Russian words that are known all over the world. Originally Russian words: examples. Obsolete Russian words The origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language

In this article, we will look at such layers of vocabulary as outdated and native Russian words. Originally Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous. It consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their occurrence.

Indo-Europeanism

The most ancient of the primordially Russian are Indo-Europeanisms, that is, words that have passed into our language since the time of Indo-European unity. According to researchers, in the 5-4 centuries BC, there was an Indo-European civilization, within which various tribes living in a rather large territory united. According to the research of some scientists, this area stretched from the Yenisei to the Volga. Others suggest that it was the South Russian or Balkan-Danube localization. Such a linguistic community as Indo-European, laid the foundation for European languages, as well as some Asian languages (for example, Sanskrit, Bengali).

Words that go back to the parent language, the basis of this community, designate animals, plants, minerals and metals, forms of management, tools, types of kinship and others - these are primordially Russian words. Examples: salmon, oak, wolf, goose, copper, sheep, honey, bronze, son, mother, night, daughter, snow, magnifier, new, water, sew and etc.

Common Slavic words

The next layer of primordially Russian words includes common Slavic, which were inherited from the common Slavic (that is, Proto-Slavic) Russian language. They served as a source not only for our language, but also for all other Slavic ones. This basic language existed in prehistoric times on the territory of the Vistula, Bug and Dnieper. These places were inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. The common Slavic language disintegrated in the 6-7 centuries AD. This opened the way for the development of a number of Slavic languages, to which Old Russian belongs. Common Slavic words in them are easily distinguished, their common origin is evident even today. The Russian language also goes back to the common Slavic languages. Originally include common Slavic as an integral part.

There are many nouns among them. First of all, these are specific names that represent the original Russian words. Examples: throat, head, heart, beard, field, palm, forest, mountain, maple, birch, cow, ox, sickle, knife, pitchfork, neighbor, seine, servant, guest, friend, spinner, shepherd, potter.

There are also abstract ones, but there are far fewer of them. This: will, faith, sin, guilt, glory, happiness, thought, rage.

Among other parts of speech, verbs are also presented in common Slavic vocabulary: hear, see, lie, grow. Adjectives: old, young, cunning, wise. Numerals: three two one. Pronouns: you, we, you. Pronoun adverbs: where, there, how. Some service words: by, yes, and, a, over and other primordially Russian words. The examples can be continued.

The general Slavic vocabulary is today about two thousand words, but this rather small lexical stock is the core of the Russian dictionary. It includes the most common, stylistically neutral words that are used in both written and oral speech.

Having a source of its Proto-Slavic varieties of it, possessing various lexical, grammatical and sound features, they separated into the following three groups: eastern, western and southern.

East Slavic vocabulary

The third layer, which exists in the Russian language, is made up of the words of the Old Russian (East Slavic) vocabulary. This is already a later time, to which the origin of the original Russian words also belongs. This vocabulary developed on the basis of the East Slavic language, one of three groups into which the Old Slavic ones are combined. The time of its appearance is 7-9 centuries AD. The tribal unions that lived in Eastern Europe date back to the Ukrainian, Russian and Belarusian peoples. That is why the words remaining from this period in our language are also known in two others: Belarusian and Ukrainian, but at the same time they are absent in the languages of the southern and

The following vocabulary belongs to the East Slavic. Since these words were used in the language from the very beginning, they were not borrowed, these are also primordially Russian words. Examples:

Names of birds, animals: squirrel, dog, drake, jackdaw, bullfinch;

The names of the tools: blade, ax;

Household items: ladle, boot, ruble, chest;

Occupational titles of people: cook, carpenter, miller, shoemaker;

Names of various settlements: settlement, village, as well as other lexico-semantic groups.

Russian vocabulary proper

The next, fourth, layer that can be distinguished is the Russian vocabulary itself, which was formed after the 14th century, that is, during the period of independent development of the Belarusian, Ukrainian and Russian languages. They already have their equivalents for the expression of certain objects or phenomena.

Actually Russian words can be distinguished by a derivative basis: flyer, bricklayer, community, locker room, intervention other.

It should be noted that in the composition of such vocabulary there may also be words with various foreign-language roots that have passed the way of word formation and have added Russian prefixes, suffixes ( non-party, partisanship, ruler, aggressiveness, kettle, glass), as well as having a complex basis ( steam locomotive, radio center). These also include many different compound abbreviated words, which in the 20th century replenished our language: wall newspaper, timber industry, Moscow Art Theater and etc.

Now the primordial Russian vocabulary continues to be replenished with new inclusions, which are created using the word-formation resources of our language as a result of various word-formation processes.

Obsolete Russian words

Words that have ceased to be actively used do not immediately disappear from him. They are still understandable for some time by those who speak it, they are known to us from works of fiction. Although the speech practice of everyday life no longer feels the need for them. These words constitute a passive vocabulary and are listed in various explanatory dictionaries with a special mark "outdated."

