The most significant discoveries in medicine. Scientific discovery: they learned how to turn brown eyes into blue. Artificial heart AbioCor

In the first two decades of the 21st century, science has been enriched by a number of discoveries that, in the long term, can significantly affect the quality of life of every person. What is worth only obtaining stem cells from the skin of an adult, which makes it possible to grow the necessary organs without the use of embryonic cells!

The fundamental discovery of gravitational waves gives humanity hope for travel between the stars, and super-capacious batteries will soon be produced from the new material graphene. However, first things first: in the rating below, we tried to systematize the most important scientific discoveries of the 21st century in terms of their significance for humanity.

TOP 10 most significant scientific discoveries of the XXI century

10. BIONICS. Designed bioprostheses controlled by the power of thought

More recently, lost limbs were replaced by plastic dummies or even hooks. In the past two decades, science has made huge strides in creating bioprostheses that can be controlled by the power of thought and even transfer the sensations from artificial fingers to the brain. In 2010, the English firm RSLSteeper introduced a bioprosthesis hand, with which a person can open doors with a key, break eggs into a frying pan, withdraw money from an ATM, and even hold a plastic cup.

It is easy to crush a disposable glass with excessive force, but scientists have achieved that the force of squeezing fingers can be varied. Control signals for this are taken from the pectoral muscles of the body.

Another company, Bebionic, in 2016 made a bionic prosthetic hand for the disabled Nigel Ackland, which can not only be controlled by the power of thought. In addition to this, the product is equipped with sensitivity sensors connected to the nerve endings of the stump. In this way, feedback is achieved so that the patient can feel touch and warmth. So far, bioprostheses are quite expensive, but thanks to the development of 3D printing, their wider availability is predicted in the near future.

9. BIOTECHNOLOGIES. World's first synthetic bacterial cell created

In 2010, a team of scientists led by Craig Venter achieved a breakthrough in an ambitious project to create nothing less than new life. Biologists took the genome of the bacterium Mycoplasma genitalium and systematically, one by one, removed genes from it to determine the minimum set necessary for life. It turned out that it should include 382 genes that make up, as it were, the basis of life. After that, scientists already "from scratch" made up an artificial genome, which was transplanted into a cell of the bacterium Mycoplasma capricolum, from which its own DNA complexes were previously removed.

The artificial cell, which even got its own name - Cynthia, turned out to be viable and began to actively divide.

This success opens up vast opportunities for biotechnologists to create much more complex organisms with given parameters. Already, artificial cells are being constructed that can produce vaccines and even fuel for cars, and in the future, biologists hope to create a bacterium that would absorb carbon dioxide. Such a microorganism could help eliminate the greenhouse effect on Earth, as well as terraform Mars and Venus.

This is what the world's first proliferating artificial Cynthia cell looks like under an electron microscope

8. ASTROPHYSICS. Discovered the planet Eris and water on Mars

Two “space” finds can be attributed to the largest discoveries of the 21st century. In 2005, a group of American astronomers from the Gemini Observatory, Yale and California Universities discovered a celestial body moving beyond the orbit of Pluto. Further studies have shown that the small planet, called Eris, is only slightly inferior in size to Pluto. In 2006, this celestial body was photographed by the Hubble orbiting telescope, discovering a fairly large satellite revolving around it, called Dysnomia. It is assumed that Eris is similar in physical characteristics to Pluto, and its surface is most likely covered with bright white ice, since the albedo (reflectivity) of the planetoid is second only to Saturn's moon Enceladus.

The second largest discovery of the 21st century in research solar system is the discovery of water on Mars. Back in 2002, the Odyssey orbiter detected signs of water ice beneath the planet's surface. In 2005, the European apparatus "Mars-Express" photographed craters with clear traces of water flows, and the American probe "Phoenix" finally dispelled doubts. In 2008, he landed in the vicinity of the North Pole and, in one of his experiments, he successfully isolated water from the Martian soil. The guaranteed presence of moisture on the Red Planet removes the main limitation for its colonization. America plans to launch a manned mission to Mars as early as the 2030s, and Russia is also developing a nuclear engine for this purpose.

7. NEUROLOGY. For the first time recorded and rewritten memories in the brain

In 2014, researchers at the University of Massachusetts succeeded in implanting false memories into the memory of experimental mice. They had fiber optic wires implanted in their heads, connected to areas of the brain responsible for memory formation. According to them, scientists gave laser signals that acted on certain parts of neurons. As a result, it was possible to achieve both the erasure of some of the memories of mice and the formation of false ones. For example, rodents forgot that in a certain area of the cage they once had pleasant encounters with females and no longer sought to go there. At the same time, scientists were able to create new memories that the “dangerous” compartment of the cage was actually attractive and the mice tried to be there.

At first glance, these results look like child's play, and even with dubious ethical overtones. Meanwhile, neurophysiologists have succeeded in the main thing - to find the parts of the brain responsible for memory (the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex) and create, albeit still primitive, methods of influencing them. This gives broad prospects for improving the ways of influencing the brain, and in the future will allow the treatment of phobias and mental disorders. It is possible that in the foreseeable future it will be possible to create devices for batch downloading data into the human brain for fast learning in sciences that require memorizing a large amount of data, for example, it will be possible to master a foreign language in the shortest possible time.

6. PHYSICS. Higgs boson or 'God particle' discovered

In July 2012, a discovery took place, for which 6 billion dollars were spent, invested in the construction of the Large Hadron Collider (CERN) near Geneva. Scientists have discovered the so-called. "particle of God", the existence of which was predicted back in the 60s by the British physicist Peter Higgs. She was named after him. Thanks to the experimental proof of the existence of the Higgs boson, fundamental physics has received the last missing link for constructing a prenormalizable quantum field theory. This theory is a continuation of classical quantum mechanics, but it qualitatively changes the view of the picture of the microcosm and the Universe as a whole.

