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Irina Sinova
Peoples of Russia: History and culture, customs and traditions. Student's handbook

Dear friends!

This book tells about the peoples of Russia. In it you will find out which peoples inhabit our country, which are indigenous, get acquainted with their traditional occupations, life, housing, clothing, customs, national cuisine.

Russia belongs to the multinational countries of the world. More than 160 peoples live in it. Among them are both indigenous peoples, whose entire history is connected with the territory of our country, and those peoples who ended up in Russia as a result of migration (displacement). You will learn about which peoples are the most numerous, and which have only a few hundred people. Knowledge of the original traditions, crafts and culture of small peoples creates a complete picture of the population of our state.

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According to the All-Russian Population Census conducted in 2002, 145.2 million people live in the Russian Federation. We have over 160 nationalities in our country, which belong to different language families and groups. Most of them are relatively few in number. The peoples of Russia belong to two races - Caucasoid and Mongoloid.

The most numerous is the Russian people - 116 million people, or 80% of the country's inhabitants. The second largest are the Tatars (more than 5.5 million people, almost 4% of the country's population). The seven peoples living in Russia - Russians, Tatars, Ukrainians, Bashkirs, Chuvashs, Chechens and Armenians - have a population of over 1 million people.

A homogeneous national composition with a predominance of Russians is observed in the Central, Central Black Earth, and Northwestern economic regions. The multinational composition is typical for all other regions of Russia, among which the North Caucasus occupies a special place, which is distinguished by a special diversity of peoples.

The population of the Republic of Dagestan is unusually complex and diverse in its languages ​​and national composition. It is difficult to find a country on the entire globe where so many peoples with different languages, as well as peculiarities of traditions and way of life, would be located on a relatively small area. Mountainous Dagestan is special in this respect. It is no coincidence that in ancient times it was called the "Mountain of Tongues". Representatives of 102 nationalities live on the territory of Dagestan, among them - Avars, Aguls, Archins, Balkars, Dargins, Ingush, Kabardians, Karachais, Kumyks, Laks, Lezgins, Nogais, Rutuls, Tabasarans, Tsakhurs, Chechens, Circassians. The overwhelming majority of these peoples profess Islam, their culture, values, customs and traditions are often fundamentally different from European ones.

The indigenous peoples of Siberia and the Far East are relatively small, of which the Yakuts, Dolgans, Altaians, Shors, Khakasses and Tuvans speak the languages ​​of the Turkic group; the Buryats belong to the Mongolian group; Khanty and Mansi - to the Finno-Ugric; Nenets, Ngasans, Selkups - to the Samoyed; Evenks, Negidals, Udeges - to the Tungus-Manchurian; Eskimos and Aleuts - to the Eskimo-Aleutian; Chukchi, Koryaks, Itelmens speak the Chukchi-Kamchatka languages ​​of the Paleo-Asiatic family. Of these, the Altaians and Khakasses are historically Muslims, the Tuvans and Buryats are Buddhists, the rest of the peoples were pagans before joining Russia. Some remnants of paganism, especially shamanism, are still preserved.

Peoples of the Caucasus: Ossetians, Circassians, Kabardians, Chechens

In the north of the European part of Russia, along with the Russians, the peoples of the Finno-Ugric group are widespread: Karelians, Vepsians, Izhors, Saami, Komi, Komi-Permyaks. Some peoples of the Middle Volga region also belong to the Finno-Ugric group: Mari, Udmurts, Mordvins. Although there are not so many of them left, they managed to preserve both the language and culture.

Chuvash, Bashkirs, Tatars live in other regions of the Volga region and in the Southern Urals. The Chuvashs profess Orthodoxy, and the Bashkirs and Tatars profess Islam. Compared to other regions of the country, interethnic relations here are characterized by stability. Mordvins and Chuvashs live in small groups in almost all regions of the Urals, Siberia and the Far East. Kalmyks live in the Lower Volga region, whose main religion is Buddhism.

Chuvash, Mordvin, Mordovka, Cheremiska (Mariyka)

According to the Constitution, the state language of our country is Russian. This is the native language of the majority of the population of the Russian Federation - the Russian people. The vast majority of Russian citizens know and actively use the Russian language, regardless of their nationality. The Russian language is the main means of interethnic communication between the peoples of Russia in accordance with the established historical and cultural traditions.

The peoples of Russia speak more than 100 languages ​​and dialects belonging to the Indo-European, Altaic and Uralic language families, the Caucasian and Paleo-Asiatic language groups. The Basic Law of our country enshrines the right of the peoples of Russia to use on their territory and study in educational institutions, in addition to the Russian language, the national language, as well as draw up documents in it in order to preserve their historical traditions. In a number of republics, several languages ​​are proclaimed state. So, in the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, in addition to Russian, Kabardian and Balkar are state languages, and in the Republic of Mari El - Mari meadow and Mari mountain languages.

According to the 2002 census, there were 23 nationalities in Russia, the number of which exceeds 400 thousand people. In 1989, there were only 17 such nationalities. The smallest peoples of Russia are the Enets living on the Taimyr Peninsula and the Oroks living in the Sakhalin Region. Their number is about 200 people.

The Constitution of the Russian Federation pays special attention to the legal status of indigenous peoples and national minorities. These include peoples living in the territories of the traditional settlement of their ancestors and preserving their traditional way of life, economic activity and crafts, numbering no more than 50 thousand people. They are guaranteed the right to replace military service with an alternative civilian one, to preserve and develop their original culture, to territorial public self-government and association in communities. They have the right to socio-economic and cultural development, protection of their original habitat.