The process of archaizing words

Usually the process of archaization takes place gradually. Among the outdated words, therefore, there are those that have significant "experience" (for example, this, therefore, scarlet, speech, thief, child). Others are removed from the active vocabulary due to the fact that they belong to the Old Russian period of its development. Sometimes words become obsolete in a relatively short period of time, appearing and disappearing in the modern period. For example, "shkrab" meant "teacher" until the 1920s. Words such as "rabkrin", "NKVEDist" appeared, which fell out of use very quickly. The corresponding labels in the dictionaries do not always have such nominations, since the process of archaization can be perceived as not quite complete yet.

Reasons for archaization

There are various reasons for the archaization of vocabulary. They can acquire character if the refusal to use certain words is associated with social transformations. But they can also be conditioned by linguistic laws. The adverbs "right hand", "oshuyu" (right, left), for example, disappeared from the active dictionary due to the fact that their nouns ("left hand" - "shuytsa" and "right hand" - "right hand") were archaized. In such cases, the systemic relations of various lexical units played a decisive role. For example, the word "shuytsa" fell out of use, and consequently the semantic connection of various words that were united by this historical root disintegrated at the same time. "Shulga", for example, in the language did not stay in the meaning of "left-handed" and remained as a surname that goes back to the nickname. This is how the word is used now. You can talk for a long time about the Russian language, the processes within it. This is all very interesting. We will only briefly, using one example, describe a typical process.

The following anatomical pairs collapsed: oshuy-right hand, shuytsa-right hand; synonymous links ( left, oshuy). But the word "right hand" for some time, despite the archaization of the systemic relations associated with it, was retained in our language. For example, in the Pushkin era, this word was used in poetic speech, "high syllable". One can speak of the Russian language as constantly developing, therefore the fact that the vocabulary is becoming obsolete is a natural process. The word "oshuy" remained only as an echo of the archaic, its use only in a satirical context at that time was possible.

Outdated vocabulary

Outdated vocabulary is heterogeneous in origin. Its composition includes originally Russian words (examples: semo, this, so that, lzya), as well as Old Slavicisms ( loins, kiss, smooth), borrowings from different languages ("polites" - "politeness", "voyage" - "travel", "abshid" - "resignation").

Reviving obsolete words

There are also known cases when obsolete Russian words are revived, returning to the active vocabulary. For example, the following nouns are often used in Russian today: minister, warrant officer, officer, soldier, which became archaized after October. They gave way to others: People's Commissar, Divisional Commander, Red Army... In the 1920s, for example, the word "leader" was extracted from the composition of passive vocabulary, which was perceived as archaism in the Pushkin era and was cited in the dictionaries of that time with a corresponding mark. Today it is archaizing again. The shade of archaism has relatively recently lost such words as Duma, gymnasium, department, lyceum... They were judged after 1917 as historicism.

Histories

The return to the active vocabulary of some words is possible only under special circumstances. This is always due to various extralinguistic factors. If archaization is dictated by linguistic laws and is reflected in lexical systemic connections, the resulting words are called historicisms.

Among them, the names of concepts, phenomena, objects that have disappeared are distinguished: chain mail, oprichnik, policeman, gendarme, tutor, hussar, Bolshevik, schoolgirl, food appropriation, NEP, middle peasant, kulak, VKP (b) other. Historicisms, as a rule, appear as a result of extra-linguistic reasons: the development of production, social transformations, the renewal of household items, weapons, etc.

Today, the school curriculum includes the topic "Obsolete and Primordially Russian Words" (Grade 6). Anyone should know at least a little about their native language, the history of its development. Our article was written in order to expand the knowledge of readers about the various layers of vocabulary that make up the great Russian word.

Russian vocabulary(a set of words in a language) has gone through a centuries-old path of development, in the process of which some words disappeared, others appeared. This process continues today and will continue further, as in any living language on the planet.

The vocabulary in terms of its origin can be divided into primordial and borrowed... Both of these layers, in turn, are heterogeneous in origin and time of occurrence of the words (lexemes) included in them.

We will start the story about this with the primordial vocabulary: it is this vocabulary that makes up the bulk of the vocabulary of the Russian language. As for the exact number of original words, it is difficult to establish it, and different researchers give different estimates here. In most cases, the share of native vocabulary is determined in the range of 80-90% (or even more) of the total vocabulary.

Primordial are those words that were formed in a given language from the morphemes available in it or were inherited from an older "ancestor language". For example, the primordial vocabulary of the modern Russian language includes not only words formed on Russian soil in the last two centuries, but also inherited from the period of the 16th - 18th centuries, Old Russian, Proto-Slavic, Proto-Indo-European languages ... Let's consider these layers in chronological order.