The practical significance of the discovery of the Higgs boson is that scientists open up the prospect of developing antigravity and developing engines that do not require energy to operate.

To do this, you need "nothing at all" - to learn how to clean the so-called. Higgs field, which binds elementary particles, preventing them from flying apart. In this case, the mass of an object with a neutralized field will be equal to zero, which means that it will no longer take part in the gravitational interaction. Of course, such discoveries are a matter of a very distant future.

5. MATERIAL SCIENCE. Created ultra-strong material graphene

Graphene is a material unique in strength and many other properties, which was first obtained by Russian physicists (working in Britain) Konstantin Novoselov and Andrey Geim in 2004. Six years later, scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize for this, and today graphene is actively researched and already used in some products. The unusualness of the material lies in several of its features. Firstly, it is the second most durable (after carbine) of the currently known materials. Secondly, graphene is an excellent conductor, which can be used to achieve unique electronic effects. Thirdly, the material has the highest thermal conductivity, which, again, allows it to be used in semiconductor electronics without fear of overheating.

Special hopes are placed on graphene in terms of its use in high-capacity batteries, which are so lacking in electric vehicles.

In 2017, Samsung introduced one of the first graphene-based batteries with a capacity 45% higher than that of its comparable lithium-ion counterpart. But most importantly, the new battery is charged and gives a charge 5 times faster than usual. It is noteworthy that we are not talking about a fully graphene, but about a hybrid battery, where the innovative material is used as an auxiliary. If, more precisely, when the developers create a completely graphene battery, this will become a real revolution in the energy sector. The main problem in the widespread use of graphene is the high cost of obtaining it and the shortcomings in technologies that do not yet allow obtaining an absolutely homogeneous material. However, already now the number of applications for patents using graphene has gone off scale for 50 thousand, so there is no doubt that in the foreseeable future, an unusual material will significantly affect the quality of life of people.

4. BIOLOGY. Stem cells obtained not from embryos, but from mature tissues

In 2012, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to the English biologist John Gurdon and his Japanese colleague Shin Yamanaka. They made a real sensation among biotechnologists, creating stem cells from ordinary cells, i.e. able to form any organs. To do this, scientists introduced only 4 genes into mouse connective tissue cells, and as a result, fibroblasts turned into immature stem cells with all the properties of embryonic ones. Any organ can be grown from such material - from the liver to the heart.

Thus, the researchers not only theoretically, but also practically proved the reversibility of cell specialization, which cannot be overestimated.

Until recently, it was believed that stem cells could only be obtained from embryos or cord blood. The first is ethically dubious, and the second forced people (mostly wealthy) to bank stem cells immediately after the birth of a child so that in the future he could use it for treatment. The discovery of physiologists removed these restrictions and now every person (at least theoretically) has access to stem cell treatment and cloning of organs containing the body's "native" DNA.

3. ASTROPHYSICS. The existence of gravitational waves has been proven

The discovery of gravitational waves is considered the greatest scientific achievement of 2016, and possibly the entire second decade of the 21st century. In 2017, their discoverers - Rainer Weiss, Barry Barish and Kip Thorne were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. With the help of two interferometric observatories LIGO and VIRGO located in the USA and Italy, scientists managed to fix gravitational waves formed as a result of the merger of two black holes at a distance of 1.3 billion light years from the Sun.

Thus, the researchers experimentally confirmed the reliability of Einstein's General Theory of Relativity, which predicted the presence of gravitational waves at the beginning of the 20th century (at the level of theory).

Subsequently, LIGO and VIRGO recorded two more gravitational bursts from the collision of neutron stars. The outstanding value of the discovery lies in the confirmation of the curvature of space-time under the influence of massive objects. This means that the spaceship travels through "null-space" and "hyper-transitions" described thousands of times by science fiction writers are quite possible, although they are the prospect of a distant future. It is probably no coincidence that one of the discoverers of gravitational waves, Kip Thorne, published a book based on his research, Interstellar. Science Behind the Scenes”, the title of which echoes the famous film.

Something like this, according to Einstein, looks like space-time in the vicinity of the Sun, curved under the influence of a massive star. This pattern has now been experimentally proven.

2. PHYSICS. Conducted successful experiments on long-range quantum teleportation

Quantum teleportation does not mean the movement of physical objects, but the transfer of information about the state of an elementary particle or atom. The most important point here is the distance – until the beginning of the 21st century, such a connection could only be provided at the level of the microworld. A breakthrough year was 2009, when scientists from the University of Maryland managed to transfer the quantum state of the ytterbium ion to 1 meter. Then the initiative in this direction of research was firmly intercepted by Chinese scientists.

First, they managed to provide quantum communication at a distance of 120 km, and in 2017, they carried out the first space quantum teleportation from the Mo-Tzu satellite to three ground-based laboratories, which were 1203 km away.

Such a scientific and technological leap will allow in the near future to create absolutely secure communication lines that even theoretically cannot be hacked by hackers. In an environment where the financial, business and private life increasingly moving to the Internet, lines based on quantum teleportation promise to become a real panacea in the field of information security. In addition, ultra-fast computers are being developed based on this communication method, which in the future will replace existing ones.

