line" as the temporary border of Poland in the east, named after the British Foreign Secretary. This line ran along the approximate border of residence of Poles, on the one hand, and Ukrainians, Belarusians and Lithuanians, on the other. However, relying on the support of France, which saw a strong Poland as a reliable counterbalance to Germany in the east, Pilsudski could ignore this decision. This was also facilitated by the weakness of the states that had just proclaimed their independence (Lithuania, Ukraine, Belarus) after the collapse of the Russian Empire.

Polish troops consistently established control over Galicia (this part of Ukraine was part of Austria-Hungary before World War I), the Vilnius region of Lithuania, and in May 1920 they occupied Kiev. Here the Polish army entered into hostilities with the Red Army. She launched a counteroffensive, drove the Poles back and at the end of July 1920 approached the "Curzon Line". The Bolsheviks considered it possible to continue the offensive in order to push the revolution in Poland and the rest of Europe. The Red Army crossed the "Curzon Line", a revolutionary government was created on the territory of Poland. For the Poles, this meant that Poland could lose its newly acquired independence. A new national uprising and emergency French military aid allowed Pilsudski to prepare and carry out a successful counteroffensive on the Vistula. The Red Army was forced to retreat.

In March 1921, the parties signed a peace treaty in Riga. The Soviet-Polish border passed east of the "Curzon Line", and the western part of Ukraine and Belarus was part of Poland. Soon the Poles again seized the Vilna region from Lithuania. This is how the borders of Poland were formed, in which a third of the population were non-Poles. The Soviet-Polish war was the first war waged by the new Polish state: for many years it determined the hostility in relations between Poland and the USSR.

In 1921, a constitution was adopted, proclaiming a parliamentary republic in the country. On its basis, elections were held to the Polish parliament - the Seim. In foreign policy, Poland, being in an alliance with France since 1921, pursued an anti-German and anti-Soviet policy.

In addition to Poland, after the collapse of the Russian Empire, several more states arose. The revolution gave impetus to national movements, which began to put forward demands for independence. The Declaration of the Rights of the Peoples of Russia, adopted in early November 1917 by the Council of People's Commissars, recognized the right to self-determination of peoples up to secession from Russia. At the same time, the Bolsheviks assumed that in the national borderlands the revolution would lead to the establishment of Soviet power and that close ties would remain between the self-determined borderlands and Russia. However, not all events began to develop according to this pattern.

Finland

Finland was granted independence on December 31, 1917. In January 1918, the left-wing Social Democrats and the Finnish Red Guard, with the help of the Bolsheviks, tried to establish Soviet power. They captured the capital of Finland, Helsinki, industrial centers in the south of the country, created a revolutionary government, which concluded a treaty of friendship with Soviet Russia. In addition, after the proclamation of independence, parts of the Russian army remained on the territory of Finland, supporting the rebels. The Finnish government moved to the city of Vasa, located on the coast of the Gulf of Bothnia, and began to form a national army, entrusting this to the former Russian general K.G.E. Mannerheim.

The presence of Russian troops gave Mannerheim a reason to ask for help from Germany. In early April 1918, about 10,000 German soldiers landed in Finland. The rebels were defeated. But the country turned out to be dependent on Germany, plans for the proclamation of Finland as a kingdom and an invitation to the throne of a German prince were discussed.

After the defeat of Germany in the First World War, a republic was proclaimed in Finland, german troops left the country. Before the formation of elected bodies of power, the new state was headed by Mannerheim. Soviet-Finnish relations remained tense for a long time.

Lithuania

The territory of the future independent Lithuania was occupied by German troops in 1915. Under the auspices of Germany, the Lithuanian Tariba (Assembly) was created there, headed by A. Smetona. On December 11, 1917, she proclaimed the re-establishment of the Lithuanian state. Germany recognized the independence of Lithuania, forcing Soviet Russia to recognize it in the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty.

However, after the Armistice of Compiegne, the Red Army invaded Lithuania. Soviet Power was proclaimed in the country. But soon the Red Army was driven out with the help of volunteer detachments, which consisted of the remnants of the German army. In April 1919, the Lithuanian Tariba adopted an interim constitution and elected A. Smetona as president.