Indo-Europeanism

This is a conventional name for the most ancient Russian words that we inherited from the era of Proto-Indo-European linguistic unity. The Proto-Indo-European language is reconstructed hypothetically; it presumably existed in the 5th - 4th millennia BC. e. As a result of the breakdown into numerous dialects, it gave rise to most of the languages \ u200b \ u200bof present-day Europe and some Asian (Indo-European language family).

Indo-Europeanisms for the most part represent the names of specific objects, qualities and actions; there are few designations for abstract concepts among them. All these words have close "relatives" not only in Slavic, but also in other languages of the Indo-European family. Of course, the “descendants” of the same Proto-Indo-European word in modern languages look somewhat different: over the course of many centuries they have changed and have accumulated some phonetic, structural and semantic differences. Here are examples of related words dating back to the Proto-Indo-European era:

Russian sky- German Nebel'Fog' - Greek nephos‘Sky, cloud’ (more about the etymology of the word sky cm. );

Russian a son- Lithuanian sūnus- German Sohn- english son;

Russian sheep- Latin ovis- ancient Indian avikaḥ and etc.

In addition to those listed, Indo-Europeanisms in the Russian language include the words:

mother, daughter, brother, sister, daughter-in-law, nose, tooth, ear, eye, night, water, moon, snow, fire, goose, deer, house, honey, oak, seed, grain, bronze, price, name, new, left, first, have, take, sob, sew, grind, tear, two, three etc. As we can see, among them there are the terms of kinship, designations of animals, body parts, actions, qualities, quantity.

Common Slavic vocabulary

Proto-Slavic (Common Slavic) language is one of the "descendants" of Proto-Indo-European. In turn, it is the common ancestor of all languages of the Slavic group. The time of its existence has not been established exactly, the period from the second or the middle of the first millennium BC is usually called. e. until the 6th - 7th centuries A.D. e.

The common Slavic vocabulary includes words that arose in the Proto-Slavic language and were absent before. Moreover, they were usually created on the basis of Proto-Indo-European roots, directly inherited by the Slavs; rarely - on the basis of borrowings (for example, from the languages of the Germanic group). At present, Russian words of common Slavic origin have close matches in other Slavic languages and do not have such matches in other languages of the Indo-European family.

As an example, consider the word father... It came to the modern Russian language from the Proto-Slavic era, where it was formed on the basis of a modified Indo-European root * at-(from children's speech) using the suffix *-ĭ kŏs... As a result of subsequent changes, the word took the form * otbkb> * otbcb where did the Old Russian father, and then the modern Russian version. There are close analogues in other Slavic languages: Ukrainian father, Bulgarian father, Serbo-Croatian tatz, Slovenian oče, Czech otec, Polish ojciec, Upper Sorbian wótc etc. The Proto-Indo-European designation of the father was lost by the Slavs (cf. German Vater, latin pater, english father etc.).

Here are other examples of Russian words of Proto-Slavic origin. Most of them mean:

- parts of the body of humans and animals ( throat, head, hand, side, mane, hair, face, snout, nail, hoof);

- kinship terms ( father-in-law, mother-in-law, stepfather, stepmother, son-in-law, grandson);

- periods and time intervals ( spring, year, summer, tomorrow, morning, month);

- household items ( needle, barrel, bucket, broom, thread, lock, mirror, candle, oil);

- natural objects and phenomena ( stream, frost, storm, thunder, lake, island, valley, sun, star, earth, ice);

- plants ( carrots, wheat, viburnum, lingonberry, oats, spruce, birch);

- domestic and wild animals, insects ( dog, bear, horse, fish, lynx, bison, bull, bee, caterpillar, snake, eagle, hedgehog, stallion, owl, hare);

- minerals ( clay, tin, sand, iron, gold, silver, lead, copper);

- tools, tools and activities ( pincers, harrow, rake, paddle, gusli, knife, chisel, hunting, spear);

- persons, people ( guest, witch, potter, people, bride, groom, boy, shepherd);

- abstract concepts ( fight, punishment, fear, weight, grief, sin, gift, happiness, defense, image, laughter);

- actions ( roll, cook, bathe, patch, breathe, heal, drive, bite, reach, crush, drive, regret);

- signs and qualities ( important, stupid, deep, fast, great, old, dear, green, red, gray-haired, left).

Of course, only the most extensive semantic categories are listed here; they do not exhaust the entire wealth of common Slavic vocabulary in the Russian language. In general, there are about two thousand Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Slavic lexemes in modern Russian. On the one hand, this is not a lot; on the other hand, these words are still very common, and in our daily communication their share is about a quarter. In addition to nouns, verbs and adjectives, there are also numerals, pronouns, adverbs and service parts of speech among them.