1. CYBERNETICS. Created a robot with a biological brain

In 2008, scientists from England created, perhaps, the world's first cyborg - a half-dead robot with a brain based on 300,000 rat neurons. They were isolated from a rodent embryo, separated using a special enzyme and placed in a nutrient solution on an 8 cm plate. Scientists attached 60 electrodes to the resulting quasi-brain, which read signals from neurons and transmit them to an electronic circuit. They also serve to deliver signals to the brain. The first robot with a biological brain got its own name - Gordon, was equipped with a platform for movement and an ultrasonic sensor that scanned the area while driving. Signals from it go to the brain, and the impulses and feedback that arise there control the movement.

The researchers were able to achieve Gordon's learning ability, since neurons have memory. Having rested against an obstacle only once, the robot in 80% of cases no longer travels along an unsuccessful route. At the same time, as scientists say, Gordon is not controlled from the outside, but is controlled exclusively by the gray matter inherited from the rat. Thus, the British have taken the first step towards creating full-fledged cyborgs based on not tens of thousands, but billions of neurons, which, most likely, will happen before the end of this century.

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The past year has been very fruitful for science. Special progress scientists have achieved in the field of medicine. made amazing discoveries, scientific breakthroughs and created many useful medicines that will certainly soon be freely available. We invite you to familiarize yourself with the ten most amazing medical breakthroughs of 2015, which are sure to make a serious contribution to the development of medical services in the very near future.

In 2014, the World Health Organization warned everyone that humanity was entering the so-called post-antibiotic era. And she turned out to be right. Since 1987, science and medicine have not produced really new types of antibiotics. However, diseases do not stand still. Every year, new infections appear that are more resistant to existing drugs. It has become a real world problem. However, in 2015, scientists made a discovery that they believe will bring dramatic changes.

Scientists have discovered a new class of antibiotics from 25 antimicrobials, including a very important one called teixobactin. This antibiotic destroys microbes by blocking their ability to produce new cells. In other words, microbes under the influence of this drug cannot develop and develop resistance to the drug over time. Teixobactin has so far proven to be highly effective in the fight against resistant Staphylococcus aureus and several bacteria that cause tuberculosis.

Laboratory tests of teixobactin were carried out on mice. The vast majority of experiments have shown the effectiveness of the drug. Human trials are due to begin in 2017.

Doctors have grown new vocal cords

One of the most interesting and promising areas in medicine is tissue regeneration. In 2015, a new item was added to the list of artificially recreated organs. Doctors from the University of Wisconsin have learned to grow human vocal cords from virtually nothing.

A group of scientists led by Dr. Nathan Welhan bioengineered a tissue that can mimic the work of the mucous membrane of the vocal cords, namely the tissue that is represented by two lobes of the cords, which vibrate to create human speech. Donor cells, from which new ligaments were subsequently grown, were taken from five volunteer patients. In the laboratory, in two weeks, scientists grew the necessary tissue, after which they added it to an artificial model of the larynx.

The sound created by the resulting vocal cords is described by scientists as metallic and compared to the sound of a robotic kazoo (a toy wind musical instrument). However, scientists are confident that the vocal cords they have created in real conditions (that is, when implanted into a living organism) will sound almost like real ones.

In one of the latest experiments on lab mice grafted with human immunity, the researchers decided to test whether the body of rodents would reject the new tissue. Fortunately, this did not happen. Dr. Welham is confident that the tissue will not be rejected by the human body either.

Cancer drug could help Parkinson's patients

Tisinga (or nilotinib) is a tested and approved drug commonly used to treat people with signs of leukemia. However, a new study from Georgetown University Medical Center shows that Tasinga's drug may be a very powerful tool for controlling motor symptoms in people with Parkinson's disease, improving their motor function and controlling the non-motor symptoms of the disease.

Fernando Pagan, one of the doctors who conducted this study, believes that nilotinib therapy may be the first of its kind effective method to reduce the degradation of cognitive and motor function in patients with neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease.

The scientists gave increased doses of nilotinib to 12 volunteer patients for six months. All 12 patients who completed this trial of the drug to the end, there was an improvement in motor functions. 10 of them showed significant improvement.

The main objective of this study was to test the safety and harmlessness of nilotinib in humans. The dose of the drug used was much less than that dose that is usually given to patients with leukemia. Despite the fact that the drug showed its effectiveness, the study was still conducted on a small group of people without involving control groups. Therefore, before Tasinga is used as a therapy for Parkinson's disease, several more trials and scientific studies will have to be done.

The world's first 3D printed chest

Over the past few years, 3D printing technology has penetrated many areas, leading to amazing discoveries, developments and new production methods. In 2015, doctors from the Salamanca University Hospital in Spain performed the world's first surgery to replace a patient's damaged chest with a new 3D printed prosthesis.

The man suffered from a rare type of sarcoma, and the doctors had no other choice. To avoid spreading the tumor further throughout the body, experts removed almost the entire sternum from a person and replaced the bones with a titanium implant.

As a rule, implants for large parts of the skeleton are made from a wide variety of materials, which can wear out over time. In addition, the replacement of such a complex articulation of bones as the sternum bones, which are usually unique in each individual case, required doctors to carefully scan a person's sternum in order to design an implant of the right size.

It was decided to use as a material for a new sternum. After performing high-precision 3D CT scans, scientists used a $1.3 million Arcam printer to create a new titanium chest. The operation to install a new sternum for the patient was successful, and the person has already completed a full course of rehabilitation.

From skin cells to brain cells

Scientists from California's Salk Institute in La Jolla devoted the past year to research on the human brain. They have developed a method for transforming skin cells into brain cells and have already found several useful applications for the new technology.

It should be noted that scientists have found a way to turn skin cells into old brain cells, which simplifies their further use, for example, in research on Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases and their relationship with the effects of aging. Historically, animal brain cells have been used for such research, but scientists in this case were limited in their capabilities.

