Who opened the machine with a mechanical support. Screw-cutting lathe with a mechanized support and a set of interchangeable gears. The history of the invention of the lathe and turning
Lathe - a machine for cutting (turning) workpieces made of metals, wood and other materials in the form of bodies of revolution. On lathes, they perform turning and boring of cylindrical, conical and shaped surfaces, threading, trimming and end processing, drilling, countersinking and reaming holes, etc. The workpiece receives rotation from the spindle, the cutter - the cutting tool - moves along with the caliper slide from drive shaft or lead screw, which receives rotation from the feed mechanism.
In the XVII-XVIII centuries. manufacturing industry flourished. Many manufactories had metalworking workshops.
Processing in the workshops was carried out mainly on lathes. In these machines, a flexible pole was fixed on top, to which one end of the rope was tied. The rope wrapped around the roller on the machine. The other end was attached to the board, which was the pedal for the worker's foot. By pressing the pedal, the worker rotated the roller and the workpiece. He held a cutting tool in his hand. The lathe was a complex tool, but not a machine. To turn into a machine, a tool holder-caliper was needed, replacing a human hand.
The Russian mechanic A.K. Nartov became the inventor of the lathe with a caliper. He built several lathes that had a mechanical support-holder.
On machines designed by Nartov, a wheel driven by water or animal power could be used to drive.
Despite the remarkable work of Nartov and the high appreciation that his inventions and knowledge received, the caliper he invented did not have much influence on the practical development of turning technology.
At the end of the XVIII century. the idea of using a caliper in lathes was returned in France. In the "French Encyclopedia" Diderot in 1779, a description is given of a fixture for lathes, which clearly resembles the principle of a caliper. However, these machines had a number of shortcomings that precluded their widespread use in practice.
The possibility of developing engineering technology appeared only as a result of the first two stages of the industrial revolution. For the machine production of machines, a powerful engine was needed. By the beginning of the XIX century. such an engine was a universal double-acting steam engine. On the other hand, the development of the production of working machines and steam engines in the second half of the 18th century. formed qualified personnel for mechanical engineering - mechanical workers. These two conditions ensured the technical revolution in mechanical engineering.
The beginning of a change in the technique of manufacturing machines was laid by the English mechanic Henry Maudsley, who created a mechanical support for a lathe. Maudsley began working at the London Arsenal at the age of twelve. There he acquired good skills in woodworking and metalworking and, in addition, became a master blacksmith. However, Maudsley dreamed of a career as a mechanic. In 1789 he entered the London machine shop of Joseph Brum, a specialist in the manufacture of locks.
In Bram's workshop, G. Maudsley had the opportunity to invent and design various devices for making locks.
In 1794, he invented the so-called cross support for a lathe, which contributed to the transformation of the machine into a working machine. The essence of Maudsley's invention boiled down to the following: turners, turning any object, tightly strengthened it on the machine with special clamps. The working tool - the cutter was at the same time in the hands of the worker. When the shaft rotated, the cutter processed the workpiece. The worker had to not only create the necessary pressure with a cutter on the workpiece, but also move it along it. This was possible only with great skill and strong tension. The slightest shift of the cutter violated the accuracy of turning. Maudsley decided to strengthen the cutter on the machine. To do this, he created a metal clamp - a caliper, which had two carriages that move by means of screws. One carriage created the necessary pressure of the cutter on the workpiece, and the other moved the cutter along the workpiece. Thus, the human hand was replaced by a special mechanical device. With the introduction of the caliper, the machine began to operate continuously with perfection, unattainable even for the most skillful human hand. The caliper could be used for the manufacture of both the smallest parts and huge parts of various machines.
This mechanical device has replaced not any tool, but the human hand, which creates a certain form, bringing it closer, applying the tip of a cutting tool or directing it to the material of labor, such as wood or metal. Thus, it was possible to reproduce the geometric shapes of individual parts of machines with such ease, accuracy and speed that the hand of the most experienced worker could never provide.
The first machine with a caliper, however, extremely imperfect, was made in Bram's workshop in 1794-1795. In 1797, Maudsley built the first workable lathe on a cast-iron bed with a self-propelled caliper. The machine was used for cutting screws, and was also used for processing parts of locks.
In the future, Modesi continued to improve the lathe with a caliper. In 1797, he built a screw-cutting lathe with a replaceable lead screw. Dressing screws in those days was an extremely difficult job. Screws, cut by hand, had a completely arbitrary thread. It was difficult to find two identical screws, which made it extremely difficult to repair machines, assemble them and replace worn parts with new ones. Therefore, Maudsley primarily improved screw-cutting lathes. Through his work on improving the threads of screws, he achieved a partial standardization of the manufacture of screws, paving the way for his future student Whitworth, the founder of screw standards in England.
The simplest lathe
Self-propelled machine Maudsley, offered for screw-cutting work, soon proved to be an indispensable machine in any turning work. This machine worked with amazing accuracy, without requiring much physical effort on the part of the worker.
Attempts to create a working machine in mechanical engineering since the end of the 18th century. were made in other countries. In Germany, the German mechanic Reichenbach, independently of Maudsley, also proposed a device for holding a cutter (caliper) on a wooden lathe designed for processing precision astronomical instruments. However, the economic development of feudal Germany lagged far behind that of capitalist England. The mechanical support of handicraft German industry was not needed, while the introduction of the Maudsley screw-cutting lathe in England was due to the needs of developing capitalist production.
The caliper was soon turned into a perfect mechanism and transferred in a modernized form from the lathe, for which it was originally intended, to other machines used to make machines. With the manufacture of the caliper, all metalworking machines begin to improve and turn into machines. Mechanical revolving, grinding, planing, milling machines appear. By the 30s of the XIX century. English mechanical engineering already had the main working machines that made it possible to mechanically perform the most important operations in metalworking.
Soon after the invention of the caliper, Maudsley left Brahm and opened his own machine shop, which quickly turned into a large machine-building plant. The Maudsley plant played an outstanding role in the development of English machine technology. It was the school of famous English mechanics. Here such outstanding machine builders as Whitworth, Roberts, Nesmith, Clement, Moon and others began their activities.
At the Maudsley plant, a machine system of production was already used in the form of a connection by transmissions of a large number of working machines set in motion by a universal heat engine. The Model Factory mainly produced parts for Watt's steam engines. However, the plant also designed work machines for mechanical workshops. G. Maudsley produced exemplary turning and then planing machine tools.
Model himself, despite the fact that he was the owner of a large enterprise, worked all his life on a par with his workers and students. He had an amazing ability to find and nurture talented machine builders. Many prominent English mechanics owe their technical education to Maudsley. In addition to the caliper, he made many inventions and improvements in a wide variety of branches of technology.
General view of the lathe
On a rigid base 1, which is called the bed, the headstock 5 and the tailstock 2 are fixed. The headstock is fixed. Its main unit is the shaft-spindle 8. It rotates in bronze bearings inside a fixed housing 7. A device for fastening the workpiece is installed on the spindle. In this case, this is a fork 9. Depending on its size and shape, a faceplate, a cartridge and other devices are also used to clamp the part. The spindle rotates from the electric motor 10 through the drive pulley 6.
The tailstock of the machine can move along the bed and is fixed in the desired position. At the same level with the spindle of the headstock, the so-called center 11 is installed in the tailstock. This is a roller with a pointed end. The tailstock is used when machining long parts - then the workpiece is clamped between the spindle fork and the center of the tailstock.
A modern lathe consists of working bodies - a support for mounting a cutter, a spindle for mounting a part, an engine and a transmission that transmits movement from the engine to the spindle. The transmission consists of a gearbox and a gearbox. The gearbox is a set of shafts with gears attached to them. By switching gears, the spindle speed is changed, leaving the engine speed unchanged. The gearbox transmits rotation from the gearbox to the drive shaft or lead screw. The lead roller and the lead screw are designed to move the caliper on which the cutter is fixed. They allow you to coordinate the speed of the cutter with the frequency of rotation of the part. The lead roller sets the metal cutting mode, and the lead screw sets the thread pitch.
The spindle, tool or fixtures are supported by the headstock and tailstock.
All components of the machine are attached to the frame.