However, the power of Smetona at first was purely nominal. Part of the country's territory was occupied by the Polish army, the north of Lithuania was controlled by German troops, and relations with Soviet Russia remained unsettled. The Entente countries were suspicious of the representatives of the new government, seeing them as German henchmen. It was decided to send the newly formed Lithuanian army to clear the territory of German troops, then, on the basis of anti-Polish interests, it was possible to normalize relations with Soviet Russia. An agreement was signed with her, according to which the Vilna region was recognized as Lithuanian.

In the Soviet-Polish war, Lithuania adhered to neutrality, but Soviet Russia handed over the Vilnius region to it, from which the Polish troops were driven out. However, after the retreat of the Red Army, the Poles again seized this territory, and there were continuous clashes between the Polish and Lithuanian armies. Only in November 1920, with the mediation of the Entente countries, was an armistice concluded. In 1923, the League of Nations recognized the fact of the annexation of the Vilnius region to Poland. Kaunas became the capital of Lithuania. As compensation, the League of Nations agreed with the seizure of Memel (Klaipeda) by Lithuania on the coast of the Baltic Sea - German territory that came under the control of France after the World War. In 1922, the Constituent Seimas adopted the Constitution of Lithuania. She became a parliamentary republic. An agrarian reform was carried out, during which large landholdings, mainly Polish, were eliminated. As a result of this reform, about 70 thousand peasants received land.

Latvia and Estonia

The territories of Latvia and Estonia, which were part of the Russian Empire, were captured by the German army by February 1918. According to the Brest Peace Treaty, Soviet Russia recognized the separation of Latvia and Estonia.

Germany planned to create a Baltic Duchy here, headed by one of the representatives of the Prussian Hohenzollern dynasty. But after the Armistice of Compiegne, Germany transferred power in Latvia to the government of K. Ulmanis, and in Estonia to the government of K. Päts, who proclaimed the independence of their states. Both governments consisted of representatives of democratic parties.

Almost simultaneously, an attempt was made to establish Soviet power here. Units of the Red Army entered Estonia and Latvia. In the struggle against Soviet troops, the governments of Ulmanis and Päts were forced to rely on the help of the German army, and after its evacuation, on volunteer detachments consisting of Baltic Germans and soldiers of the German army. From December 1918, aid to these governments began to come from the British, their squadron came to Tallinn.

In 1919, the Soviet troops were driven out. Reorienting to the Entente and creating national armies, the governments of Ulmanis and Päts drove out the German troops. In 1920, the RSFSR recognized the new republics. They held elections to the Constituent Assembly and adopted constitutions. An important role in stabilization inner life these states played, as in Lithuania, agrarian reforms. Large land holdings, which belonged mainly to German barons, were liquidated. Tens of thousands of peasants received land on favorable terms. In foreign policy, Latvia and Estonia were guided by England and France.

Ukraine, Belarus, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia

In addition to Finland, Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia, Ukraine, Belarus, Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia also proclaimed independence during these years. Soviet Russia at first recognized the independence of these states, but then the local Bolsheviks, with the help of the Red Army, established Soviet power, proclaimed independent Soviet republics, which in 1922 became part of the USSR.

Consequences of the formation of new states

The formation of new states in Eastern Europe was an important event in the life of its peoples. But, having proclaimed the principles of self-determination of peoples as the basis for national-state delimitation, the great powers, when defining the boundaries of new states, repeatedly violated them themselves or closed their eyes when they were violated by others. As a result of such a redistribution of borders, areas arose with a compact residence of national minorities (Germans, Lithuanians, Ukrainians and Belarusians in Poland, Germans, Hungarians and Ukrainians in Czechoslovakia, Hungarians and Ukrainians in Romania). The peoples of Yugoslavia and Slovaks in Czechoslovakia felt their inequality. This made the new states a hotbed of ethnic conflicts.

In addition, by agreeing with the formation of several relatively small states in Central Europe in place of the three empires, having mutual claims to each other, the great powers got a region of constant political instability. There was a kind of "Balkanization" of the whole of Eastern Europe. This fatally affected the fate of the Versailles-Washington system and the new states themselves.

A.A. Kreder Recent history foreign countries. 1914-1997