Avars

The indigenous population of the Republic of Dagestan (the number of Avars is more than 700 thousand people). They belong to the European race. Believing Avars are Sunni Muslims. They speak Avar.

The presence of the ancestors of the Abaza on the territory of their modern settlement has been known since the first centuries of our era. The original crafts were cloth-making, the production of felt, carpets, copper utensils, wooden utensils, leather processing, jewelry and blacksmithing. Traditional villages were located on the slopes of the mountains and were fortresses formed by densely placed houses with battle towers. Stone houses with a flat roof were built, usually two-story, with utility rooms on the first floor and residential on the second. There were, but less often, multi-storey buildings, and often the roof of one house served as a courtyard for another. Many houses had a supporting central pillar, often decorated with carvings.

The traditional men's costume - trousers, shirt, beshmet (men's outerwear), cherkeska (cloth caftan cut at the waist without a collar with wide sleeves), sheepskin coat and hat (high sheepskin hat) - has been preserved to this day, mainly , in the elderly. Women's clothing is characterized by a dress-shirt, trousers, a headdress (chuhta), head covers of different colors, a sheepskin coat, leather, felt and knitted shoes. The costume was trimmed with embroidery, silver, complemented by silver jewelry. The traditional food of the Avars is flour, meat with garlic seasoning and dairy dishes.

Aleuts

The indigenous population of the Kamchatka Peninsula and the Commander Islands. The number is less than 1 thousand people. They belong to the Mongoloid race. They speak the Aleutian language. Kamchatka was inhabited about 15 thousand years ago. Ancient hunters, distant ancestors of the North American Indians, were the first to settle North America, passing through Kamchatka and Chukotka. About 10-11 thousand years ago, a culture was formed in Kamchatka that belongs to the ancestors of the Eskimos, Aleuts and Itelmens, who migrated from Asia to Alaska. Being an integral part of nature and living in complete harmony with it, the primitive population of the peninsula perfectly knew the flora and fauna and widely used the riches of the sea and land as a source of food and for medicinal purposes.

The Aleuts were sea hunters. In addition to fishing, hunting and deer breeding, men were engaged in the manufacture of skis, stone weapons, sleds (long narrow sledges with wooden flooring), leather-covered boats, and kayaks. The occupation of women was the dressing of skins, sewing clothes from leather and fur, collecting herbs and roots, and cooking.

At present, among the traditional occupations of these peoples, reindeer herding and handicrafts have been preserved. Northern masters are famous for bone carving, fur and leather products, original embroideries and drawings that adorn national clothes and household items.

Altaians

The people living in the Altai Territory. The number is about 70 thousand people. They belong to the South Siberian type of the Mongoloid race. They speak Altai. AT In the past, Altaians are the collective name of the Turkic-speaking tribes that lived in the Altai Mountains and partly in the Kuznetsk Alatau. There are groups of northern and southern Altaians. The northern ones were called "black Tatars", the southern ones were called Kalmyks white, Altai, mountain, frontier, Biysk. The traditional religion is shamanism. AT early 20th century Altaians converted to Orthodoxy.

The traditional occupations of the northern Altaians are cattle breeding, manual farming, fishing, hunting, gathering (pine nuts, roots, wild hemp for making canvas), blacksmithing. The traditional dwelling consisted of vertically dug boards. Sometimes it was insulated with turf, had a gable roof and an adobe hearth. They also built semi-dugouts with a carcass ground part. The main means of transportation was a riding horse. Altaians wore linen shirts and trousers, a robe on top, long sheepskin coats, leather, and in winter fur boots with leather or canvas tops, hats for men, and scarves for women. Traditional food - meat, fresh or dried fish, meat and milk porridge, talkan (flour from roasted barley, wheat, corn), edible roots and stems. Talkan was eaten with tea, diluted with water, milk, boiled porridge.

The traditional occupations of the Southern Altaians are semi-nomadic cattle breeding, hunting in the mountain taiga and steppes, manual farming. Dwelling - a felt yurt, a conical hut covered with larch bark, a log polygonal yurt. Clothes - a long shirt, pants, over - a dressing gown (chekmen) made of cloth, a long sheepskin coat, a fur hat. Married women wore chegedek, a long-sleeve top, over their clothes. The main food is meat, sour cow's and mare's milk, butter, hard smoked dried cheese (kurut), unleavened cheese (pyshtak), soup with horse meat and barley groats, talkan, edible stems and roots of wild plants.

Balkars

Indigenous population of the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic. The number is more than 100 thousand people. They belong to the European race. They speak the Karachay-Balkarian language. Believers are Sunni Muslims. The formation of the Balkar people was influenced by the Polovtsian nomads. The main traditional occupations are transhumance of small, cattle and horses, as well as arable terraced farming and hunting. The Balkars have developed home crafts - processing of wool, metal, leather, wood, cloth-making. The traditional dwelling was a stone saklya with a flat earthen roof or a gable roof; among the feudal lords, dwellings were built with towers.

Meat and dairy products predominated in the food, shish kebab from the liver (zhalbaur), sausages, pies (khychin), a favorite drink is sour milk (airan). The traditional spiritual culture includes various calendar holidays, such as Sabantoy, Gollu, as well as a variety of folklore - the Nart epic, ritual, labor, historical songs, fairy tales, good wishes.

Bashkirs

Indigenous population of the Republic of Bashkortostan (number - 1.65 million people). Bashkirs occupy an intermediate position between the Caucasoid and Mongoloid races. They speak Bashkir. A significant part of the Bashkirs also speak Tatar and Russian. Believers are Sunni Muslims.