Read and write useful
The creator of a screw-cutting lathe with a mechanized caliper and a set of interchangeable gear wheels, Andrei Konstantinovich Nartov, one of the remarkable Russian mechanics and inventors of the 18th century, was born on March 28 (April 7), 1693.
For the first time, the name of the Nartovs is mentioned in the columns of the Discharge Order, which was in charge of military Affairs, the construction and repair of fortresses, their construction and garrisons, the military service of representatives of various classes from boyars and nobles to archers and Cossacks. This mention refers to 1651-1653.
The columns contain the "children of the Cossacks" Trofim and Lazar Nartov. And in the "Russian genealogical book" Andrei Konstantinovich Nartov is recorded as the "ancestor" - without any information about his parents. So they were not of noble origin. The surname Nartovs came from the word "mouths", which in the old Russian language meant - skis.
Andrey Nartov from the age of 16 worked as a turner in the workshop of the Moscow School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences, located in the Sukharev Tower.
This school was founded by Peter I, the latter often visited the mathematical and navigational school, in the turning workshop of which machines were made for him, where he often worked himself. Apparently, here the tsar noticed a capable young turner and brought him closer to him.
In 1712, Peter I summoned Andrei Nartov to St. Petersburg, where he appointed him to his own "turnery" and then did not part with him until his death.
The "personal turner" of Peter I - according to our concepts, this is, perhaps, the Minister of Mechanical Engineering - lived and was constantly in the "turner" located next to the tsar's reception office. Here he met not only with the king, but also with all the statesmen of that time. After the death of Peter I, Nartov wrote memoirs about him, which became a valuable historical and literary document.
Working together with Peter I in his turning workshop, Andrey Nartov showed himself to be a remarkable master-inventor. He altered in his own way the existing machines and built new ones, never seen before. Peter I often took his mechanic on trips to industrial enterprises, to the Foundry Yard, where he observed the casting of cannons. Narts learned a lot from these trips and subsequently applied it in their inventions.
Turning and copying machine A.K. Nartov 1712 in Russian Baroque style (left). Large lathe A.K. Nartov 1718-1729 in the style of Peter the Great Baroque (on the right).
To get acquainted with foreign technology, the Narts were sent abroad. The main purpose of this trip was to "acquire great progress in mechanics and mathematics." He was ordered to carefully collect information about inventions and new machines. So, Nartov was supposed to "in London solicit information about the newly invented best soaring and bending of oak, used in shipbuilding, with a drawing of the ovens required for this." Nartov was also instructed to collect and bring to Russia "the best artists of physical instruments, mechanical and hydraulic models."
In the summer of 1718 Andrey Nartov left Petersburg for Berlin. Here he taught the turning art of the Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm I. He brought a lathe from St. Petersburg, after examining which the Prussian king was forced to admit that "we do not have such a machine in Berlin." Then Nartov visited Holland, England and France.
In 1719, he wrote to Peter I about his stay in England: “I found many things here that are not in Russia now, and I wrote to Prince B.N. sent drawings to some colossus..."
Carefully studying the technical innovations known at that time abroad, and critically selecting from them those that were of interest, Nartov was repeatedly convinced that Russian techniques not only were not inferior to foreign ones, but also surpassed them in many ways.
He wrote about this to Peter I from London, reporting that he "here did not find such turning masters who surpassed Russian masters, and I told the craftsmen to make drawings for the machines that Your Royal Majesty ordered to make here, and they should be made according to them can not..."
In this regard, Nartov asked permission from Peter I to move to Paris. Here he got acquainted with production, as in England, visited arsenals, mints, manufactories, studied at the Academy of Sciences under the guidance of the famous French mathematician Varignon, astronomer de Lafay and others.
In connection with Nartov's departure from Paris, President of the Paris Academy of Sciences Bignon wrote a letter to Peter I, in which he spoke of the "great successes" achieved by the Russian innovator "in mechanics, especially in that part that concerns the lathe." Bignon wrote about the products made by Nartov on a Russian lathe brought to Paris: "It is impossible to see anything more wonderful!"
Meanwhile, France was then a country in which turning had reached a high level. French turning experts could not believe their eyes. Nartov worked on a machine tool that no one could see until then - on an excellent machine tool with a mechanical tool holder, a self-propelled automatic caliper, which turned the tool from a hand tool into a mechanical tool. Nartov created this machine back in 1717.
At the beginning of 1718, Nartov made an "original invention" - a unique, at that time the only machine with a support for turning the most complex patterns ("roses") on convex surfaces.
Before the invention of Nartov, when working on a machine tool, the cutter was clamped in a special support that moved manually, or even simpler - the cutter was held in the hand. This was the case throughout Europe. And the quality of the product entirely depended on the hand, strength and skill of the master. Nartov invented a mechanized caliper, the principle of operation of which has not changed to this day. (Support - from late Latin supporto - I support).
"Pedestalets" - this is how Nartov called his mechanized tool holder - the caliper moved with the help of a screw pair, that is, a screw screwed into a nut. Now the chisel was held by a confident "iron hand." Peter I ordered that Binion's letter be translated and sent to Eropkin, Zemtsov, Khrushchev and other Russians who were abroad to get acquainted with science and technology. The order for all of them to read this letter was accompanied by the wish of Peter: "I wish you to do the same with the same success."
When Nartov returned from a trip abroad in 1720, Peter I appointed him head of the royal turning workshops. In these workshops, Nartov created a whole group of new original machine tools in a short time.
Andrei Nartov's achievements in turning were extremely important in the history of technology.
In order to create the production of machines with the help of machines, it was necessary to turn the chisel on metalworking machines from a hand tool into a mechanical tool. This problem was solved by introducing into the production of a caliper - an automatically operating holder for metalworking cutters.
The creation of the caliper was, in essence, the achievement of technical thought that was necessary in order to move from handicraft and manufactory to large-scale machine industry.
Many foreign authors for a long time believed that only at the very end of the 18th century. Englishman Henry Models invented a caliper, which made it possible to process metal with geometric accuracy, which was necessary for the production of machine parts and the entire subsequent development of mechanical engineering. In this case, they referred to a lathe with a support, built by Maudslay in 1797 and still stored in the Science Museum in London.
But in reality this priority does not belong to Maudslay. Even 75 years before Maudslay, Russian machine tools with calipers were created! In Paris, in the National Depository of Arts and Crafts, there is a Russian lathe, on which Nartov demonstrated his art to Bignon, president of the Paris Academy of Sciences. In the Hermitage in St. Petersburg there is a whole group of metal-working machine tools created by Nartov in the first quarter of the 18th century.
Andrey Nartov created a variety of machine tools with calipers that not only replace the human hand, but allow you to automatically perform complex and delicate metal processing operations that far exceed anything that can be performed with a cutter located directly in the hands of the worker.
Nartov's machines are works of art. The beds are decorated with carvings, metal overlays with patterns, images of birds, animals, mythological heroes. The plastic image of many machines is enriched by turned wooden columns, twisted legs, carved corner brackets, which are both working parts and decorations. It is a pleasure to work behind such machines. Neither before nor after Nartov did such beautiful machine tools appear.
On many of them, the inventor imprinted his name. So, on an oval lathe for guilloche work, stored in the Hermitage, the text is engraved on the faceplate: "Mechanic Andrey Nartov. St. Petersburg 1722".
Machine A.K. Nartov turning and copying. 1729
A large copy lathe is also kept there with the inscription engraved on a copper pedestal: "Deo adiuvante. Production began for the construction of the colossus in 1718, completed in 1729. Mechanic Andrey Nartov." (Deo adiuvante - God help). This machine uses all the best achievements of Nartov, brought to perfection.
Even in the first quarter of the XVIII century. Nartov processed metal with great precision, using the calipers he invented. At the same time, Nartov was ahead of Maudslay by three quarters of a century, not only in terms of the time of the invention of the caliper.
Maudslay could produce products of simple geometric shapes on his machines. On Nartov's machines, it was possible to make products of any shape, up to the most complex artistic images of battle scenes. Models on his machine could not perform copy work, even the simplest. Nartov on his machines could perform, and moreover, fully automatically, complex turning and copying work.
Maudsley's machines, which became widespread at the beginning of the 19th century, were only lathes. Nartov's machines, created in the first quarter of the 18th century, were both turning and copying. These are the founders of modern complex turning and copying machines.