More recently, scientists have been able to turn stem cells into brain cells that can be used for research. However, this is a rather laborious process, and the result is cells that are not able to imitate the brain of an elderly person.

Once researchers developed a way to artificially create brain cells, they turned their attention to creating neurons that would have the ability to produce serotonin. And although the resulting cells have only a tiny fraction of the capabilities of the human brain, they are actively helping scientists in research and finding cures for diseases and disorders such as autism, schizophrenia and depression.

Contraceptive pills for men

Japanese scientists at the Microbial Disease Research Institute in Osaka have published a new scientific paper, according to which, in the not too distant future, we will be able to produce real-life contraceptive pills for men. In their work, scientists describe studies of the drugs "Tacrolimus" and "Cyxlosporin A".

These drugs are usually used after organ transplants to suppress immune system organism so that it does not reject the new tissue. The blockade occurs due to inhibition of the production of the calcineurin enzyme, which contains the PPP3R2 and PPP3CC proteins normally found in male semen.

In their study on laboratory mice, the scientists found that as soon as the PPP3CC protein is not produced in the organisms of rodents, their reproductive functions are sharply reduced. This prompted the researchers to conclude that an insufficient amount of this protein can lead to sterility. After more careful study, experts concluded that this protein gives the sperm cells the flexibility and the necessary strength and energy to penetrate the membrane of the egg.

Testing on healthy mice only confirmed their discovery. Only five days of using the drugs "Tacrolimus" and "Cyxlosporin A" led to complete infertility of mice. However, their reproductive function fully recovered just a week after they stopped giving these drugs. It is important to note that calcineurin is not a hormone, so the use of drugs in no way reduces sexual desire and excitability of the body.

Despite the promising results, it will take several years to create real male birth control pills. About 80 percent of mouse studies are not applicable to human cases. However, scientists still hope for success, as the effectiveness of the drugs has been proven. In addition, similar drugs have already passed human clinical trials and are widely used.

DNA seal

3D printing technologies have led to a unique new industry - printing and selling DNA. True, the term “printing” here is more likely to be used specifically for commercial purposes, and does not necessarily describe what is actually happening in this area.

The chief executive of Cambrian Genomics explains that the process is best described by the phrase "error checking" rather than "printing." Millions of pieces of DNA are placed on tiny metal substrates and scanned by a computer, which selects the strands that will eventually make up the entire DNA strand. After that, the necessary links are carefully cut out with a laser and placed in a new chain, pre-ordered by the client.

Companies like Cambrian believe that in the future, people will be able to use special computing equipment and software create new organisms just for fun. Of course, such assumptions will immediately cause the righteous anger of people who doubt the ethical correctness and practical usefulness of these studies and opportunities, but sooner or later, no matter how we want it or not, we will come to this.

Now, DNA printing is showing little promise in the medical field. Drug makers and research companies are among the first customers of companies like Cambrian.

Researchers at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden have gone one step further and have begun to create various figurines from DNA strands. DNA origami, as they call it, may at first glance seem like ordinary pampering, but this technology also has practical potential for use. For example, it can be used for delivery medicines into the body.

Nanobots in a living organism

In early 2015, the field of robotics won a big victory when a group of researchers from the University of California, San Diego announced that they had carried out the first successful tests using nanobots that performed their task from inside a living organism.

In this case, laboratory mice acted as a living organism. After placing the nanobots inside the animals, the micromachines went to the stomachs of the rodents and delivered the cargo placed on them, which was microscopic particles of gold. By the end of the procedure, scientists noted no damage. internal organs mice and thereby confirmed the usefulness, safety and effectiveness of nanobots.

Further tests showed that more particles of gold delivered by nanobots remain in the stomachs than those that were simply introduced there with a meal. This prompted scientists to think that nanobots in the future will be able to deliver the necessary drugs into the body much more efficiently than with more traditional methods their introductions.

The motor chain of the tiny robots is made of zinc. When it comes into contact with the body's acid-base environment, a chemical reaction occurs that produces hydrogen bubbles that propel the nanobots inside. After some time, the nanobots simply dissolve in the acidic environment of the stomach.

Although the technology has been in development for nearly a decade, it wasn't until 2015 that scientists were able to actually test it in a living environment, rather than in conventional petri dishes, as had been done so many times before. In the future, nanobots can be used to detect and even treat various diseases of internal organs by influencing individual cells with the right drugs.

Injectable brain nanoimplant

A team of Harvard scientists has developed an implant that promises to treat a number of neurodegenerative disorders that lead to paralysis. The implant is an electronic device consisting of a universal frame (mesh), to which various nanodevices can later be connected after it has been inserted into the patient's brain. Thanks to the implant, it will be possible to monitor the neural activity of the brain, stimulate the work of certain tissues, and also accelerate the regeneration of neurons.

The electronic grid consists of conductive polymer filaments, transistors, or nanoelectrodes that connect intersections. Almost the entire area of the mesh is made up of holes, which allows living cells to form new connections around it.

As of early 2016, a team of scientists from Harvard is still testing the safety of using such an implant. For example, two mice were implanted in the brain with a device consisting of 16 electrical components. Devices have been successfully used to monitor and stimulate specific neurons.

Artificial production of tetrahydrocannabinol

For many years, marijuana has been used medicinally as a pain reliever and, in particular, to improve the condition of patients with cancer and AIDS. In medicine, a synthetic substitute for marijuana, or rather its main psychoactive component, tetrahydrocannabinol (or THC), is also actively used.

However, biochemists at the Technical University of Dortmund have announced the creation of a new species of yeast that produces THC. What's more, unpublished data indicate that the same scientists created another type of yeast that produces cannabidiol, another psychoactive ingredient in marijuana.