The ancient indigenous Finno-Ugric population, as well as nomadic herders who came from the north of Central Asia and the south of Siberia in the 7th-10th centuries, took part in the formation of the Bashkirs. In the middle of the XVI century. Bashkiria joined the Russian state.

Since ancient times, the main traditional occupation of the Bashkirs has been semi-nomadic cattle breeding. The herd of the Bashkirs was dominated by horses, which, like many nomadic peoples, constituted their main wealth. Most of the Bashkir's life was spent in the saddle. The riding horse was the oldest traditional vehicle. Both men, women and children rode on horseback. The Russian writer S. T. Aksakov wrote: “They ride from morning to evening across their secluded steppes until the green feather grass, having grown old, turns gray and is covered with silky silver fluff.”

Agriculture among the Bashkirs, like many semi-nomadic peoples, was an addition to cattle breeding. But gradually the role of cattle breeding decreased. The dressing of leather and skins has become widespread. Fur coats, bags for transporting provisions were sewn from skins, shoes, saddlecloths, belts, pendants, scabbards, and handcuffs were sewn from leather. The skins of a horse, cow, bull, sheep, calf, goat were used to make vessels. Vessels for koumiss were made from horseskin. The Bashkirs were also engaged in fishing, beekeeping, collecting fruits and roots of plants, as well as driven hunting and hunting with the help of birds of prey. Traditional crafts were weaving, felting, lint-free carpets, and embroidery.

In the past, the Bashkirs had different types of settlements: permanent winter and seasonal (spring, summer and autumn). In the summer, the Bashkirs lived in temporary settlements (yeileu), wandering along with herds of cattle, and in winter they returned to the villages. The traditional dwelling was a felt yurt (tirme) of the Mongolian type, with a cone-shaped top. In the steppe zone, adobe and earthen dwellings were built, and in the forest and forest-steppe zone, log huts.

With the onset of spring, the Bashkirs left their permanent winter settlements - villages and went to the steppes, mountain valleys, to the banks of numerous rivers and lakes. There they arranged temporary settlements from portable dwellings: felt yurts, huts. They remained at the spring camp until the nearby pastures provided sufficient food for the huge Bashkir herds - horses, sheep, cows. A few weeks later, the nomadic aul, according to the well-known principle: “Where the grass is, there is the cattle, where the cattle is, there we are”, removed from the place and moved to other pastures rich in fodder, several miles away from the spring pastures. During the summer time, the main household work fell on: harvesting food for the future, haymaking and hay harvesting, making felt for the yurt, canvas and cloth, processing leather and skins.

The basis of women's clothing was a long dress cut off at the waist (kyuldek), an apron, a camisole, decorated with silver coins. The headdress of a woman was called kashmau. It was a bonnet with a long blade running down the back, with a coral mesh, which was decorated with coins and silver pendants. The headdress of the girls was a helmet-shaped cap covered with coins. Men's clothing consisted of a shirt, trousers with a wide step, a camisole or a dressing gown. On their heads, men wore skullcaps, round fur hats, fur malachai covering their ears and neck.

Traditional dishes were boiled finely chopped horse meat or lamb (bishbarmak), dried sausage made from raw meat and fat, various types of cheese (korot), yogurt (katyk). Noodles (khalma) in meat broth are also popular. Kumis - a high-calorie and healing drink made from mare's milk - was treated by both commoners and eminent khans.

In tsarist Russia, the Bashkirs, as Muslims by religion, had polygamy. Marriages were concluded by matchmaking after the payment of bride price. There was also the theft of the bride, which exempted from paying bride price, often by mutual agreement. As part of the wedding ceremonies, the customs of hiding the bride, wrestling and horse racing competitions on the day of the wedding feast (tui) in the bride's house stood out.

Among the folk holidays of the Bashkirs, notable are Jiin, which arose from traditional folk gatherings, Sabantuy, the plow holiday, which was held on the eve or after the end of spring field work, as well as the special women's spring holiday Kargatuy ("rook holiday"). In the folklore of the Bashkirs, an important place is occupied by the heroic epic, heroic and fairy tales, tales of the destitute youngest son, stepdaughter, songs about batyrs - people's defenders. In Bashkir dances there is plot and narrative. The national musical instruments of the Bashkirs are the reed pipe from the stem of an umbrella plant (kurai), the jew's harp (kobyz), the domra (stringed plucked musical instrument), and the harmonica.

Buryats

Indigenous population of the Republic of Buryatia (number - more than 400 thousand people). They belong to the Mongoloid race. They also live in the Irkutsk and Chita regions. They speak the Buryat language, Russian and Mongolian are also common. Most of the Western Bashkirs were considered Orthodox, but retained shamanism. Believing Buryats of Transbaikalia profess Lamaism.

In the XVIII century. Buryat tribes became part of Russia. The main occupations were agriculture and cattle breeding - breeding of large and small cattle, horses and camels. In addition, the Buryats hunted fur and meat animals - elk, roe deer, marmots, as well as wild birds. The main tools for hunting wild birds were bows, arrows, as well as various traps, traps, crossbows. The Buryats were engaged in fishing in the lake. Baikal, mainly for omul, and also fished for seals.

Transbaikalian Buryats

Of the crafts, blacksmithing, leather processing, the manufacture of harnesses, felt, artistic embroidery and appliqués on leather and fabrics, wood carving, metal processing, joinery and carpentry were developed. The Buryats were also engaged in forestry and fur trade.