East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary

The linguistic community of the East Slavic tribes was formed approximately by the 7th - 9th centuries. and lasted until the XIV-XV centuries. These tribes, whose language is now called East Slavic or Old Russian, became the ancestors of today's Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians. The state on whose territory the glades, Drevlyans, Vyatichi, northerners, Krivichi and many other Slavic and non-Slavic ethnic groups of that period lived, now we call Ancient Rus.

The primordial vocabulary of ancient Russian origin was formed for the most part on the basis of common Slavic, sometimes on the basis of borrowings (from Greek, Germanic, Turkic languages). There are close correspondences to Russian words that came from Ancient Rus in the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, but in the languages of the West and South Slavic there are, as a rule, no such correspondences.

squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch, nephew, snowfall, eyes, destiny(‘Region, territory’), bagpipes, blade, chest, ruble, carpenter, shoemaker, cook, medicine man, village, settlement, trap, privilege, fun, secluded, medicinal, keen-sighted, sudden, start, wag, calm down, flicker, beckon, get used to, get good and etc.

Russian vocabulary proper

From the XIV - XV centuries. the era of separate existence of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages begins. All the original words that have appeared in the Russian language since that time are called Russian proper. They make up the majority of our vocabulary.

This is the largest and most diverse layer of Russian vocabulary. It was created and is being created on the basis of primordial words inherited by the language from earlier periods of its development, as well as on the basis of borrowings. As for the latter: usually those words that were formed from foreign languages according to the rules of Russian word formation, with the help of Russian affixes, are usually referred to the original vocabulary. For example, the words highway, tea, manicure are not native in Russian and refer to borrowed vocabulary. But tokens road, kettle, manicurist already formed in the Russian language according to its rules, therefore they are considered primordial. Some researchers attribute them to an intermediate layer of vocabulary between original and borrowed words.

In addition, words completely consisting of foreign-language morphemes can also be native Russian. For instance: cosmonaut, activist, rocket launcher... These lexemes originated in the Russian language, created by its native speakers, and not taken from outside. In foreign languages, they are either absent altogether, or are borrowings from Russian.

Literature:

Shansky N.M. Essays on Russian word formation and lexicology. - M., 1959.

Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A.Modern Russian language. - M., 2017.

Shansky N.M., Ivanov V.V.Modern Russian language: In 3 parts. - Part I. - M., 1987.

Marinova E.V. Foreign language vocabulary of the modern Russian language. - M., 2012.

Chernykh P. Ya. Historical and etymological dictionary of the modern Russian language: In 2 volumes. - M., 1999.

Shansky N.M., Ivanov V.V., Shanskaya T.V. A short etymological dictionary of the Russian language. - M., 1971.

Some Russian words are known all over the world. They are not even translated. Either because the word is simply untranslatable, or because the translation is redundant - this phenomenon is too well known in this form.

1) KALASHNIKOV

The surname of the Russian gunsmith, who created one of the most popular assault rifles in the world, has become a household name.

AK 47 is a living legend. It took first place in the list of the most significant inventions of the 20th century according to the French magazine "Liberation" and the 4th place on the list of "50 products that changed the world" according to Playboy magazine, behind the Apple Macintosh computer, the contraceptive pill and the Sony Betamax VCR.

Children in Africa are called Kalash, and the machine gun is depicted on the national flags of four states (Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Burkina Faso, East Timor) and on the coat of arms of Mozambique.

2) MATRYOSHKA

Despite the fact that the matryoshka itself is not a Russian invention, but a Japanese one, it is the Russian matryoshka that has become a world-famous brand, and the word itself does not need translation.
"Matryoshka" comes from the name Matryona, which goes back to the pre-European word mater (mother).
Matryoshka still inspires the world's best designers. Apple produces covers and speakers for the ipad in the shape of a Russian national doll, American designer Rachel Chaba Scharfstein produces Bushka piggy banks (from the word “grandmother”) in the shape of matryoshka dolls, and English table lamp manufacturer Mathmos - Babushka lamps with the same recognizable shape.

4) SPUTNIK

Several Russian words at once became international after the launch of the Soviet space program: Lunokhod, Sputnik, Soyuz, Mir and Vostok. It was a unique for the history of the twentieth century, the most powerful trendsetting from the Soviet Union. Transliterated words, unusual for foreigners, appeared on the covers of magazines, they were read from TV screens and heard on radio broadcasts. It was not easy for Western people to understand the difference in the words peace / world and orient / east / East, but nothing, they coped.

5) GULAG

Astolphe de Custine was the first to call Russia a "prison" in his book "Russia in 1839". He wrote: "... No matter how immense this empire is, it is nothing more than a prison, the key to which is kept by the emperor ...". According to Herzen, "Custine's composition was in all hands," the image of Russia as a "prison of peoples" entered the Russian language as an aphorism
In the 20th century, Western propaganda cherished another myth - "The USSR is a prison of nations." Any foreigner knew this expression. And sometimes he understood it literally. For example, many US citizens who came to Moscow during the “Iron Curtain” asked their Soviet escorts to show them GULAG. It was believed that there were no less of them in the USSR than, say, cinemas.