Marijuana contains several molecular compounds that are of interest to researchers. Therefore, the discovery of an effective artificial way to create these components in large quantities could bring medicine great benefit. However, the method of conventional cultivation of plants and the subsequent extraction of the necessary molecular compounds is now the most effective way. Within 30 percent of the dry weight of modern marijuana can contain the right THC component.

Despite this, Dortmund scientists are confident that they will be able to find a more effective and fast way THC mining in the future. To date, the yeast created has been re-grown on molecules of the same fungus instead of the preferred alternative of simple saccharides. All this leads to the fact that with each new batch of yeast, the amount of free THC component also decreases.

In the future, scientists promise to optimize the process, maximize THC production and scale up to industrial needs, which will ultimately meet the needs of medical research and European regulators who are looking for new ways production of tetrahydrocannabinol without growing marijuana itself.

In the 21st century, it is difficult to keep up with scientific progress. AT last years we have learned how to grow organs in laboratories, artificially control the activity of nerves, invented surgical robots that can perform complex operations.

As you know, in order to see into the future, it is necessary to remember the past. We present seven great scientific discoveries in medicine, thanks to which it was possible to save millions of human lives.

body anatomy

In 1538, the Italian naturalist, the "father" of modern anatomy, Vesalius presented the world with a scientific description of the structure of the body and the definition of all human organs. He had to dig up corpses for anatomical studies in the cemetery, since the Church forbade such medical experiments.

Now the great scientist is considered the founder of scientific anatomy, craters on the moon are named after him, stamps are printed with his image in Hungary, Belgium, and during his lifetime, for the results of his hard work, he miraculously escaped the Inquisition.

Vaccination

Now many health professionals believe that the discovery of vaccines is a colossal breakthrough in the history of medicine. They prevented thousands of diseases, stopped the general mortality and to this day prevent disability. Some even believe that this discovery surpasses all others in the number of lives saved.

The English physician Edward Jenner, since 1803 the head of the smallpox lodge in the city on the Thames, developed the world's first vaccine against "God's terrible punishment" - smallpox. By inoculating a harmless cow disease virus to humans, he provided immunity to his patients.

Anesthesia drugs

Just imagine surgery without anesthesia, or surgery without pain relief. True, frost on the skin? 200 years ago, any treatment was accompanied by torment and wild pain. For example, in Ancient Egypt before the operation, the patient was deprived of consciousness by squeezing the carotid artery. In other countries, they gave water to drink with a decoction of hemp, poppy or henbane.

The first experiments with anesthetics - nitrous oxide and ethereal gas - were launched only in the 19th century. The revolution in the minds of surgeons occurred on October 16, 1986, when an American dentist, Thomas Morton, extracted a tooth from a patient using ether anesthesia.

X-rays

On November 8, 1895, based on the work of one of the most diligent and talented physicists of the 19th century, Wilhelm Roentgen, medicine acquired a technology capable of diagnosing many diseases in a non-surgical way.

This scientific breakthrough, without which the work of any medical institution is now impossible, helps to identify many diseases - from fractures to malignant tumors. X-rays are used in radiation therapy.

Blood type and Rh factor

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the greatest achievement of biology and medicine took place: experimental studies by the immunologist Karl Landsteiner made it possible to identify the individual antigenic characteristics of erythrocytes and avoid further fatal exacerbations associated with the transfusion of mutually exclusive blood groups.

The future professor and Nobel Prize winner proved that the blood group is inherited and differs in the properties of red blood cells. Subsequently, it became possible to heal the wounded and rejuvenate the unhealthy with the help of donated blood - which is now a common medical practice.

Penicillin

The discovery of penicillin gave rise to the era of antibiotics. Now they save countless lives, cope with most of the most ancient lethal diseases, such as syphilis, gangrene, malaria and tuberculosis.

The British bacteriologist Alexander Fleming took the lead in discovering an important medicinal product when he accidentally discovered that a fungus had killed bacteria in a petri dish lying in a laboratory sink. His work was continued by Howard Flory and Ernst Boris, isolating penicillin in a purified form and putting it on a mass production line.

Insulin

It is difficult for mankind to return to the events of a hundred years ago and believe that the sick diabetes were doomed to death. It wasn't until 1920 that Canadian scientist Frederick Banting and his colleagues identified the pancreatic hormone insulin, which stabilizes blood sugar levels and has a multifaceted effect on metabolism. Until now, insulin reduces the number of deaths and disabilities, reduces the need for hospitalization and expensive drugs.

The above discoveries are the starting point for all further advances in medicine. However, it is worth remembering that all promising opportunities are open to humanity thanks to the already established facts and the works of our predecessors. The editors of the site invite you to get acquainted with the most famous scientists in the world.

Conditioned reflexes

According to Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, the development of a conditioned reflex occurs as a result of the formation of a temporary neural connection between groups of cells in the cerebral cortex. If you develop a strong conditioned food reflex, for example, to light, then such a reflex is a first-order conditioned reflex. On its basis, a second-order conditioned reflex can be developed; for this, a new, previous signal, for example, a sound, is additionally used, reinforcing it with a first-order conditioned stimulus (light).

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov studied conditional and unconditioned reflexes human

If the conditioned reflex was reinforced only a few times, it fades quickly. Almost as much effort has to be expended on its restoration as in its primary production.
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Modern medicine has not yet responded to the most terrible challenges of the 20th century, such as cancer, HIV, adaptive bacteria and hybrid viruses, but the horizons of ongoing research give hope that a panacea is achievable. Today, scientific research intersects with the dreams of psychotherapy about the drug correction of human behavior, reaches devices that replace pharmaceutical chemistry, and rests on the treasury of the gene, where recipes for incurable ailments are encoded in DNA molecules. For the foreseeable future, it will be possible to give injections without needles, take pills for racism, relieve headaches at the touch of a button, and treat Down syndrome at the embryonic level. The following is a list of breakthroughs in modern medicine that promise to make our life, if not better, then definitely completely different.