In the manuscript of A. K. Nartov "Theaterum Mahinarum, that is, the Clear Spectacle of Machines" describes more than three dozen original lathes, lathes, copy lathes, screw-cutting lathes of various designs developed by him and his assistants. Numerous drawings and technical descriptions indicate that he possessed the richest engineering knowledge and skillfully applied it in his work.
On behalf of Peter I, Andrei Nartov took the machine tools he invented abroad and taught various figures to work on them. Peter I, during his trip abroad in 1718-1720, as evidenced by documents, talked about Russian metalworking machines and introduced many to products made using Russian calipers.
It should be borne in mind that in those years a lot of foreigners came to Russia, who carefully collected information about Russian technology, visited the Petrovsky lathe and academic workshops where Nart machines worked.
Andrei Konstantinovich Nartov took an honorable place in the history of technology. He brought up many students, among them Semyon Matveev, Alexander Zhurkovsky and others.
Petrovskaya turnery, which Nartov was in charge of, was later transferred to the Academy of Sciences and turned into academic workshops, which were led by M.V. Lomonosov and headed by I.P. Kulibin after his death.
In the 1720s, Nartov had already begun to create wonderful machines for making metal parts of other machines. So, in 1721, he built a machine for cutting the teeth of wheels.
Andrei Konstantinovich used his machines to create beautiful vases, glasses, lamps, wall and table decorations that were fashionable at that time. An insignificant part of them has been preserved in the Hermitage, but most of the works of turning and applied art created by Nartov have been lost.
During these years, Nartov came to the conclusion that in Russia it was necessary to create a special "Academy of various arts." He presented the project of this Academy to Peter I at the end of 1724.
Under the "arts" in those days they understood all applied knowledge and arts - mechanics, architecture, construction, sculpture, painting, engraving; handicrafts also belonged to the "arts". Thus, according to the plan of A. K. Nartov, the Academy of Arts was supposed to be the Academy of Technical Knowledge and to train specialists in these areas.
Nartov provided for exactly how training should take place, what titles should be awarded (that is, the system of state certification), what the premises of the Academy should be, etc.
Peter I personally reviewed the project and added to the list of specialties for which specialists should be trained. He even commissioned one of the well-known architects of that time to design the building of the Academy of Arts. However, the death of Peter I stopped the implementation of this idea. But although the project was shelved on the whole, many of the proposals contained in it were put into practice in the form of the creation of various technical and artistic "chambers" at the Academy of Sciences.
Later, in 1737 and 1746, Nartov again raised the issue of establishing the Academy of Arts before the Senate. However, this did not bring any results.
Andrei Konstantinovich achieved outstanding success not only in the field of metal cutting, but also in many other industries. He played a significant role in the development of the technique of coinage in Russia.
In 1724-1725. Nartov was at the height of his glory. From the hands of the king, he accepted a rare award - a gold medal with the image of his idol. In 1724, after two daughters, he finally had an heir - his son Stepan, baptized by the emperor himself. And suddenly everything changed dramatically. In January 1725, Peter I died.
During the reign of Catherine I, Alexander Menshikov became the main figure in the state. The "personal turner" of Peter I knew too much about court life so that he would not have clashes with Menshikov, who never forgot anything.
Once, while Peter was still alive, Nartov had a skirmish with Alexander Menshikov. Here is how Nartov told about it: “Once upon a time, Prince Menshikov, having come to the door of the turning room of his Majesty, demanded that he be let in there, but, seeing an obstacle in it, he began to make noise. who wanted Prince Menshikov, announced to him that no one was ordered to let anyone in without a special order from the sovereign, and then he immediately locked the doors. Welcome, Nartov, remember this."
This incident and the threats were reported to the emperor at the same time ... The sovereign immediately wrote the following on a lathe and, giving it to Nartov, said: "Here's your defense; nail this to the door and don't look at Menshikov's threats." - "To whom it is not ordered, or who is not called, let not only an outsider enter here, but a lower servant of this house, so that at least this place the owner of the deceased would have."
Andrei Nartov left the palace forever. In 1726, he was sent to Moscow "to the mints to redistribute the coin of two million." The Moscow Mint was at that time in an extremely neglected state. A. Volkov, who was appointed director of the Mint, wrote that "the disorder and ruin of the mints cannot be portrayed in any way." The most basic equipment was missing: "there are no molds to melt into, no bellows to the forges."
Nartov had to adjust the technique of monetary business. It turned out that even the scales for weighing metal, which were used at that time, were unsuitable, and he had to create new scales with the participation of Peter Krekshin. He invented and put into production original guild machines (for notching the "edge", that is, the edges of coins) and other coin machines.
Then Nartov went "on the post of mechanical art to the Sestroretsk factories for redistribution into a coin of twenty thousand pounds of red copper." In Sestroretsk, he created and applied improved lathes and other machines. Returning to Moscow, Nartov continued to improve coin production and at the same time helped I.F. and M.I. Motorin in the manufacture of the world's greatest casting - the Tsar Bell.
In Moscow, Andrey Nartov began to write a book dedicated to the mechanical equipment of coin production - "A book on the monetary business, in which there is a description of all the colossus and tools, with the inscription of each rank of colossus and tool, and these measures, and what they can stand up" . But the manuscript of this book has not yet been found.
While working at the mints, Nartov drew attention to the lack of exact units of weight measurement, correct scales and weighing methods. To eliminate this, he drew up the drawings of the correct "scales and weights", invented the scales of his own design. In 1733, he put forward the idea of creating a single national weight standard and developed a system for creating this standard. As the author of this system, he should be considered the founder of Russian metrology.
Nartov rapid-fire battery.
In the same years, Nartov created instruments and mechanisms for scientists, as evidenced by his report about the manufacture by him in 1732, at the request of the Academy of Sciences, of a "colossus for an observatory."
In 1735, Nartov was summoned from Moscow to St. Petersburg and appointed head of the academic mechanical workshop, which he created on the basis of the Petrovsky turnery transferred to the Academy - the "Laboratory of Mechanical Affairs".
Taking care that the undertakings of Peter I were not forgotten, Nartov set about compiling a book in which he wanted to summarize information about them "mechanical and mathematical turning machines and tools" associated with the activities of Peter. He sent his student Mikhail Semyonov to Moscow to transport from there to the academic workshop "the first turning colossus and tools from Preobrazhensky, where they stand in oblivion."
A.K. Nartov devoted a lot of energy to the training of craftsmen and mechanics for the workshop, as well as to the creation of new metalworking machines and other machines. He invented a machine for cutting screws, a machine for pulling lead sheets, a machine for climbing the Tsar Bell tower, a fire-filling machine, a machine for printing land maps, and others.
However, after the death of Peter I, Nartov had to endure harassment from foreigners who tried to monopolize science and technology in Russia. The struggle between A.K. Nartov and the all-powerful Schumacher, who had seized the Academy of Sciences into his own hands, was especially acute.
The latter delayed the payment of money to Nartov for a long time, leaving him virtually without a livelihood. As Nartov wrote, in this way he and his family were brought to complete ruin, to "the last misery."
Despite this, the Narts continued to work very hard and successfully. And the academic authorities had to reckon with this and actually recognized him as the chief technical expert of the Academy of Sciences, entrusting him with important tasks. Sometimes he had to carry out such assignments together with such luminaries of science as Leonhard Euler.
In June 1742, A. K. Nartov went to Moscow and brought with him complaints against Schumacher of many academic workers. They unanimously accused Schumacher of embezzling tens of thousands of rubles from academic money and of many other abuses. They were especially indignant at the fact that Schumacher set out to destroy the plans of Peter I, which formed the basis for the creation of the Academy.
For 17 years of existence of the Academy, not a single Russian academician has appeared in it! In the autumn of 1742, a commission of inquiry was appointed, Schumacher was arrested, and all academic affairs were entrusted to A.K.
The orders of A. K. Nartov as the head of the Academy of Sciences show that his main task was to create conditions for the training of Russian scientists. He sought to establish the financial management of the Academy, launched by Schumacher, to remove idlers from it, to organize a new printing house for the publication of scientific works, took care of M.V. Lomonosov, stood up for him before the commission of inquiry. In turn, M.V. Lomonosov more than once expressed his deep respect for the great engineer and inventor.