The traditional dwellings of the Eastern Buryats were lattice felt and wooden polygonal yurts. The western Buryats have long spread log dwellings such as the Russian hut. Traditional utensils were made of leather and wood. In winter, men wore a straight fur robe with a fastener on the side and a stand-up collar, which was girded with a piece of cloth or a belt, and in summer - the same robe only made of cloth. The underwear was trousers and a shirt, the cut of which was borrowed from the Russians. The men's headdress was a fur hat with a sharp crown and two ribbons descending to the back. Women wore a shirt and trousers, on top of which they put on a detachable robe with gathers at the waist. And married women wore a sleeveless jacket over a robe. The headdress is a hat made of colored fabric with a fur edging and a red tassel falling down the back. Hair was braided into two braids, metal sticks were woven near the ears, to which jewelry was attached.

The food of nomadic and semi-nomadic Buryats consisted mainly of meat and dairy products. Milk was consumed boiled, meat boiled and almost without salt. The national dishes of the Buryats were arul and khurut (dried curd mass), urme (dried layer of foam), as well as salamat - flour boiled with sour cream. They even made an alcoholic drink archi (or tarasun) from milk. Tea was drunk with milk, lard and salt.

Folklore includes legends, myths, fairy tales, epic works - the Gesariad cycle, labor, wedding, play, lyrical songs. The most common musical instruments are sur, limba (wind) and khur (bowed). Buryat folk holidays are held with wrestling and competitions, for example, the summer Sur-Kharban ("shooter's holiday") - with a traditional archery competition. In datsans (Buddhist monasteries) tsams were held - theatrical performances in masks and with musical accompaniment. The datsans had theological schools, workshops for book printing, making icons and sculptural works.

Veps

Currently, they live in groups in the south of the Republic of Karelia, in the eastern regions of the Leningrad region and the western regions of the Vologda region. The number is about 10 thousand people. They belong to the European race. According to dialects, they are divided into 4 groups: middle - Oyatsky, Vinnitsa (Lodeynopolsky and Podporozhsky districts of the Leningrad region), southern - Kapshinsky (Tikhvinsky district of the Leningrad region), northern - Sheltozersky (Karelia), eastern - Sholsky district of the Vologda region. They speak Veps and Russian. They are Orthodox by religion.

In the folk religion of the Veps, traces of the ancient veneration of animals, birds and fish are found. Like other peoples, they had a cult of a bear, a complex of beliefs was associated with the worship of a pike. The forest was also revered. Staves for sorcerers were made from alder, which were used on the days of weddings and other ceremonies.

To protect against the evil eye and misfortunes, in the treatment of diseases, the Veps resorted not only to magical rites, but also to conspiracies. When arranging their homes, the Vepsians attached great importance to omens. According to popular beliefs, it was impossible to put a house on the path: the owner to death. When the hut was laid, silver or copper coins were hidden under its corners. The full moon was considered a good time to move into a new home. The owner with an icon and a carpet of bread was the first to cross the threshold of a new house, and behind him was the hostess with a rooster and a cat. The rooster was released from the threshold. If he sings, life in the new hut will be happy, and if not, the owner will not live long. When moving into a new house, the owners brought birch firewood from the old hut with them, so that “it would be warmer and live richly.” There is still a widespread belief among the Vepsians: the one who first begins to live in a new house is the first to die. Therefore, at first the cat celebrated the housewarming in the hut - it was left there for the night, and then the owners themselves. Since ancient times, the Vepsians have widely used birch bark in everyday life. She covered the bottom of the pit for storing fish, covered the roofs of houses, covered cracked clay pots. Household items were made from birch bark.

The culture of the peoples of Russia is one of the most diverse in the world. More than 190 peoples live on its territory, each of which individually has its own unique culture, and the larger the number, the more noticeable the contribution of this people to the culture of the whole country.

The most numerous in Russia is the Russian population - it is 111 million people. Rounding out the top three most numerous nationalities are Tatars and Ukrainians.

Russian culture

Russian culture has a huge historical and cultural heritage and dominates the state.

Orthodoxy is the most widespread religion among the Russian people, which had a huge impact on the development of the moral culture of the peoples of Russia.

The second largest religion, although incomparably losing to Orthodoxy, is Protestantism.

Russian housing

A log hut with a gable roof is considered a traditional Russian dwelling. The entrance was a porch; a stove and a cellar were built in the house.

In Russia, there are still many huts, for example, in the city of Vyatka, Arbazhsky district, Kirov region. There is an opportunity to visit the unique Museum of the Russian Hut in the village of Kochemirovo, Kadomsky District, Ryazan Region, where you can see not only a real hut, but also household items, a stove, a loom and other elements of Russian culture.

Russian national costume

In general, the men's folk costume was a shirt with an embroidered collar, pants, bast shoes or boots. The shirt was worn loose and picked up with a fabric belt. A caftan was worn as outerwear.

Women's folk costume consisted of a long embroidered shirt with long sleeves, a sundress or a skirt with a frill, and a poneva on top of a woolen skirt. Married women wore a headdress - a warrior. A festive headdress was a kokoshnik.

In everyday life, Russian folk costumes are no longer worn. The best examples of this clothing can be seen in ethnographic museums, as well as at various dance competitions and festivals of Russian culture.

Traditional Russian cuisine

Russian cuisine is known for its first courses - cabbage soup, hodgepodge, fish soup, pickle, okroshka. As a second dish, porridge was usually prepared. “Schi and porridge are our food,” they said for a long time.

Very often, cottage cheese is used in dishes, especially in the preparation of pies, cheesecakes and cheesecakes.

The preparation of various pickles and marinades is popular.

You can try Russian dishes in numerous restaurants of Russian cuisine, which are found almost everywhere both in Russia and abroad.