Contraceptives for men

Scientists from the Dana-Faber Cancer Institute in Boston (USA) have managed to develop a drug that can make a real revolution in the field of non-hormonal contraception for men. Its active substance is JQ1, a chemical compound that selectively slows down the testis-specific protein bromodomain and blocks spermogenesis. At the same time, the drug does not have a sedative and anxiolytic effect. JQ1 has been tested in mice and shown to be highly effective. At the same time, the reproductive ability of animals was quickly restored after the effect of the drug ended. Experts estimate that about ⅓ of couples in the world prefer to use condoms, avoiding birth control pills and other contraceptives for women. It is believed that most of the cases of unplanned pregnancies occur precisely in such unions.

Cure for bad memories

Scientists from the University of Montreal (Canada) managed to find a drug that reduces a person's need to access difficult memories. This is not Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind yet, but already a significant step towards correcting the work of human memory. A drug called metyrapone has actually been around for a long time, used to treat adrenal insufficiency. However, experts have found that the effect of metyrapone on stress levels may be much more beneficial. The drug reduces the production of cortisol, a hormone that is produced by the adrenal glands in stressful situations. Studies have shown that medically lowering cortisol levels in such situations reduces painful memories and creates a positive outlook on events. During the tests, the participants of the experiment were told stories in which there were neutral and negative elements of the plot. The people who had previously taken metyrapone were able to remember the former in much greater detail than the latter four days later, while the participants in the study who received the placebo instead of the drug remembered both neutral and negative details perfectly.

Neurostimulator against migraines and cluster headaches

ATI specialists presented to the public a neurostimulator that helps relieve cluster headaches and migraines. An almond-sized device is placed through a small incision in the gum into the area of the basilar palatine ganglion, a limited cluster of neurons located along one of the cranial nerves in the region of the nose. The neurostimulator is activated using an external remote control: if necessary, the patient simply brings it to the cheek. The device turns on, blocks the main palatine ganglion, and the pain subsides or weakens. According to studies in Europe, 68% of patients responded well to therapy: they reduced the intensity or frequency of pain, and sometimes both. The use of a neurostimulator against cluster headaches in the EU has already begun. IN THE USA public administration The Food and Drug Administration has so far approved its use for research purposes only.

The cure for hypertension and racism

According to scientists from Oxford University (UK), a drug called propanolol, which doctors prescribe for coronary disease heart, hypertension and other diseases, can also reduce the level of racism. The study, which was conducted by specialists, involved 36 people. Half of them took propanolol and the other half took placebo pills. According to the results of a psychological test, which was then conducted by scientists, it turned out that the first group showed a significantly lower level of subconscious aggression in relation to representatives of other peoples and races. The reason is that the active substances of propanolol reduce the activity of neurons and, as a side effect, affect the intensity of subconscious fears, including those associated with foreigners. One of the co-authors of the study, Julian Savulescu, a professor in the Department of Philosophy at the University of Oxford, said: “Such studies confirm that our unconscious attitude to something can be modeled using pills. Such possibilities require careful ethical analysis. Biological research, which aimed to make people better, dark story. And propranolol is not a pill for racism. But given the fact that a huge number of patients are already taking drugs that have "moral" side effects we at least need to understand what they are.”

Chromosome Therapy

Scientists from the University of Massachusetts (USA) managed to “turn off” an extra copy of the 21st chromosome, which is responsible for the development of Down syndrome in humans. Despite the fact that the experiments were carried out in vitro, this study is of great practical importance. In the future, it will help develop chromosome therapy for unborn children with trisomy (Down syndrome, Patau syndrome, Edwards syndrome) or even symptomatic treatment for those who have already been born. As part of the study, experts used stem cells obtained from the skin tissue of a patient with Down syndrome. They introduced a genetic "switch" into the extra copy of the 21st chromosome - the XIST gene. This gene is present in all female mammals and is responsible for the inactivation of one of the two X chromosomes. When XIST is expressed, an RNA molecule is synthesized that covers the surface of the chromosome like a blanket and blocks the expression of all its genes. Scientists managed to regulate the work of XIST with the help of the antibiotic doxycycline. As a result, the problematic copy of chromosome 21 stopped working, and the diseased stem cell turned into a healthy one.

New cure for hangovers and alcoholism

Researchers from the University of California at Los Angeles (USA) managed to isolate a substance that can reduce the negative effects of intoxication, prevent hangovers and reduce cravings for drinking. It turned out to be dihydromyricetin or DHM, which is obtained from the fruits of the Chinese subspecies of the candy tree (Hovenia dulcis). In Chinese medicine, extracts from them have been used against a hangover for about five centuries. During the study, scientists injected experimental rats with a dose of alcohol equivalent to 20 cans of beer drunk by an adult male. Then the “drunk” rodents were turned over on their backs so that they lost their orientation in space. Rats that did not receive dihydromyricetin could not restore coordination of movements for about 70 minutes, while animals that were given an antidote along with alcohol were able to recover after five minutes. The scientists also noted that DHM significantly reduced the craving for alcohol in animals: rats that received it, even after three months of regular intake of “alcohol”, chose sweetened water instead of alcohol. Skeptics, however, doubt that dihydromyricetin will really help people suffering from alcoholism. After all, if the medicine saves from a hangover, dizziness and nausea, the temptation is great to drink more, not less.