6) BORSHCH

Russian cuisine is known and loved all over the world, and its “signature” dishes such as BLYNY, PIROGY, PELMENY, KASHA, KVASS and SMETANA can be found on the menus of many foreign restaurants. The most difficult word for a Westerner, of course, is BORSHCH. Borscht has long been a favorite dish of Russian and Eastern European emigrants and even gave the name to the resort area north of New York, which is now known to everyone as the "Borscht Belt".

7) PERESTROIKA

The outlandish Russian word "perestroika" entered the foreign lexicon in the late 80s and early 90s of the last century. For the first time this term was voiced by Mikhail Gorbachev at a meeting with the party activist of the Leningrad city committee of the party on May 15-17, 1985. Gorby then said: “Apparently, comrades, we all need to rebuild. Everyone. " The wording was picked up first by the Soviet and then by the Western media.
We all know where PERESTROIKA has led ...

8) HALIAVA

The word HALIAVA was brought across the cordon by the ubiquitous Russian tourists. Today, wanting to attract Russian-speaking buyers to a store or shop, sellers like to flaunt this word. The origin of this word is interesting. "Freebie" used to be called the bootleg, where it was convenient to put the thing you liked. Simply - to steal, that is, to take and not pay money for it. Do barkers know about this etymology?

9) BABUSHKA

If you look in the English-Russian dictionary, you can see the word BABUSHKA there (meaning: a usually triangularly folded kerchief for the head; scarf, kerchief, scarf on the head). The second meaning of this word is "an elderly Russian woman."
For the first time, the borrowing of "grandmother" from the Russian language was recorded in Webster's dictionary (the dictionary notes that this word has been found in English since 1938).

10) NA ZDOROVIE

If you have ever taken part in feasts with foreigners, you must have noticed that some of them no, no, and will say as a toast: “Na zdorovie!”. It is not known for certain when exactly abroad they began to believe that this figure of politeness was a toast, but foreigners often say it during feasts. They do it confidently and with a touch of self-righteousness that betrays pride in their knowledge of Russian traditions.

11) COSSACK

The word "Cossack" in America has been associated with Russia since the middle of the 18th century, when the Russian administration appeared in Alaska. Europe learned about the Cossacks even earlier, but the most convincing presentation of the Cossacks was on May 1, 1814 in Paris, when Russian units came to the city.

If Russian soldiers and officers could not be distinguished from the Prussians and Austrians (only in form), then the Cossacks were bearded, in trousers with stripes, just the same as in the pictures in French newspapers. Only real Cossacks were kind. Delighted flocks of children ran after the Russian soldiers. And Parisian men soon began to wear beards "like the Cossacks" and knives on wide belts.

In English, the word COSSACK has been used since 1589.

12) SAMIZDAT

The name "samizdat" appeared among the Soviet people as a natural parody of the names of Soviet state publishing organizations like Goskomizdat and Politizdat.
The poet Nikolai Glazkov was the first to use the word “samsebyaizdat”, which is close in meaning and form, to the poet Nikolai Glazkov: already in the 1940s, he put this word on the colored and bound typewritten collections of his poems that he produced.

In 1960-1980 "samizdat" became a cult thing for the USSR. "Samizdat" books "leaked" abroad as well, which is why the word "floated" into the Western lexicon. The word SAMIZDAT is known abroad even now. There is even a B&R Samizdat Express publishing house in the USA.

13) DACHA

The first dachas appeared in Russia long before Peter the Great, although it is still mistakenly believed that it was this emperor who was the first to popularize the dachas.

"Dacha" (which means "gift") back in the time of Ivan the Terrible was the main currency for reckoning with the service class, the small landed nobility, which the first Russian tsars tried to win over to their side in opposition to influential appanage princes.

I must say that in those days the dacha was not given forever, but was given for the duration of the service. Only Peter I introduced the practice of transferring suburban land plots for untimely use.

The dachas acquired their "second wind" in Soviet times, when they acquired the status of one of the main fetishes of Soviet people.
DACHA is an international word. It is found in both French and English.

14) SAMOVAR

A samovar is a Russian thing in itself. Despite the fact that the first samovars appeared in China, they became an object of national pride in Russia.

In the 60s of the 18th century, the gunsmith Fyodor Lisitsyn decided to organize an enterprise in Tula for the production of pots and "devices for heating water." Soon, not a single fair takes place without the participation of this product of Tula masters. Over time, the Tula samovars became known throughout Russia: in 1829, at the St. Petersburg exhibition, the Tula samovar was awarded a small silver medal.