Family traditions and spiritual values ​​of the Russian people

The family has always been the main and unconditional value for a Russian person. Therefore, from ancient times it was important to remember your family. The connection with the ancestors was sacred. Children are often named after their grandparents, sons are named after their fathers - in this way they show respect for relatives.

Previously, the profession was often passed down from father to son, but now this tradition has almost died out.

An important tradition is the inheritance of things, family heirlooms. So things accompany the family from generation to generation and acquire their own history.

Both religious and secular holidays are celebrated.

The most massively celebrated public holiday in Russia is the New Year's holiday. Many people also celebrate the Old New Year on January 14th.

They also celebrate such holidays: Defender of the Fatherland Day, International Women's Day, Victory Day, Workers' Solidarity Day ("May" holidays on May 1-2), Constitution Day.

The major Orthodox holidays are Easter and Christmas.

Not so massively, but the following Orthodox holidays are also celebrated: Baptism of the Lord, Transfiguration of the Lord (Apple Savior), Honey Savior, Trinity and others.

Russian folk culture and the Maslenitsa holiday, which lasts a whole week before Lent, are almost inseparable from each other. This holiday is rooted in paganism, but is now celebrated everywhere by Orthodox people. Maslenitsa also symbolizes the farewell to winter. The visiting card of the festive table is pancakes.

Ukrainian culture

The number of Ukrainians in the Russian Federation is approximately 1 million 928 thousand people - this is the third largest among the general population, and therefore Ukrainian culture is an important component of the culture of the peoples of Russia.

Traditional Ukrainian housing

Ukrainian hut is an important component of Ukrainian traditional culture. A typical Ukrainian house was wooden, small in size, with a hipped straw roof. The hut must be whitewashed inside and out.

There are such huts in Russia, for example, in the Orenburg region, in the western and central regions of Ukraine, in Kazakhstan, but almost always the thatched roof is replaced with slate or covered with roofing material.

Ukrainian folk costume

The men's suit consists of a linen shirt and bloomers. The Ukrainian shirt is characterized by an embroidered slit in front; they wear it tucked into their pants, girded with a sash.

The basis for women's attire is a long shirt. The hem of the shirt and sleeves were always embroidered. From above they put on a corset, a yipka or an andarak.

The most famous element of traditional Ukrainian clothing is vyshyvanka - a men's or women's shirt, which is distinguished by complex and varied embroidery.

Ukrainian folk costumes are no longer worn, but they can be seen in museums and festivals of Ukrainian folk culture. But embroidered shirts are still in use and are even gaining more and more popularity - Ukrainians of all ages love to wear them, both as a festive attire and as an element of everyday wardrobe.

The most famous Ukrainian dish is red beet and cabbage borscht.

The most popular product in Ukrainian cuisine is salo - it is used to prepare many dishes, eaten separately, salted, fried and smoked.

Flour products made from wheat flour are widespread. National dishes include dumplings, dumplings, verguns, lemishki.

Ukrainian cuisine is loved and popular not only among Ukrainians, but also among many other residents of Russia - it is not difficult to find a restaurant of Ukrainian cuisine in large cities.

Family values ​​of Ukrainians and Russians are largely identical. The same applies to religion - Orthodox Christianity occupies a large part among the religions of Ukrainians living in Russia; traditional holidays are almost the same.

Tatar culture

Representatives of the Tatar ethnic group in Russia make up approximately 5 million 310 thousand people - this is 3.72% of the total population of the country.

Religion of the Tatars

The main religion of the Tatars is Sunni Islam. At the same time, there is a small part of the Kryashen Tatars whose religion is Orthodoxy.

Tatar mosques can be seen in many cities of Russia, for example, the Moscow Historical Mosque, St. Petersburg Cathedral Mosque, Perm Cathedral Mosque, Izhevsk Cathedral Mosque and others.

Traditional Tatar housing

Tatar housing was a log four-walled house, fenced from the side of the facade and remote from the street, with a vestibule. Inside the room was divided into women's and men's parts, the women's at the same time was the kitchen. The houses were decorated with bright paintings, especially the gates.

In Kazan, the Republic of Tatarstan, there are many such estates left, not only as architectural monuments, but also as residential buildings.

The costume may differ depending on the subgroup of Tatars, however, the clothing of the Volga Tatars had a great influence on the uniform image of the national costume. It consists of a shirt-dress and harem pants, both for women and men, and a robe was often used as outerwear. The headdress for men was a skullcap, for women - a velvet cap.

In its original form, such costumes are no longer worn, but some elements of clothing are still in use, for example, scarves, ichigi. You can see traditional clothes in ethnographic museums and at thematic exhibitions.

Traditional Tatar cuisine

A distinctive feature of this cuisine is that its development was influenced not only by Tatar ethnic traditions. From different cultures, Tatar cuisine has absorbed bal-may, dumplings, pilaf, baklava, tea and other various dishes.

Tatar cuisine boasts a variety of flour products, among them: echpochmak, kystyby, kabartma, sansa, kyimak.

Milk is often used, but most often in a processed form - cottage cheese, katyk, sour cream, suzme, eremchek.

A lot of restaurants all over Russia offer a menu of Tatar cuisine, and the best choice, of course, is in the capital of Tatarstan - Kazan.

Family traditions and spiritual values ​​of the Tatars

Creating a family has always been the highest value of the Tatar people. Marriage is considered a sacred obligation.

The moral and spiritual culture of the peoples of Russia is somehow connected with the religious culture, and the peculiarities of Muslim marriage are that it is inextricably linked with the religious culture of Muslims. For example, the Koran forbids marrying an atheist woman, an agnostic woman; marriage with a representative of another religion is not too approved.