Determining the level of sugar in the blood, tests and injections without needles

Newly developed by the American company Echo Therapeutics, the Prelude SkinPrep System and Symphony CGM System devices allow injections, blood tests, and blood sugar control of diabetic patients without injections. The devices painlessly remove the keratinized layer of the skin (its thickness is about 0.01 mm) and increase its permeability to liquids and electrical conductivity. As a result, it is possible to gain access to tissue fluids without violating the integrity of the skin. The blood sugar monitor is equipped with a wireless transmitter and is attached to the patient's skin like a patch. Every minute, the machine sends data to a monitor that detects changes in the patient's blood sugar levels and sends a visual and audible alarm if the readings become too low or too high. The device is designed primarily for hospitals.

"Targeted" cure for multiple sclerosis

Scientists from Northwestern University (USA) were able to find a way to treat multiple sclerosis without drugs that depress the immune system as a whole. This discovery was preceded by about 30 years of work. Specialists managed to "teach" the body of patients with atherosclerosis to specifically suppress autoreactive T-lymphocytes that attack myelin - a substance that forms an electrically insulating sheath of neurons in the optic nerve, spinal cord and brain. To do this, doctors injected patients with their own white blood cells, into which billions of myelin antigens were added by genetic engineering. As a result, the level of activity of the immune system in relation to the shell of neurons decreased by 50-75%, which, at the same time, did not affect its work in general. Scientists admit that their first experimental group was too small to draw definitive conclusions. But they hope to soon receive funds for new, larger studies.

3D mammography for early cancer detection

The Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore (USA) has begun using the Hologic device, which, along with the usual 2D images, allows you to do 3D mammography of the mammary glands. In one session, the device creates 15 images at an angle of 15 degrees, and then displays images of slices with a thickness of 1 mm. This gives doctors the ability to see distortions in breast tissue in much greater detail than conventional 2D mammography and diagnose breast cancer much earlier. “If this disease can be quickly detected and treated before metastases appear, the survival rate over the next five years is more than 98%,” said Susan K. Harvey, director of breast radiology at Johns Hopkins Hospital. “In addition, less surgery is required early on and chemotherapy is often not needed.” However, the researchers note that there is a risk of missing a calcification with 3D mammography. Preinvasive cancerous tumors (the so-called "cancer in situ", when the tumor does not grow into the underlying tissue, and its cells die at the same rate as they divide), represented by calicifications, are better diagnosed using 2D studies.

A revolutionary drug for the treatment of prostate cancer

In the UK in 2011, a drug appeared, the development of which experts called a real revolution in oncology. A drug called abiraterone in 80% of cases reduces the size of the tumor or stabilizes it even at the final stage of cancer, when metastases occur, and also significantly relieves pain. Abiraterone blocks androgen synthesis by inhibiting the CYP17 enzyme. This leads to a significant decrease in testosterone levels, which is the main "fuel" for the development of prostate cancer. The medicine, unfortunately, is not universal: it cannot help patients with an aggressive form of cancer. However, it is able to increase the life expectancy of such patients, at least twice, and improve its quality.

The past year has been very fruitful for science. Special progress scientists have achieved in the field of medicine. Mankind has made amazing discoveries, scientific breakthroughs and created many useful medicines that will certainly soon be freely available. We invite you to familiarize yourself with the ten most amazing medical breakthroughs of 2015, which are sure to make a serious contribution to the development of medical services in the very near future.

Discovery of teixobactin

In 2014, the World Health Organization warned everyone that humanity was entering the so-called post-antibiotic era. And indeed, she was right. Science and medicine have not produced, indeed, new types of antibiotics since 1987. However, diseases do not stand still. Every year, new infections appear that are more resistant to existing drugs. It has become a real world problem. However, in 2015, scientists made a discovery that, in their opinion, will bring dramatic changes.

Scientists have discovered a new class of antibiotics from 25 antimicrobials, including a very important one called teixobactin. This antibiotic destroys microbes by blocking their ability to produce new cells. In other words, microbes under the influence of this drug cannot develop and develop resistance to the drug over time. Teixobactin has now proven to be highly effective against resistant Staphylococcus aureus and several bacteria that cause tuberculosis.

Laboratory tests of teixobactin were carried out on mice. The vast majority of experiments have shown the effectiveness of the drug. Human trials are due to begin in 2017.

Doctors have grown new vocal cords

One of the most interesting and promising areas in medicine is tissue regeneration. In 2015, a new item was added to the list of artificially recreated organs. Doctors from the University of Wisconsin have learned to grow human vocal cords, in fact, from nothing.
A group of scientists led by Dr. Nathan Welhan bioengineered to create a tissue that can mimic the work of the mucous membrane of the vocal cords, namely, that tissue, which is represented by two lobes of the cords, which vibrate to create human speech. Donor cells, from which new ligaments were subsequently grown, were taken from five volunteer patients. In the laboratory, in two weeks, scientists grew the necessary tissue, after which they added it to an artificial model of the larynx.

The sound created by the resulting vocal cords is described by scientists as metallic and compared to the sound of a robotic kazoo (a toy wind musical instrument). However, scientists are confident that the vocal cords created by them in real conditions (that is, when implanted in a living organism) will sound almost like real ones.

Cancer drug could help Parkinson's patients

Tisinga (or nilotinib) is a tested and approved drug commonly used to treat people with signs of leukemia. However, a new study by Georgetown University Medical Center shows that Tasinga's drug may be a very powerful tool for controlling motor symptoms in people with Parkinson's disease, improving their motor function and controlling the disease's non-motor symptoms.