Despite all the efforts of A. K. Nartov and his associates, it was not possible to change the situation at the Academy. To overcome the dominance of foreigners, accustomed to hosting the Academy of Sciences, was then too difficult. The "ill-wishers of the Russian sciences", who subsequently poisoned M. V. Lomonosov, used the most disgusting methods against A. K. Nartov. They reached the point of slanderous fiction that allegedly A. K. Nartov even "can't read or write."
At the end of 1743, Schumacher and his supporters again seized power in the Academy. After being removed from the leadership of the Academy of Sciences, A.K. Nartov from 1744 worked in the artillery department, and at the Academy of Sciences he was engaged only in training new personnel of Russian technicians and worked on the "triumphal pillar" - a monument to Peter I.
Back in 1740 Andrei Konstantinovich's merits in the field of artillery technology were specially noted. Now, however, he developed military-technical work and his inventive activity in such a way that it took the creation of a special center - the Secret Chamber, where even employees of the Arsenal were not allowed.
Machines invented by A.K. Nartov for drilling cannons, turning cannon trunnions and other critical technological operations were working in the fenced buildings of the Secret Chamber, tests were carried out. Thus, A.K. Nartov created his own research and production center inside the Arsenal.
The inventions of A. K. Nartov followed one after another. He was appointed advisor to the supreme body in charge of artillery and engineering defense of the country.
List of inventions, compiled on the basis of the submission of A. K. Nartov, filed in November 1754 to the Office of the Main Artillery and Fortification.
1. "Cannon lances must be lanced without an internal clay cannon model and without a wooden core." Casting according to this method "to one cannon of an empty copper pipe, thin, cast with overlaid friezes and with all decorations in the exact proportion of that weight" showed that the amount of work when using copper molds is halved and the whole thing is very successful.
2. Lifting and carrying machine for firing cannon moulds.
3. The method of firing cannon molds, eliminating their warping.
4. A machine for lowering cannon molds into the casting pit and for their subsequent lifting after casting.
5. Casting of a "blind gun, from which the caliber is removed by a cylinder", that is, apparently, casting of a solid body of the gun, followed by hollow drilling.
6. Casting of "a cannon with a finished caliber without an internal lance".
7. Machine for cutting profits from cannons.
8. A machine for turning the trunnions of cannons, mortars and howitzers, about which it was said that "a colossus has not happened yet with artillery" like it.
9. Machine "drilling mortars in a special way."
10. Method for sealing shells in the channel of copper guns and mortars.
11. Original fuse for guns and mortars.
12. Mechanical device for verification of artillery pieces.
13. Machine for cutting teeth for bench saws.
14. Machine for the manufacture of "flat copper and iron screws" for artillery pieces.
15. A machine for lifting guns and mortars on scales and on machine tools.
16. Tool for drilling cannon wheels and carriages.
17. Method for hardening gun drills and other tools.
18. A machine for "crushing and washing copper crumbs combined with clay."
19. A rapid-fire battery of forty-four "three-pound" mortars placed on a special horizontal circle mounted on a carriage. Mortars were united in groups, of which some were prepared for a shot and opened fire, while others were loaded at that time, then taking the place of those who fired by rotating the circle. The elevation angle of the circle was obtained using a lifting screw. Thus, for the first time in the history of artillery, a screw lifting mechanism was used in this battery. Nartov wrote about this battery: "... and the usefulness of it will be such that it can throw grenades into the wide lines against the enemy front."
20. The method "to shoot different bombs and cannonballs from cannons outside the caliber." Projectiles larger than the caliber of the gun were placed either in its bell or in a fixture mounted at the end of the gun barrel. When tested, shooting gave excellent results. From the cannons, in the channel of which a three-pound projectile entered, six-pound grenades were fired; a twenty-pound cannon fired two-pound bombs. The shells successfully hit targets with the usual consumption of gunpowder. After the test, it was established: "Such a newly published fiery invention has not been heard either in Russia or in other states."
21. Filling shells in cast-iron guns, howitzers and mortars.
22. An elevation screw with a degree scale for precise setting of the elevation angle of artillery pieces, previously obtained only by placing wedges.
23. Original designs for the installation of naval and fortress artillery "for the best way to shoot from cannons, mortars and howitzers and for the fastest aiming at a target without leverage."
24. A method of sealing in artillery pieces not only shells, but also deep "channels with numerous and small ducts."
25. A method of sealing through cracks in cannons in those cases when "from a fiery test, cracks are made along the cannon through and through."
26. Optical sight - "a mathematical instrument with a perspective telescope, with other accessories and a spirit level for quick aiming from a battery or from the ground at the indicated place at the target horizontally and along levation."
27. The method of "grinding bombs from 9 pounds to the smallest pounds that have a void."
28. A method for turning cast iron cores with very large shells.
29. A method of casting nuclei of different calibers into forged iron molds so that "the kernels come out smooth and clean."
30. The method of casting guns not in casting pits, but directly on the "surface of levation".
In the mentioned report it is said about the use of the invention of A.K. Nartov "in filling shells in copper and cast-iron cannons, as well as in mortars and in bringing into roundness bombs and cannonballs, consisting of artillery with crests and cones, and other newly acquired inventions."
These inventions, which were used in St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kyiv, Vyborg, Riga and other cities, made it possible to give a second life to damaged cannons without refilling.
The artillery pieces restored by A.K. Nartov successfully withstood the test: "And this was the beginning of both the artillery and the Admiralty and the noble generals and other highly trusted persons with many and extraordinary shots and cannonballs, buckshot and split shot, and with the Admiralty and with knipels tested. And they were solid and reliable, on the contrary, in new places in the metal, shells were made from extreme shooting, but the filling resisted. "
It should be noted that most of Nartov's inventions were not only more advanced forms of previously known structures, machines, technological processes, but were generally the world's first technical solutions.
Among them are shooting from cannons "out of caliber", and an elevating screw with a degree scale for installing an elevation angle on artillery pieces, and an optical sight - the ancestor of all modern rifle and artillery optics. A. K. Nartov took part in the creation of the famous "unicorns" - howitzers, which remained in service with Russian fortresses until the beginning of the 20th century.
A.K. Nartov played an outstanding role in the development of Russian artillery, greatly contributing to its becoming in the 18th century. the best in the world.
The Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, which began in the year of Nartov's death, showed the superiority of Russian artillery over Prussian. But the army of Frederick II was considered the best in Europe.
The economic effect of Nartov's inventions was so huge (only the method of "filling shells" in gun barrels, according to estimates in 1751, saved 60,323 rubles), that on May 2, 1746, a decree was issued awarding A. K. Nartov 5 thousand rubles . (According to V. O. Klyuchevsky, 1 ruble in 1750 was equal to 9 rubles in 1880)
From January 10, 1745 to January 1, 1756 Nartov and his assistants returned 914 guns, howitzers and mortars to service. In addition, he invented both construction equipment and new designs of sluice gates (1747). Until his death, A.K. Nartov worked tirelessly for Russian science and brought up new Russian specialists.
In the Petrovsky lathe, turned by A.K. Nartov into academic workshops, his work in the field of technology and especially instrument making was continued by M.V. Lomonosov, and after his death - by I.P. Kulibin.
His book on lathes - "Teatrum Makhinarum, that is, a clear spectacle of colossus" Nartov intended to "announce to the people", that is, print it and make it available to all turners, mechanics, designers.
Drawing for the manuscript "Theater Mahiparum" by A.K. Nartov.
In this work, Nartov carefully described many machine tools designed for a variety of purposes, gave their drawings, made explanations, developed kinematic diagrams, described the tools used and the products made.
Nartov prefaced all this with a theoretical introduction concerning such fundamental issues as the need to combine theory and practice, the need to pre-build models of machine tools before they are made in kind, taking into account friction forces, etc. A.K. Nartov revealed all the secrets of the turning business of that time .