Now the Tatars get to know each other and get married mostly without the intervention of the family, but earlier the most common was marriage by matchmaking - the groom's relatives went to the bride's parents and made an offer.

The Tatar family is a family of the patriarchal type, a married woman was completely at the mercy of her husband and at his maintenance. The number of children in a family sometimes exceeded six people. Spouses settled with their husband's parents; living with the bride's parents was shameful.

Unquestioning obedience and respect for elders is another important feature of the Tatar mentality.

Tatar holidays

The Tatar culture of celebration includes both Islamic and original Tatar, and all-Russian public holidays.

Major religious holidays are Eid al-Adha - the feast of breaking the fast, in honor of the end of the month of fasting - Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha - the feast of sacrifice.

Until now, the Tatars celebrate both kargatuy, or karga butkasy - a folk holiday of spring, and sabantuy - a holiday on the occasion of the completion of spring agricultural work.

The culture of each people of Russia is unique, and together they are an amazing puzzle that will be incomplete if you remove some part. Our task is to know and appreciate this cultural heritage.

Greece is of interest to almost any person. Someone is interested in the history of Ancient Hellas, someone aspires to this country, considering it the cradle of Orthodoxy, and some tourists, and they seem to be the majority, just want to relax in the beautiful Greek beach resorts. More than 15 million tourists from all over the world visit Greece every year.

In the 5th century BC, Greece was the center of the ecumene, the undisputed leader in art, architecture, science, mathematics, philosophy, theater and literature. Now Greece is famous for its amazing landscape, natural beauty, numerous historical monuments, as well as beautiful beach resorts.

Geography of Greece

Greece is located in southeastern Europe. In the east and northeast, Greece borders on Turkey, in the north - on Bulgaria, Macedonia and Albania, in the south it is washed by the warm waters of the Mediterranean Sea, in the west - the Ionian, and in the east - the Aegean Sea.

The total area of ​​Greece is almost 132 thousand square kilometers, including the islands (about 20% of the territory of Greece are islands), and the total length of the state border is 1,228 km.

A significant part of the territory of Greece is occupied by mountains. Moreover, the highest of them is the famous Mount Olympus in Thessaly (2,917 m).

There are about 3,053 islands in Greece. The largest Greek islands are Crete in the Mediterranean and Euboea in the Aegean.

Capital

The capital of Greece is the ancient city of Athens, which is now home to more than 5 million people. This city was founded about 3,500 years ago.

Official language of Greece

The official language of Greece is Greek, which is a branch of the Indo-European languages. The first archaeological evidence for the existence of the Greek language dates back to the 15th century BC.

Religion

About 97% of the Greek population consider themselves Orthodox Christians belonging to the Greek Catholic Church. According to a Eurostat poll, 81% of Greeks believe that "God exists".

State structure

Greece is a parliamentary republic in which the head of state is the President (he is elected by the Parliament). The current Greek Constitution was adopted relatively long ago, in 1975.

Legislative power in this country belongs to the unicameral Parliament (300 deputies).

The main political parties are the liberal New Democracy, the leftist Panhellenic Social Movement, the Coalition of the Radical Left, the People's Orthodox Appeal, and the Communist Party of Greece.

Climate and weather

In the coastal regions of Greece (Athens, Cyclades, Dodecanese, Crete, Peloponnese and part of Central Hellas), the Mediterranean climate prevails (winter is mild and humid, and summer is dry and hot).

In the mountainous regions of northwestern Greece (some parts of Epirus, Central Greece, Thessaly and Western Macedonia), as well as in the mountainous part of the Peloponnese, including Achaia, Arcadia and Laconia, the climate is alpine with heavy snowfalls.

In the interior of central Greece, in Central Macedonia, in Eastern Macedonia and in Thrace the climate is temperate.

In July, the average air temperature in Athens is +28.7C, on the island of Corfu - +27.8C, and on the island of Rhodes - 26.8C.

Sea in Greece

Greece is washed by the waters of the Ionian (in the west), the Mediterranean (in the south) and the Aegean (in the east) seas. The total coastline is about 17,000 km. About 85% of the population of all of Greece lives in coastal areas (up to 50 km from the coast).

Sea water in Greece amazes and surprises all tourists. Its deep blue color is due, in part, to the reflection of the blue sky and the fact that it does not contain large amounts of solid matter (such as plankton, dirt and dust).

There are about 450 species of fish and 12 species of cetaceans in the Greek seas.

There are about 3,053 islands in Greece. The largest of these are Crete in the Ionian Sea, Euboea in the Aegean Sea, and Corfu in the Ionian Sea.

Average sea temperature in Greece:

• January - +15С
• February - +14C
• March - +14С
• April - +15С
• May - +18С
• June - +22C
• july - +24С
• August - +25C
• september - +23C
• october - +21С
• November - +19C
• december - +16С

The average water temperature near Crete in May is +19C, in August - +25C, and in October - +23C.

Rivers and lakes of Greece

Despite the fact that a significant part of the territory of Greece is occupied by mountains, this country also has many rivers. In ancient times, the Greeks believed that the rivers belonged to the world of the gods, and worshiped them as separate deities.

The largest rivers in Greece are Alyakmon (297 km), Aheloos (217 km), and Mesta (230 km).

Perhaps tourists will be interested in Greek lakes, among which we single out Trichonis, Volvi, and Vegoritis.

History of Greece

Greece marked the beginning of European civilization. The Greek city-states of Athens, Corinth, and Sparta joined forces only when threatened by Persian invasion.