The main objective of this study was to test the safety and harmlessness of nilotinib in humans. The dose of the drug used was much less than the dose usually given to patients with leukemia. Despite the fact that the drug showed its effectiveness, the study was still conducted on a small group of people without involving control groups. Therefore, before Tasinga is used as a therapy for Parkinson's disease, several more trials and scientific studies will have to be done.

The world's first 3D printed chest

Over the past few years, 3D printing technology has penetrated many areas, leading to amazing discoveries, developments and new production methods. In 2015, doctors from the Salamanca University Hospital in Spain performed the world's first surgery to replace a patient's damaged chest with a new 3D printed prosthesis.

It was decided to use a titanium alloy as the material for the new sternum. After performing high-precision 3D CT scans, the scientists used a $1.3 million Arcam printer to create a new titanium chest. The operation to install a new sternum for the patient was successful, and the person has already completed a full course of rehabilitation.

From skin cells to brain cells

Scientists from California's Salk Institute in La Jolla devoted the past year to research on the human brain. They have developed a method for transforming skin cells into brain cells and have already found several useful applications for the new technology.

It should be noted that scientists have found a way to turn skin cells into old brain cells, which simplifies their further use, for example, in research on Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases and their relationship with the effects of aging. Historically, animal brain cells were used for such research, however, scientists, in this case, were limited in their capabilities.

Contraceptive pills for men

Japanese scientists at the Microbial Disease Research Institute in Osaka have published a new scientific paper, according to which, in the not too distant future, we will be able to produce real-life contraceptive pills for men. In their work, scientists describe studies of the drugs "Tacrolimus" and "Cyxlosporin A".

Typically, these drugs are used after organ transplants to suppress the body's immune system so that it does not reject the new tissue. The blockade occurs due to inhibition of the production of the calcineurin enzyme, which contains the PPP3R2 and PPP3CC proteins normally found in male semen.

Testing on healthy mice only confirmed their discovery. Only five days of using the drugs "Tacrolimus" and "Cyxlosporin A" led to complete infertility of mice. However, their reproductive function was fully restored just a week after they stopped giving these drugs. It is important to note that calcineurin is not a hormone, so the use of drugs in no way reduces sexual desire and excitability of the body.

DNA seal

3D printing technologies have created a unique new industry - printing and selling DNA. True, the term “printing” here is more likely to be used specifically for commercial purposes, and does not necessarily describe what is actually happening in this area.

The chief executive of Cambrian Genomics explains that the process is best described by the phrase "error checking" rather than "printing." Millions of pieces of DNA are placed on tiny metal substrates and scanned by a computer, which selects the strands that will eventually make up the entire DNA strand. After that, the necessary connections are carefully cut out with a laser and placed in a new chain, previously ordered by the client.

Companies like Cambrian believe that in the future humans will be able to create new organisms just for fun with special computer hardware and software. Of course, such assumptions will immediately cause the righteous anger of people who doubt the ethical correctness and practical usefulness of these studies and opportunities, but sooner or later, no matter how we want it or not, we will come to this.

Now, DNA printing is showing little promise in the medical field. Drug makers and research companies are among the first customers for companies like Cambrian.

Researchers at the Karolinska Institute in Sweden have gone one step further and have begun to create various figurines from DNA strands. DNA origami, as they call it, may at first glance seem like ordinary pampering, however, this technology also has practical potential for use. For example, it can be used in the delivery of drugs to the body.

Nanobots in a living organism

In early 2015, the field of robotics won a big victory when a group of researchers from the University of California, San Diego announced that they had carried out the first successful tests using nanobots that performed their task from inside a living organism.

In this case, laboratory mice acted as a living organism. After placing the nanobots inside the animals, the micromachines went to the stomachs of the rodents and delivered the cargo placed on them, which was microscopic particles of gold. By the end of the procedure, the scientists did not notice any damage to the internal organs of mice and, thus, confirmed the usefulness, safety and effectiveness of nanobots.

Injectable brain nanoimplant

A team of Harvard scientists has developed an implant that promises to treat a number of neurodegenerative disorders that lead to paralysis. The implant is an electronic device consisting of a universal frame (mesh), to which various nanodevices can later be connected after it has been inserted into the patient's brain. Thanks to the implant, it will be possible to monitor the neural activity of the brain, stimulate the work of certain tissues, and also accelerate the regeneration of neurons.

By early 2016, a team of scientists from Harvard is still testing the safety of using such an implant. For example, two mice were implanted in the brain with a device consisting of 16 electrical components. Devices have been successfully used to monitor and stimulate specific neurons.

Artificial production of tetrahydrocannabinol

For many years, marijuana has been used medicinally as a pain reliever and, in particular, to improve the condition of patients with cancer and AIDS. In medicine, a synthetic substitute for marijuana, or rather its main psychoactive component, tetrahydrocannabinol (or THC), is also actively used.

Marijuana contains several molecular compounds that are of interest to researchers. Therefore, the discovery of an effective artificial way to create these components in large quantities could be of great benefit to medicine. However, the method of conventionally growing plants and then extracting the necessary molecular compounds is now the most efficient way. Within 30 percent of the dry weight of modern marijuana can contain the right THC component.

Despite this, Dortmund scientists are confident that they will be able to find a more efficient and faster way to extract THC in the future. By now, the created yeast is re-growth on molecules of the same fungus, instead of the preferred alternative in the form of simple saccharides. All this leads to the fact that with each new batch of yeast, the amount of free THC component also decreases.

In the future, the scientists promise to streamline the process, maximize THC production and scale up to industrial use, which will ultimately meet the needs of medical research and European regulators who are looking for new ways to produce THC without growing marijuana itself.