A.K. Nartov died in St. Petersburg on April 16 (27), 1756. After his death, large debts remained, as he invested a lot of personal funds in scientific research. As soon as he died, an announcement appeared in the St. Petersburg Vedomosti about the sale of his property. After Nartov, there were debts "to various people up to 2000 rubles and 1929 government rubles." The auditing office decided, on account of debts, to take away the villages assigned to him from the children of Nartov. Even in the "brilliant age of Catherine" there was no attempt to somehow commemorate the talented inventor, take care of the students, print the literary heritage. The manuscript of the book "Teatrum Mahinarum" was never published. Nartov's grave at the small Annunciation cemetery on Vasilyevsky Island was lost.
Only in the autumn of 1950 in Leningrad, on the territory of a long-abolished cemetery that had existed since 1738 at the Church of the Annunciation, was the grave of A.K. Nartov with a tombstone made of red granite with the inscription: "Here is buried the body of State Councilor Andrei Konstantinovich Nartov, who served with honor and glory to the sovereigns Peter the Great, Catherine the First, Peter the Second, Anna Ioannovna, Elizabeth Petrovna and who rendered many and important services to the fatherland in various public departments, who was born in Moscow in 1680 on March 28 and died in St. Petersburg on April 1756 on 6 days. However, the dates of birth and death indicated on the tombstone are not exact. The study of the documents preserved in the archives (the service record filled in personally by A.K. Nartov himself, the church record of his burial, the report of his son on the death of his father) gives reason to believe that Andrei Nartov was born in 1693, and not in 1680, and died not on 6, but on 16 (27) April 1756. Apparently, the tombstone was made some time after the funeral, and the dates on it were given not from documents, but from memory, which is why the error arose.
In the same 1950, the remains of the royal turner, an outstanding engineer and scientist, were transferred to the Lazarevsky cemetery of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra and reburied next to the grave of M.V. Lomonosov. In 1956, a tombstone was erected on Nartov's grave - a copy of the sarcophagus found in 1950 (with an erroneous date of birth).
"Tsarev turner" Andrey Konstantinovich Nartov was one of the nuggets-inventors noticed and brought to the wide road by Peter I. During his not too long life, he invented and built more than thirty machine tools of a very different profile, which were not equal in the world. He made a number of other important inventions for Russia in the field of artillery weapons. He played a significant role in the development of the technique of coinage in Russia, and achieved outstanding success in many other areas. History has not forgotten and cannot forget the great inventor, the remarkable innovator of Russian technology.
In 650 BC. The machine consisted of two elements, between which a workpiece made of wood, bone or horn was clamped. A slave or apprentice rotated the workpiece (one or more turns in one direction, then in the other). The master held the cutter in his hands and, pressing it in the right place to the workpiece, removed the chips, giving the workpiece the required shape.
In the XIV - XV centuries, foot-operated lathes were common. The foot drive consisted of an eyelet - the so-called elastic pole, fixed above the machine. A string was attached to the end of the pole, which was wrapped one turn around the workpiece and attached to the pedal with its lower end. When the pedal was pressed, the string was stretched, forcing the workpiece to make one or two turns, and the pole to bend. When the pedal was released, the pole straightened up, pulled the string up, and the workpiece made the same turns in the other direction.
In 1500, the lathe already had steel centers and a lunette that could be fixed anywhere between the centers.
On such machines, rather complex parts were processed, which were bodies of revolution, up to the ball. But the drive of the then existing machine tools was too low-power for metal processing, and the efforts of the hand holding the cutter were insufficient to remove large chips from the workpiece. As a result, metal processing turned out to be ineffective, and it was necessary to replace the worker's hand with a special mechanism, and the muscular force that sets the machine in motion with a more powerful engine.
In the middle of the 16th century, Jacques Besson invented a lathe for cutting cylindrical and conical screws.
In the 17th century, lathes appeared, in which the workpiece was no longer set in motion by the muscular power of the turner, but with the help of a water wheel, but the cutter, as before, was held in the hand of the turner.
At the beginning of the 18th century, lathes were increasingly used for cutting metals, rather than wood, and therefore the problem of rigid fastening of the cutter and moving it along the work surface of the table is very relevant.
The accumulated experience made it possible by the end of the 18th century to create a universal lathe, which became the basis of mechanical engineering.
The next stage was the automation of lathes. Here the palm belonged to the Americans. In the second half of the 19th century, the quality of American machine tools was already quite high. Machine tools were mass-produced, and full interchangeability of parts and blocks produced by one company was introduced. In the event of a part breakdown, it was enough to write out a similar part from the factory and replace the broken one with a whole one without adjustment.
In the second half of the 19th century, elements were introduced that ensured complete mechanization of processing - an automatic feed unit in both coordinates, a perfect system for attaching a cutter and a part. Cutting and feed conditions changed quickly and without much effort. The lathes had elements of automation - an automatic stop of the machine when a certain size was reached, a system for automatically controlling the speed of frontal turning.
The inventor of the world's first screw-cutting lathe with a mechanized caliper and a set of interchangeable gears was born in Moscow on March 28, 1693. Nartovs - the surname is not noble: it comes from the word "narts" - the sleigh is still called so in the North, and in the 17th century, when this surname was first mentioned in the columns of the Discharge Order, the word meant "skis". Narts came from "Cossack children", that is, he did not have nobility. The beginning of the biography of Andrei Konstantinovich Nartov is not too remarkable - but already in his youth he was noticed by the tsar himself.
Andrei spent his youth at the Moscow School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences - the same one where three cine midshipmen studied. The school was founded in 1701 by decree of Peter the Great and was located in the Sukharev Tower. It is curious that the children of the nobility were accepted to school mainly “under duress”: cleaner than they are now catching those who evade military service, the young men were brought from their home by a military patrol. But the children of ordinary people, to whom Nartov belonged, went voluntarily: the school was a good chance for them to make a career, showing themselves in the military service or in the emerging industry. Nartov mastered the craft of a turner within the walls of the school - highly revered by the tsar himself, who was fond of this craft from childhood. The Sukharev Tower had its own turning workshop, which made lathes, including for the tsar: Peter repeatedly visited it and even worked in it himself. Here the tsar noticed Andrei and appreciated his talents, and in 1712 he summoned him to the capital, assigning him to his own palace turnery. In a room located next to the royal chambers, Nartov both lived and studied - he continued to improve turning business under the guidance of the best master in Russia, Kurnosov, and studied mechanics with the German Singer. At this time, Nartov developed and built a number of mechanized machines for copying bas-reliefs and works of applied art. Looking ahead, we say that the tsar did not part with Nartov until his death in 1725.
It was here that Nartov invented a new lathe and copy machine, the analogue of which would be invented in Europe only 80 years later.
Copy lathe designed by A. K. Nartov, 1718 - 1729 State Hermitage.
In lathes of that time, the cutter was clamped in a special holder, which was moved by hand, pressing against the workpiece. The quality of the product depended entirely on the accuracy of the hand of the master, and the problem was especially acute if we remember that at the beginning of the 18th century, lathes were increasingly used to process metal rather than wood products. Only a very skilled craftsman could cut threads into bolts, apply complex patterns to a workpiece, make gears with fine teeth. In his machine, Nartov not only fixed the cutter, but also applied the following scheme: the copy finger and the caliper were set in motion by one lead screw, but with different cutting steps under the cutter and under the copier. Thus, automatic movement of the caliper along the axis of the workpiece being processed was ensured. The machine made it possible to grind the most complex patterns on almost any surface. It is curious that, despite all the further improvements of the mechanized caliper invented by Nartov, the principle of its operation has remained the same in our time.
Teacher and his students
After completing his studies with the St. Petersburg masters, the tsar sent Nartov abroad in order to "acquire great success in mechanics and mathematics." Another goal of Nartov was what would now be called industrial espionage (but in those days inventions were not patented and were not hidden from each other by the powers, so there was nothing reprehensible in such activities): the master was ordered to collect information about inventions and new machines and “to look after turning and other mechanical matters” - that is, to analyze the successes of European masters and try to reproduce them in Russia). It is curious that Nartov not only studied, but also taught - from Russia he went straight to Berlin, where he taught the turning art of the Prussian king Friedrich Wilhelm I. Nartov brought his lathe from St. Petersburg, after examining which the Prussian king admitted: “In Berlin, such there is no machine."