In the 5th century BC. Athens was the political, economic, and, of course, the cultural center of the Mediterranean. Then Sparta, led by Alexander the Great, gained a dominant role over the Greek lands. At this time, the Greeks defeated the Persians and extended their influence over vast territories, up to India.

In 146 BC. Greece was conquered by the Roman Empire. In 395 AD, after the collapse of the Roman Empire, Byzantium (the official name is the Eastern Roman Empire) was formed, with Constantinople (modern Istanbul) as its capital.

In 1453, the Byzantine Empire was liquidated, and the territory of modern Greece fell under the rule of the Ottoman Empire. For the next 350 years, Greece was part of the Turkish Ottoman Empire.

As a result of the liberation war of 1821-1829, Greece finally gained independence. In 1833, Otto of Bavaria became king of Greece. The monarchy in Greece (since 1863 the Danish royal family ruled the Greeks) lasted until 1973.

After World War II, Greece plunged into civil war until the right-wing monarchists won in 1954. From 1967 to 1974, Greece was ruled by the so-called. "black colonels".

In 1981, after years of consultation, Greece became a member of the EU.

Greek culture

Greek culture begins with the Mycenaean and Minoan civilizations (this is an example of 2000 BC). After that, there was a period in the history of Greece, which historians call classical. At this time, Greek culture was formed, which began to influence neighboring peoples. In general, Greece is the birthplace of mankind, and one way or another, Greek culture has influenced a huge number of countries. The successors of Greek culture are Ancient Rome and the Byzantine Empire.

In the Middle Ages, the culture of Greece was greatly influenced by the Ottoman Empire. But this is understandable, because. For about 350 years, Greece was just one of the provinces of the Ottoman Empire.

It was in ancient Greece that science was born. Modern philosophy, mathematics and astronomy are based on the knowledge gained by the ancient Greeks.

The most famous ancient Greek philosophers are Aristotle, Plato, Diogenes, Crates of Athens, Diogenes and Socrates.

The most famous ancient Greek mathematicians are Archimedes, Pythagoras, Democritus and Euclid.

The Greeks are very superstitious, they believe not only in God, but also in supernatural powers. Until now, the Greeks take the myths of ancient Greece seriously. Moreover, in every region of Greece, in every village, on every island, there are their own superstitions and traditions.

The Greeks will never personally hand over a knife to a person who asks them to, but simply put it, for example, on the table. It is believed that if you give someone a knife, then this person will have to fight.

The most popular Greek folk (and very often religious) holidays are Epiphany, Gynecocracy, Tsiknopempti (Meat Thursday), Maundy Monday, Annunciation, Good Friday, Easter, Pontic Genocide Remembrance Day, Trinity, Polytechnic and Christmas.

If two Greeks say the same words at the same time, they will definitely touch some red object, otherwise, it is believed that they will fight and become enemies. Where this superstition came from - history is silent.

Greek Cuisine

We definitely advise tourists in Greece to visit local restaurants and enjoy Greek cuisine. The variety of dishes, as well as their taste, make Greek cuisine unique. A characteristic feature of Greek cuisine is the use of olive oil in absolutely every dish.

Also, the Greeks usually use a lot of vegetables and spices when cooking. However, the spices are quite mild, and there is no need to be afraid of strong spiciness.

We all know "Greek salad" and moussaka. However, these dishes are only a prelude to real Greek cuisine. Each region of Greece, each island has its own dishes and methods of their preparation. Therefore, the taste of moussaka on the island of Corfu will not be the same as that of moussaka on the Dedecanes Islands.

We definitely advise tourists in Greece to try Fasolada bean soup, shrimp fried in butter, souvlaki (shish kebabs on wooden sticks), Greek fish fillet, flatbread with meat, potatoes and tomato "gyro", "fritta" from vegetables with tzazyki sauce, as well as kakavia fish soup.

The ancient Greeks considered wine to be the drink of the gods, and in modern Greece this alcoholic drink is very popular. True, the ancient Greeks diluted wine with spring water, and modern Greeks for some reason forgot this, in general, very useful tradition.

The most famous Greek spirits are tsipouro (also called tsikudya or crayfish), 38-47% alcohol, ouzo (aniseed vodka, 40% alcohol), and Metaxa brandy.

Sights of Greece

Greece ranks 1st in the world in terms of the number of attractions (in second and third places are Italy and Bulgaria, respectively). Therefore, we will highlight, in our opinion, the ten best attractions in Greece, although in fact there are many more.

Top 10 best attractions in Greece:

Cities and resorts

The largest Greek cities are Athens, Piraeus, Patras, Thessaloniki, and Heraklion.

The coastline in Greece is 13,676 kilometers, which means that there are a huge number of beautiful beaches with crystal clear waters, which are surrounded by rocks with pine and palm trees.

The most popular beach resorts in Greece are Athens, Santorini, Mykonos, Corfu, Rhodes, Kos, Chania and Chalkidiki.

Souvenirs/Shopping

• Greek shoes (in particular, handmade sandals).
• Gold jewelry.
• Folk talismans that "drive away the evil eye."
• Bouzouki (baglama) is a small stringed musical instrument.
• CDs with Greek folk music.
• Olives, olive oil.
• Greek cheese.
• Kitchen utensils.
• Alcoholic drinks - ouzo, tsipuro (tsikudya or raki) and Metaxa brandy.

Office Hours

Bank opening hours:

Mon-Thu: 08:30-14.30
Fri: 08:30-14.00

Banks on the larger islands tend to be open in the afternoon to cater to tourists.