Abroad, Russian samovars ended up with emigrants and soon became one of the markers of Russian identity abroad (suffice it to recall the Russian Samovar restaurant in New York). During Barack Obama's visit to Russia, Vladimir Putin treated the US President to tea from a samovar.

15) TROYKA

Officially, the troika appeared in Russia at the beginning of the 18th century, when the troika harness began to be used by the tsarist courier service, however, given the long journey of every Russian innovation, it can be assumed that the troika appeared in Russia much earlier.
According to historical legend, the acquaintance of "our Western partners" with the Russian troika took place under Catherine II, when the Austrian Emperor Joseph arrived in Russia. The empress invited the best coachman and asked if he could take the guest from Petersburg to Moscow in 36 hours. The driver answered in the affirmative, although usually it took two or three days on this path ...

16) TZAR

The Russian word "Tsar" is transliterated into English in several versions. For example, TZAR and CZAR. This is usually not translated. So, the most powerful Soviet bomb is called in English: TZAR-BOMBA.

Today, as BBC Russain wrote, "Tsars" in American political slang are presidential special envoys who are entrusted by the White House to manage a certain area and coordinate the actions of several government departments. Critics refer to them collectively as the "shadow cabinet"

17) KGB

The abbreviation KGB from Andropov times until the end of the USSR was both frightening and bewitching. The power of this organization was known on both sides of the ocean. A well-developed agent base, a high level of Soviet state security specialists have become the talk of the town.
In the West during the years of the USSR, many believed that in the Union there is a dossier in the KGB for every Soviet person, all apartments are bugged, and ordinary citizens are being spied on the streets. Everything is like in Orwell's novel "1984".

In 2001, Cheburashka gained great popularity in Japan. In 2003, at the Tokyo International Animation Fair, the Japanese company SP International acquired from Soyuzmultfilm the rights to distribute cartoons about Cheburashka in Japan until 2023, and the Japanese TV channel TV Tokyo showed 26 episodes of an anime about Cheburashka called Cheburashka Arere.

20) TAIGA

Russia is famous for its forests. And the most important of the Russian forests is the taiga. This term is used abroad to call any difficult forest. The word TAIGA entered the branding as well. Our Niva was delivered to Austria under the Lada Taiga brand

The Russian language is one of the brightest and most difficult in the world. This wonderful and strong language helps to express all shades of thought and describe events in detail, to show the mood of a person and his attitude to the world around him. Its origin goes back to antiquity and is divided into borrowed and native Russian words. For people who study this language or live in Russia, it is very important to distinguish between Russian and foreign words that came to our country from other languages of the world. Without such knowledge, it is almost impossible to fully understand its nature.

Ancient origins

Russian belongs to the Indo-European language group, which is based on an even more ancient Proto-Indo-European language. From this "family" came:

Common Slavic.
Baltic.
Germanic.
Romance languages.

The common Slavic language was first reborn into Old Russian, and after the XIV century it was divided into three parts: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian. The most ancient native Russian words came into our vocabulary from the Proto-Indo-European language. These words are still used by people and are used very often in everyday life. Few people think about such names of close relatives as mother, son, daughter, brother and sister. And yet they are primordially Russian words, examples of which can be cited endlessly.

What groups can be divided into Russian words?

As noted above, our modern language originates in the Indo-European language family. Therefore, it is possible to divide the origin of the names of various objects into groups of primordial Russian words. There are four groups in total.

Indo-European group

Indo-European word group is the most common in the world. It covers all continents where people live. The name of this group was given by the scientist - polyglot Thomas Jung in 1813. In German sources, the group is usually called "Indo-Germanic languages", and in earlier times it was called Aryan, later this name was given to one of the groups of Indo-European languages.

There are various hypotheses about the place of origin of the Proto-Indo-European language, from which this group emerged. The people who spoke it lived about six thousand years ago. They lived in Eastern Europe and Southwest Asia. Also, the speakers of this language are considered to be the Indo-Europeans of the Yamnaya culture, whose territory was located on the lands of Ukraine and the southern part of Russia. This variant of the origin of the language is confirmed by scientific research. It was spread in Europe by the migration of the Yamnaya culture people from the Black Sea lands and the Volga region 4500 years ago.

Hypothesis of mixing languages from two sources

According to another hypothesis, it is believed that the Indo-European group was formed from two linguistic sources. Scientists suggest that there was a mixing of the Ural-Altai with the Caucasian-Semitic. According to this hypothesis, the Anatolian proto-language originally appeared from the Indo-European society; this event took place on the territory of the Armenian Highlands in the fourth millennium BC. Then the ancestors of the Anatolians moved west. As a result of this migration, the Indo-European language was further divided into groups. One group included the predecessors of the Italic, Tocharian and Celtic languages, while the other group included the predecessors of the Armenian, Aryan, Greek, Baltic, Slavic and Germanic languages. In turn, the second group split into two more branches:

Aryan, Armenian, Greek.
Germanic, Baltic, Slavic languages.