From Prussia Nartov went to Holland and then to England. From here, he wrote to Peter I: “At the same time, I inform Your Royal Majesty that I have not found such turning masters here who have surpassed Russian masters, and I have not found drawings for the colossus that Your Royal Majesty ordered to be made here, I told the masters, and they cannot be made according to them. they can ... Also, the instrument to that subject was made, and that instrument and a sample of my work, I will not fail to send to the office of Your Royal Majesty on ships. From London, Andrei Konstantinovich went to Paris, where he studied with the most famous scientists of that time: for example, at the Academy of Sciences, he studied under the guidance of the French mathematician and mechanic Pierre Varignon. However, he also had something to teach the academicians: Nartov taught the turning craft to the president of the academy, Jean-Paul Bignon himself - moreover, on a lathe of his own manufacture. Bignon wrote about the products worked by Nartov on this machine: “It is impossible to see anything most marvellous!” And this despite the fact that the French masters knew a lot about the elegant. Of course, not only skill helped Nartov - the device he created had no equal in Europe: only in 1797, the Englishman Henry Maudslay re-invented a similar machine, moreover, not so perfect and, moreover, just turning, not copying. By the way, the machine on which Nartov taught Bignon is still kept in the Paris National Depository of Arts and Crafts.
Upon returning to his homeland, Nartov suggested that Peter open his own academy - but not of sciences, but of arts. In those days, this word meant not only fine arts, but also all applied knowledge: sculpture, mechanics, architecture, construction, sculpture, various crafts. Peter assessed the project and himself supplemented the list of specialties for which the academy was supposed to train. However, the project, alas, was not destined to come true: after the death of the emperor, the Narts fell into disgrace. The almighty temporary worker Alexander Menshikov did not forgive Nartov for a personal quarrel that occurred during Peter's lifetime: once the "most illustrious prince" in a strong drunk tried to break into the turning workshop, and Nartov kept him by force, stating that in the room that often served as Peter's office, You can't enter without the sovereign's permission. “Good, Nartov, remember this,” Menshikov promised then and fulfilled his threat: Nartov was forever expelled from the palace.
Books, money, 44 barrels
However, the state still needed Nartov's talents, and the empress sent him to the Moscow Mint to find out the reasons why the local craftsmen minted coins of very poor quality. Nartov discovered that the equipment needed for production was almost non-existent. He had to solve a lot of problems, using his inventive abilities: for example, he developed new scales, invented and built new headstock machines that made notches on the edge of coins. Just a year later, he reported to the capital: "The desolated yards have been restored." Working at the mints, Nartov was faced with the lack of any exact units of measurement. This prompted him to draw up drawings of the correct "scales and weights", and in 1733 he put forward the idea of creating a single standard of weight.
About his patron and friend Tsar Peter I, Nartov wrote valuable memoirs - "Memorable narrations and speeches of Peter the Great." In addition, he wanted to perpetuate the memory of the sovereign in engravings on the triumphal pillar in honor of the emperor: the master planned to decorate the pillar with engravings of all the battles in which the king won. Unfortunately, the work was not completed: in 1735, Nartov was summoned from Moscow to the capital, where he was appointed head of the "Laboratory of Mechanical Affairs" - an academic workshop created on the basis of the imperial turnery. Nartov made sure that the Russian craft school created by Peter did not fall into disrepair: he personally trained craftsmen and mechanics, created new turning, metalworking and other machines for them. Among them are a screw cutting machine, a lead sheet pulling machine, a fire-fighting machine, etc. The machine for drilling the channels of gun barrels received the highest praise, for the creation of which the Senate promoted the mechanic to the rank of collegiate adviser, doubled his salary and rewarded him with a village with serfs.
Relief “Creation of St. Petersburg. 1703". Model of the pedestal of the Triumphal Pillar. Artists Bartolomeo Carlo Rastrelli and Andrei Konstantinovich Nartov. Early 18th century. State Hermitage Museum. Image: V. Gromov / RIA Novosti
Thanks to his merits, Nartov was also appointed an adviser to the Russian Academy of Sciences, but he did not stay in this place for a long time: he had a conflict with another adviser, Johann Schumacher. Nartov filed a complaint against him, accusing him of stealing tens of thousands of rubles from the money allocated to this scientific and educational institution. The complaint was supported by many well-known scientists - in particular, Mikhail Lomonosov, blaming Schumacher for the fact that he flooded the academy with foreigners: for 17 years of its existence, not a single Russian academician appeared in it. The commission of inquiry appointed by Elizaveta Petrovna arrested Schumacher, but thanks to powerful patrons he was acquitted and reinstated. But those who complained about him, Schumacher expelled from the academy.
However, Nartov continued to benefit the fatherland - while working in the artillery department, he created new machine tools, fuses, methods for casting cannons. Among his inventions is one of the world's first degree scale elevating propellers, which allowed artillery pieces to aim. The lifting screw was used for the first time in another amazing invention of Andrei Konstantinovich - a rapid-fire battery consisting of 44 three-pound mortars mounted on a horizontal circle. Mortars firing three-pounder shells were divided into eight sections of five and six guns each and connected by a common powder shelf. While some were firing, others were loading. In addition, Nartov was the first to invent an optical sight, which marked the beginning of the history of military optics. For these inventions, the master was granted 5 thousand rubles and several villages in the Novgorod district. In addition, he was promoted to the rank of State Councilor General. The level to which the master brought Russian artillery became apparent during the Seven Years' War, which began in the year of his death. Nartov wanted to generalize his experience as a mechanic in a colossal work - "Theatrum Makhinarum, that is, the Clear View of the Machines", publishing it in a large edition and making it publicly available to all masters. This work, in particular, contained a thorough description of the 34 original machines he created - lathes, lathes, copying lathes, screw-cutting lathes.
Nartov died on April 16, 1756, leaving behind large debts, because he paid for the development of his machines from his own pocket. His machine was forgotten, and the great "Teatrum Mahinarum" lain for 200 years in the court library without readers. The mechanics of Russian life: the mediocrity of domestic officials and managers has always served as a counterweight to the talents of our masters.
In the middle of the 18th century, human civilization came close to one of the most significant stages of its development - the period that historians would later call the Industrial Revolution, or the Great Industrial Revolution. By this time, in the most developed countries of the world, the list of which was then headed by England fueled by numerous colonies, an active process of transition from a predominantly agrarian economy to an industrial one began. The emerging industrial capitalism necessitated an increase in labor productivity, as well as an improvement in the quality and reduction in the cost of production products.
Many factors contributed to these transformations: the development of trade and the formation of a wage labor market, the formation of banks and a credit system, the evolution of law and the flourishing of exact sciences, an increase in the number of inventions and technical innovations. Primitive manual labor and wooden tools could no longer meet the needs of society. Factories and manufactories were in dire need of mechanisms and machines made of metal. It is the rapidly progressingmetalworkingplayed a special role in the success of the industrial revolution XVIII - XIX centuries.
Metalworking as the basis of a factory
about the production of machines and mechanisms
Prior to the industrial revolution, the technology of metal processing by cutting, drilling and grinding improved extremely slowly, and this work was of a fragmented nature. During the manufacturing period, the need for new tools prompted the owners of factories to create auxiliary workshops equipped with elementary drilling, grinding and grinding machines. Some of them were driven by muscle power, others - by the energy of water. But common to all these devices was the minimum degree of mechanization of the processing process, which led to the low quality of products.
At the beginning of the 18th century manufacturing of parts on the machine was carried out by a worker who was forced to hold the processing tool in his hand. Unfortunately, the world technical community at that time did not learn about the invention of the talented Russian mechanic A.K. In Russia of those years, this development, like many other inventions of this talented "chief" of the court turner and pupil of the reformer Tsar Peter I, was not in demand, and was forgotten for a while.
Only towards the end of the century, the Nartov design was studied and became the starting point for the creation of a controlled mechanical caliper by the English mechanic and inventor Henry Maudsley. After this event, the device of almost all the main types of machine tools used in manufactories and factories underwent a thorough modernization. Prior to this, turning work was carried out using primitive cutter holders, which did not allow for the necessary accuracy of processing. With the advent of a controlled caliper, this problem was finally eliminated.
The "social" order and the need of factories for new means of production embodied in metal stimulated the development of metalworking methods in every possible way. This demand has become a real catalyst for industrialization processes, and led to the creation of a new branch of industrial production - mechanical engineering. However, in order to fully meet the technical requirements of a rapidly developing society, mechanical engineering had to make a qualitative technological breakthrough.
The most important developments and inventions of the era of the industrial revolution
1. Lathe
In England, the revolutionary transformation of the economy began with rapid progress in the textile industry. It was possible to provide this industry with new, more productive machines thanks to equally rapidly developing technologies and the improvement of metalworking methods. Demand ensured the rapid evolution of the means of production, and, first of all, one of the main technical means of metal cutting at that time - a lathe. During the XVIII - XIX centuries, the design of the lathe has undergone numerous improvements, among which the following should be especially noted:
● 1712 Invention by Russian mechanic Andrey Konstantinovich Nartov of a self-propelled caliper, which made it possible to fix the cutter and its precise linear movement along the workpiece. 
●1718 - 1729 Improvement by A.K. Nartov of the device of a lathe - a copier, in which the trajectory of the caliper drive and the movement of the copy finger were controlled by different sections of the lead screw with different cutting parameters.
● 1751 The world's first universal type all-metal lathe from the Frenchman Jacques de Vaucanson. It was distinguished by a heavy bed, powerful centers made of metal, and V-shaped guides.
● 1778 New types of screw-cutting machines by the English mechanic D. Ramedon. For the manufacture of threads with a particular pitch, in one of them, interchangeable gears were used, in the other, a special string was responsible for the movement of the cutter, which was wound on a shaft of a certain diameter.
● 1795 Functionality of a screw-cutting machine improved by the French mechanic Senot. In addition to the interchangeable gears and a large lead screw already used in Ramedon machines, the original design of the mechanized caliper became an obvious difference between this development.
● 1798 - 1800. The perfect model of a universal lathe, built by the English engineer Henry Maudsley and his students. This design became the prototype of the screw-cutting lathes of the future, and largely determined the direction of development of this type. 
metalworking equipment for a hundred or more years to come. In addition, G. Maudsley was the first to start the process of standardizing threaded connections.
● 1815 - 1826. Works of students and followers of Henry Maudsley - R. Roberts and D. Clement. The first of them managed to improve the machines due to the optimal location of the lead screw, create an elementary variator in the form of gear enumeration and make control more convenient by moving all the switching bodies closer to the turner's workplace. Machine tool historians attribute to D. Roberts the creation of a frontal lathe, which made it possible to process parts of large diameters.
● 1835 The most important revision of the lathe feed mechanism by the British mechanical engineer and inventor Joseph Whitworth - another student of G. Maudsley. He developed a transverse transmission mechanism and linked it to a longitudinal drive mechanism.
● 1845 Automated turret by American engineer S. Fitch, who proposed a prototype of a turret with eight interchangeable cutters fixed in it. The quick change of cutting tools has reduced to a minimum the loss of time for their reinstallation, and has dramatically increased productivity in the processing of serial products. 
● 1873 Creation of a prototype metal-cutting automatic lathe by the American engineer and entrepreneur H. Spencer, who improved the design of the turrets developed by his predecessors. An important innovation of the authorship of H. Spencer was a modernized control system using a cam mechanism and a camshaft.
● 1880 - 1895. Start of small-scale production of Cleveland turning systems and metal-cutting equipment of other manufacturers, built on the principle of a multi-spindle automatic machine. The expansion of functionality achieved in this way made it possible to realize the long-standing dream of the developers of industrial metal-cutting equipment - by combining various operations, to multiply the productivity and economic efficiency of the machine park.
2. Milling machine 
Turning a rotating part, it is impossible to perform the processing of longitudinal and inclined flat surfaces, as well as the installation of all kinds of grooves, grooves, undercuts, solid “pockets” and windows. Having fixed the part motionlessly, and making the rotating cutting tool movable, humanity has discovered milling work back in the 17th century, when Chinese craftsmen made a rather primitive machine tool, which nevertheless made it possible to process a large flat part for an astronomical instrument.
However, it turned out to be much more difficult to ensure the precise operation of the feed mechanism of a rotating cutter, sufficient for performing small metal work, than to control a caliper with a fixed cutter in a lathe. Various designs for milling flat surfaces, developed in the 17th century, were suitable only for processing products made of wood or bone. Numerous attempts to create a machine for milling metal parts were unsuccessful at that time.
The American industrialist and engineer Eli Whitney was able to fully solve this problem, who in 1818 built a full-fledged milling machine with a mechanized caliper, which was used for a long time at his arms factory. Despite the presence of a wooden bed, a wooden two-stage pulley and a makeshift appearance, the Eli Whitney-designed milling machine successfully coped with all the functions assigned to it, and worked with virtually no breakdowns.
The designs of specialized milling machines developed by Russian mechanics for the arms factory in Tula deserve our attention. Already by 1826, two machines for trimming the breech ends of gun barrels were put into operation there. Fixed in a special movable device, the barrel was fed into the working area of the end mill. Structurally and in appearance, the machines made by Tula craftsmen were more perfect than the products of Eli Whitney, and ensured a higher quality of surface treatment of parts.
In the first half of the 18th century, technological progress in the field of improving the design and functionality of milling machines was associated with the needs of gunsmiths. Another and more advanced than the development of its predecessors, the prototype of the milling machine in 1835 was made by the mechanics of the American arms company Guy, Sylvester and Co. A distinctive feature of this design was a unique system for moving the cutter in a vertical plane, which was subsequently converted into a more reliable table lifting mechanism.
In the middle of the 18th century, the capabilities of milling machines were finally in demand by "peaceful" enterprises, which were already working with might and main for the needs of the industrial revolution, and were forced to process flat surfaces by grinding. The first development for civilian use was the machine of the English company Nasmyth and Geiskell, which performed milling of the flat faces of nuts. Despite the narrow specialization, this device, in fact, was a universal horizontal milling machine, and could well be used in many other operations.
An even more perfect design of the milling machine was developed in 1855 and embodied in metal by the American company Lincoln.(Phoenix Iron Works by George Lincoln). The desktop of this product, like its predecessors, was driven by a belt drive and a worm gear, but a lead screw with a flywheel was used to move the table longitudinally. The installation of the cutter in a vertical plane was carried out in this design by moving the bearings of the mandrel, which also became a certain technical innovation that provided convenience and increased the accuracy of work.The scheme of the machine has become a classic and has been borrowed by many manufacturers of milling equipment.
The history of the creation of this popular machine and its wide distribution is closely connected with the names of people who later founded the world-famous company today. Francis Pratt, the creator of the Lincoln, worked as production manager at the Phoenix Iron Works with Amos Whitney (a relative of the founder of milling equipment, Eli Whitney). Both were talented mechanics and inventors, and in 1860 founded Pratt & Whitney Company specializing in the production of metalworking equipment. During the years of the American Civil War, the company grew significantly and machines under this brand began to be sold all over the world. Currently Pratt & Whitney - the largest supplier of gas turbine engines and generator sets.
3. Watt's steam engine - a demanded drive for machine tools
Turning, drilling and milling machines driven by the force of wind or falling water could not fully provide the necessary parameters for the rotation of workpieces or tools, which significantly affected the quality of metal processing. To organize the factory production of new machines and other means of production, a powerful mover was required, which could, with the necessary speed and force, put the mechanisms of machine equipment into action. Such an engine was the universal steam engine created by the Scottish engineer, mechanic and inventor James Watt.
The original design of the "steam pump" in 1698 was developed and manufactured by Thomas Savery, who in the same year patented his invention and applied it to pumping mine water. Due to low productivity and high fuel consumption, it was impossible to use this engine as a drive for machine tool units. This design, starting in 1705, was tried to improve by another Englishman - Thomas Newcomen. He brought the water-lifting pump built on its basis to small-scale production, however, due to insufficient power for industrial use, this engine was also not suitable.
James Watt, a scientific consultant at the University of Glasgow, developed his version of the steam engine in 1764. But only 12 years later, when the wealthy industrialist Matthew Bolton became his partner, the inventor managed to organize the production and commercial sale of manufactured steam engines. It was Watt who managed to convert the translational motion of the pistons of his machines into the rotation of the load output shaft. The initial design was then repeatedly refined and became more powerful and economical. But the main thing was done - at the end of the 18th century, metal-cutting machines received such a necessary, and independent of natural phenomena, autonomous drive.