The Indo-European language group includes words such as, for example, the names of relatives: father, mother, son, daughter. This primordial meaning of Russian words is understandable to almost every inhabitant of the planet. And also the designations of some animals: wolf, sheep, bull. And food: meat, bone.

All-Slavic group

This group is often called Proto-Slavic. The words of this group came to us from the Slavic tribes. Unfortunately, the written sources of the Proto-Slavic language have not survived, and it was restored by comparing different Slavic languages and other Indo-European linguistic branches. At the beginning of our era, the Slavs occupied a vast territory and united a large number of people. They already used one common language, which included the original words of the Russian language. After the 7th century, the settlement of the people took place. As a result, the common language "disintegrated", but became the basis on which the South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic language groups could be formed.

Among the primordially Russian words, examples of a common Slavic group can be the names of living quarters or plants: house, floor, canopy, oats, peas and others. And also food products or names of birds: jelly, kvass, cheese, chicken, starling. There are verbs that originate from the common Slavic group: lie down, sleep, sit. Adjectives and numerals: young, old, one, two, three, one hundred and others. Pronouns and adverbs: I, we, you, wherever, etc.

East Slavic or Old Russian group

The words of this group appeared only among the Eastern Slavs, the progenitors of the Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians, who by the 9th century were part of Kievan Rus. For primordially Russian words, examples are the names of objects, actions or their properties: basket, rumble, good house, dove, beautiful, long. Among the concepts of kinship, the words appear: uncle and stepdaughter. Chaffinch, bullfinch, squirrel are added to the names of birds and animals, in units of count people use numbers such as forty and ninety. Words appear that indicate time intervals, for example, today. All these words are used by Russians, Ukrainians, and Belarusians.

Russian band

This group includes all words that have arisen since the XIV century among the Great Russian people. An exception is vocabulary borrowed from other languages. New words appeared as a result of human activity, the appearance of new objects and phenomena. The words of the primordial Russian vocabulary of this period include:

Household items: wallpaper, irradiation.
Actions: scold, grumble.
Various concepts: deception, experience, outcome.
Words formed with suffixes: bricklayer, cleaner, lighter.
Nouns: chiaroscuro, musk ox.
Adjectives: wild, dark red.
Verbs: run away, get used to.
Adverbs: in autumn.
Prepositions: like, while others.

Borrowed words

In any language of the world, there are words that came from other countries. A person in the course of his activities begins to communicate with representatives of other nations. Establishing political, cultural and commercial ties, people of different language groups bring new, borrowed words into their speech. The vocabulary of the Russian language includes about 10% of words of foreign origin (Greek, Latin, English, German, French, Arabic, Chinese). In addition, according to the rules of the Russian language, new Russian words can be formed from borrowed ones. For instance:

Sports are sports.
The climate is climatic.
Coffee is a coffee pot.
Highway - highway and others.

How to distinguish borrowed money?

For people studying Russian, it is very important to be able to distinguish between which word is native Russian and which came from a foreign language. There are a number of signs by which it is easy to determine the origin of a word:

It starts with the vowels A, E, Yu, for example - pharmacy, aura, popsicle, era, skirt.
The composition contains the letter F, for example - a torch, a sideboard, shoes, football, soffit, telephone, gramophone, figure and others.
Nouns ending in -ii: lecture, army, harmony, photography, situation.
There are doubled consonants: profession, terrace.
If there are two vowels in a row at the root: poet, maestro.
The adjacent syllables have the same vowels A, U, I: drum.
Combinations of letters MU, BYU, PU, KYU, KE, GE, XE are also signs of borrowed words: bureau, muesli, skittles, mashed potatoes.

Knowing these signs, you can easily determine which word is native Russian.

Words that came from the Old Church Slavonic language

The Old Church Slavonic language began from the era of Kievan Rus. Since the 10th century, Russian, along with the Church Slavonic language, developed in parallel, exerting a significant influence on each other. Old Slavicisms of primordial Russian words can be distinguished into a separate group of borrowed expressions:

Grad is a city.
Breg is the shore.
Verb - word and others.

Old Slavicisms, like other borrowed words, have their own distinctive features:

Phonetic: -ra- (hail), -la- (power), -re- (burden), -le- (milky), railway / w (alien - alien), u / h (lighting - candle), A, E, Yu at the beginning (lamb, one, holy fool).
Morphological. Prefixes: co-, over-, pre-, pre-, out-, bottom-, vo- (exhaustion). Suffixes: -eni-, -estv-, -izn-, -aish-, -eish-, -shch-, -usch- (the kindest). If the word begins with: evil, good, good, god, soul, great (backbiting, virtue, gratitude and others).

What do Old Slavicisms mean?

Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin made an invaluable contribution to the development of the modern Russian language. From school, and maybe even earlier, people read his tales, which are conveyed by the poet in verse. Old Slavicisms that have come to modern Russian convey speeches and written works of special solemnity, show the shades and colors of the ancient era. You can recall "The Tale of Tsar Saltan", where "The city is on the island ... with golden-domed churches" or the work "Ruslan and Lyudmila", which contains a rich heritage of Old Church Slavonic words - lukomorye, golden chain, succession, breg, princess tugs and many others ...

Ancient words that embellish modern speech

Words that have come down from the depths of time can enrich the conversation of a modern person, add juiciness to his speech and color it with bright shades. Therefore, you need to know them and understand what they mean.

List of some words with explanations:

Perhaps - somehow, something will work out.
Altyn - three kopecks.
Asp is a poisonous snake, but figuratively a bad person.
Hits and balakat - tells or speaks. The lullaby "Bayu, bayushki, bayu ...", familiar to everyone from infancy, often causes misunderstanding of these words, but knowing the translation of the word "bayat", one can easily guess what the song is about.
Taking is a burden that you can grab with your hands.
Swearing is a battle (the battlefield is the place where the battle takes place).
Bulat is a strong steel.
Epic is a folk song that praises heroes, such as heroes.
To waddle is to be friends (a gang of guys).
To know is to know, to have any knowledge.
Nativity scene is a cave or dungeon.
Vershok is a unit of measurement that is equal to 4.4 cm. For example, the saying: "From a pot two inches" indicates to a person that he is still too small to have his own opinion.
Apparently - something that goes without saying.
The knight is a warrior.
Inverted - a tree that has fallen with its roots turned out of the ground.
To endure is to endure.
Voice is a voice. For example the proverb: "The voice of the people, the voice of God."
Goy you - oh you!
The upper room is a living room in which a slide can stand - a cabinet with glass walls for beautiful and expensive dishes.
Recently - recently.
Dereza - bushes with thorns.
Wondering - wondering or looking.
A soul warmer is a warm, usually woolen or quilted sleeveless blouse, decorated with frills on the back.
Egoza is a fussy person.
Jug - a jug with a lid.
To bother - to hurt.
Izba is a rustic, Russian house made of logs.
Indus - so.
The tub is a wooden barrel.
Kichka is a beautiful, female headdress.
Knysh is hot bread.
Fathom is a measure of length that represents the diagonal from a toe to an outstretched finger.
Cochet is a cockerel.
Matitsa - the middle beam on the ceiling in the hut.
Unsalonely slurping - those are the result that was expected, disappointment.
The eye is the eye.
Shouting - plowing (orarion - plowman).
Pantalyk - order or sense.
Polati is a prototype of a bed, which was built from planks under the ceiling between the stove and the wall.
A bar is a measure of length that is equal to the distance between the thumb and forefinger.
Thrifty - thrifty.
The week is a week.
Sloboda is a suburb.
Terem is a beautiful house.
Khmara is a big cloud.
Chasing - expecting or hoping.
The servants are servants.
Yakhont is a gem, usually a ruby.

This is just a small list of old expressions, provided as an example. People living in Russia need to be interested in and know the origin of the original Russian words. If you forget the past, you can lose the future.

Primarily Russian and borrowed words are used to denote numbers. The peculiarity lies in the fact that the largest numbers are indicated by borrowed words. Since the Russian language does not have designations corresponding to millions and billions, borrowed words must be used.

Largest number without borrowed words

When creating Russian words, there was no historical need to use numbers denoting millions and billions. Therefore, the Russian language does not contain such numerical designations. In this case, you can indicate the largest number, which will consist exclusively of originally Russian words:

since the word "million" is borrowed, the required number will be less than a million. After all, any number greater than this value will include the combination "one million";
as follows from the conditions of the problem, the required number must be integer. Accordingly, options with fractions, tenths and hundredths are not suitable. After all, they do not correspond to the conditions of the problem;
based on the foregoing, it is necessary to choose a number that is as close as possible to a million. For example, nine hundred thousand consists only of native Russian words. One should go further, gradually approaching a million. As a result, you get the number "nine hundred and ninety-nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-nine." It is only one unit less than a million. And since you cannot use fractions and non-integers, then this particular value will be the correct answer.

Thus, the largest whole number, the name of which consists only of primordial Russian words, will be the number "nine hundred and ninety-nine thousand nine hundred and ninety-nine." It perfectly matches the conditions of the problem and will be the correct answer.

What are the numbers originally Russian

The overwhelming majority of digits have primordial Russian designations. These are the names of all single digits up to ten. Actually, the very words "ten" are also originally Russian. After ten, the names of the number are formed by combining a single designation and the obsolete form "tsat", which previously meant "ten". Therefore, all numbers except for a million and a billion are originally Russian.