Further development of machine tools
The industrial revolution necessitated the development and production of machines for almost all branches of industrial production. The state of the economy depended on the level of development of metalworking tools, so the technical base of the machine tool industry was continuously improved. The design of a mechanical support, originally developed for mounting and controlled movement of lathe cutters, has been successfully applied in other types of machine tools.
To create new metalworking devices, not only a mechanical support was used, but also other structural components of a lathe - a gear system, a feed mechanism, clamping devices and kinematic elements. Numerous American machine-building plants, which by the middle of the 19th century had overtaken the founders of machine tool building - the British in technical development, mass-produced grinding, boring, turret-turning, universal-milling and carousel machines, which eventually became the basis of the industrial heyday and power of the United States.
In the 60s of the XIX century, mechanical engineering began to develop rapidly in Germany and Russia. In our country, one of the pioneers of machine tool building was the Tula Arms Plant, which for its own needs began to produce lathes, milling, drilling, threading, grinding, broaching and grinding machines. Machine-building enterprises successfully started their work, 
built in Moscow, Izhevsk, Sestroretsk, Voronezh and St. Petersburg. The first specialized machine tool enterprise was the Bromley brothers' Moscow plant, later renamed the Red Proletary.
Russian factories quickly mastered the production of all the necessary range of machine tools, including original in-house developments of planers and wheel lathes. Despite these obvious successes, the general level of Russian machine tool building in those years lagged significantly behind the quantitative and qualitative indicators of the machine-building industries in England, the USA and Germany, so the bulk of the machine tool equipment for Russian factories and plants was purchased by their owners abroad. The typical equipment of metalworking enterprises of that time were six types of machines:
● Turning, on which the outer and inner surfaces of the bodies of revolution were turned, the processing of smooth and stepped shafts, products in the form of a ball or cone was performed, cylindrical parts were bored and threads were cut.
● Milling machines, which made it possible to process the outer and inner surfaces of workpieces of complex shapes, which were subject to increased requirements for accuracy and quality.
● Planers horizontal and vertical type, designed for processing workpieces and products with flat surfaces.
● Drilling machine tools, with the help of which holes were drilled, bored and machined, and threads could also be cut.
● Grinding machines on which the finishing of products was carried out with a special abrasive tool and materials.
● Special purpose machines, designed and manufactured to perform a limited number or one specific process step.
At the end of the 19th century, metalworking equipment of all major groups was differentiated and produced in the form of universal machines or special-purpose machines. Indeed, why spend money on a complex and expensive machine if it will be used to perform just a few of the same type of operations. For example, this is how special boring equipment appeared, which was used for the manufacture of gun barrels and the processing of any other products of cylindrical shape and great length.
In an attempt to adapt the lathe to work with workpieces of short length and large diameters, the design of a frontal lathe was developed. Similarly, for a specific task, turning-and-boring machines appeared for processing workpieces of large weight and size, which standard equipment could not work with. For the processing of large-sized products, the designs of radial drilling and longitudinal planing machines with long movable tables were developed.
The highest achievement of the machine tool industry at the end of the 19th century was turret-turning machines equipped with heads for simultaneous installation of up to 16 tools, as well as rotary-milling equipment, which made it possible to process several products of large weight and size at once. No less popular are all specialized machines designed for cutting teeth and processing gears - machines of gear hobbing, gear shaping and gear cutting.
At the turn of the 20th century, mechanical designers and engineers believed that the further development of machine tools for metalworking should be associated with automation, a further increase in the accuracy and speed of operations. Of great importance for the future of the industry was the invention by American engineers White and Taylor of high-alloy "high-speed" steel for the manufacture of cutters and other metal-cutting tools. However, machine tool builders were able to take full advantage of the possibilities of metal processing at increased speeds in connection with this invention already in the 20th century.
Selected Persons of the Industrial Revolution
The basis of any progressive changes in the life of society, be it social, economic or technological transformations, are concrete individuals. In addition to the needs of society to improve the technical basis of production, a necessary condition for the industrial revolution was the creative activity of many talented people - machine operators, mechanics, inventors and design engineers.
It was they who, complementing and improving each other's developments, eventually created a machine park, which made it possible to establish the production of the required number of new and more advanced means of production. For example, let's list at least a few "actors" of the industrial revolution, not forgetting our great compatriots, who also made a significant contribution to the practice and theory of metalworking:
● A.K. Nartov- a native of the people, who began his career as a turner in the palace workshop of Peter I, and ended his earthly path in the rank of state councilor general. After studying abroad, the young head of the court "turner" Andrey Nartov, back in 1717, proposed the design of a mechanized support for a lathe. Subsequently, A.K. Nartov developed the mechanisms of another 34 machine tools in detail, but after his death, the manuscripts ended up in the court library, and were found by descendants only 200 years later.
● Henry Maudsley- An English mechanic who immortalized his name with the creation in 1794 of a perfect design of a cross mechanical self-propelled caliper. In 1798, when developing a screw-cutting lathe, he used a replaceable lead screw, and for the first time proposed to standardize all threaded parts and connections. In addition, Henry Maudsley is known for having trained and educated a whole galaxy of students at his own factory, each of whom continued the work of a teacher and made his own contribution to the further development of metalworking tools.
● Joseph Whitworth. This British engineer and entrepreneur went down in history not only by improving the design of the lathe's transverse gear. Subsequently, D. Whitworth became an industrialist, built his own mechanical plant, and most importantly, back in 1841, he proposed the principles of unification of machine parts and screw thread standards, which bear his name and are still used today. He is also the author of the caliber system, which he developed and, together with especially precise measuring instruments, introduced into the practice of his factory, thus setting an example for machine operators all over the world.
● I.A.Time- Russian scientist and mechanical engineer, who for the first time studied and illuminated in his writings the processes that occur during metal machining. By studying the parameters of chip formation at various feed and cutting speeds, he was able to establish important patterns that allowed him in 1870 to publish recommendations for setting the optimal operating modes for metal-cutting machine tools.
● K.A. Zworykin- A graduate of the St. Petersburg Mechanical Technological Institute, later a professor. Konstantin Alekseevich Zworykin continued the research of I.A. Time and published works on the problems of optimal cutting of metals, in which he gave an updated diagram of the forces acting on the cutter. In 1883, K.A. Zworykin created a device that made it possible to determine the cutting force, and derived a formula by which it was possible to calculate the most efficient operating modes of the machine.
● Frederick Taylor- An American engineer who for 26 years studied the processes of cutting metals with cutters of various shapes, at various angles and at all possible speeds. He revealed patterns that affect the quality of processing, time spent, chip thickness, cooling parameters and tool life. As a result, he practically established the most profitable metalworking modes, and in 1884, based on his research, he created a special counting ruler for a worker - a machine operator, by which it was possible to determine the optimal cutting mode. The works of F.Taylor were of invaluable importance for the improvement of metalworking methods, and were accepted with gratitude by specialized specialists from all over the world.
Russian machine tool industry on the threshold of XXcentury
The industrial revolution in Russia, with its predominantly agrarian economy, was almost a century late. However, starting in the middle of the 19th century, in a fairly short historical period of 50 years, the industrial revolution subjected the entire production and socio-economic sphere of the Russian state to an irreversible reformation. After the abolition of serfdom, capitalism and its inherent market relations were finally established in the country, the processes of capital accumulation and the creation of industrial enterprises were rapidly going on. As a hundred years ago in England, the introduction of high-performance machines began in the factories of the cotton industry.
According to statistics, by the beginning of 1900 in Russia there were 1805 mechanical engineering and metalworking enterprises equipped with 2966 mechanical engines. Unfortunately, history has not preserved the total number and species diversity of metal-cutting machines. At the same time, more than 150 thousand mechanical looms were used at 185 weaving factories, many of which were manufactured at domestic machine-building enterprises. The Russian machine tool industry, although lagging far behind the level of the leading countries of the world, developed truly by leaps and bounds. By the end of the 19th century, in terms of the level of equipment of industrial enterprises with metalworking machines, Russia reached the world average.
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