Shops in Greece are open from Monday to Saturday from 9:00 am (from 8:30 am in summer)

Visa

The population of the country (estimated in 1995) is about 125,879,000 people (seventh place in the world), the average density is about 334 people per square kilometer (also one of the first places in the world; for comparison, in the USA - 28 people per square kilometer, and in the UK 238). Ethnic groups: Japanese - 99%, Koreans - 0.5%, Chinese, Ainu. For 100 years, the population of Japan has increased 3 times. Average life expectancy (for 1992): 77 years - men, 82 years - women. Birth rate (per 1,000 people) - 10. Death rate (per 1,000 people) - 7. In NP per capita: 32,640 US dollars. Language: Japanese (official), many Japanese speak English. Japanese is very specific and is not included no language group. Religion: Shintoism (a religious movement in which there are about 200 sects), Buddhism, Christianity (Protestantism, Catholicism, Orthodoxy); almost all Japanese are Shintoists, but most Shintoists also profess Buddhism. The capital is Tokyo. Most Japanese live in overcrowded cities located on the coastal plains. The metropolitan regions of Tokyo, Yokohama, Osaka, Nagoya, Sapporo are among the most populated in the world. These cities have subways. The islands are interconnected by underwater tunnels, ferries and bridges. In order to save space, the Japanese invented the so-called "capsule rooms", in which there is only one bed. Hotels with such rooms are much cheaper than ordinary ones, and they are used by businessmen who come for a short time on business. Over the past decades, the nature of the natural movement of the population has changed dramatically. Japan became the first Asian state to switch from the second to the first type of population reproduction. This “demographic revolution” took place in a very short time. It was the result of socio-economic transformations in Japanese society, achievements in the field of education and health. Japan is the country with the lowest infant mortality rate in the world. The state demographic policy also had a great influence. The ratio of men and women in the population of Japan is almost equal to one. In recent years, the process of “aging” of the population, as a result of a decrease in the birth rate and an increase in life expectancy, has become an acute problem in Japan. This process takes place here much faster than in other developed capitalist countries. The growth rate of the economically active population in Japan (which includes people aged 15 and over, engaged in social work, as well as the unemployed) decreased due to a decrease in the influx of young people into it, which in turn was associated with a decrease in the birth rate and an increase in the time required for education . The unemployment rate in Japan is currently much lower than in other advanced capitalist countries. In Japan, it is highest among men, mostly middle-aged and older. The aggravation of the problem of employment of the population was caused by the accelerated transformation of the production structure and the growth of the technical equipment of production. The Japanese state took a number of measures: with the help of tax incentives, it stimulated private companies to create new jobs, retrain their workers, use part-time labor, attract capital to areas where there was a surplus of labor. In addition, the state allocated its own funds to prioritize the creation of enterprises in labor surplus areas, and also covered the cost of moving labor from areas with labor surpluses, labor shortages. On the whole, such a state policy proved to be very effective. The desire of the Japanese for knowledge deserves special attention. There are about 50 universities in the country (more than in all of Western Europe). The capital houses the Academy of Sciences, the Academy of Arts and Music, theaters and libraries. From an early age, children are instilled with curiosity and interest in nature. Firms sponsor education for the children of their employees, take care of housing, holidays and medical care for their employees. The high intensity of work, where every minute is valued, is combined with obligatory classes in the group to improve the quality of the manufactured product, as well as obligatory trips of all employees of the company to any healing thermal spring or to an area famous for its especially beautiful landscape. Japan has long been careful about nature. Admiring flowers has become a national tradition. The Cherry Blossom (Sakura) Festival is the most beautiful national holiday. One of the most common Japanese traditions is to recreate nature in miniature - either in the form of a very small, dwarf garden at the house, or in the form of a kind of small landscape. Wedding ceremonies are held in Shinto shrines. Cultural, artistic and everyday traditions include: ikebana - the art of arranging bouquets and arranging flowers and tree branches in vases, bansai - growing bonsai trees, calligraphy - a beautiful letter with a brush and ink, music, painting on paper and silk , original temple and garden architecture, shadow theater, tea ceremonies, women's clothing kimono, heavyweight sumo wrestling, judo, karate, chopsticks, as well as specific cuisine. The most important traditions also include honoring the elders, conspiracy of parents, belief in numerous signs, the rite of meditation, the use of various calendar systems, the abundance of official public holidays (including the day of children, the day of majority, the days of the spring and autumn equinoxes, various kinds of festivals). Museums of Japan, with the exception of a few modern galleries in large cities, they are treasure houses and are located in temples and shrines. The most famous museum of this kind is the Myohoin Temple in Kyoto. Numerous museums are also located in Tokyo, including: the country's largest art museum - the National Museum; Museum of Calligraphy; National Museum of Western Art; Museum of Japanese Folk Art; Treasury Museum of the Meiji Shrine; National Museum of Science. Among the historical and architectural sights of Japan can be noted in Tokyo - the Imperial Palace; many Buddhist temples, the main among which is the Rakanji temple; Tokyo TV tower with a height of 333 meters; a zoo, in Kobe - a large number of Christian churches and Buddhist temples; a magnificent art museum, in Kyoto (the capital of Japan from 794 to 1868) - more than 2000 ancient temples and shrines; 24 museums; Nijo Castle; imperial palace; Katsura Palace; ancient imperial tombs; magnificent gardens and parks, in Nagoya - Nagoya Castle (1612): the two main and oldest shrines of Shintoism - Atsuta and Isha.

Austria is a small state located in Central Europe. A country that has a great past and an even more interesting future, as Austria is one of the richest countries in the world, where more than 20,000,000 tourists come every year.

Population

Austria is a state with a population of 8,404,252 people. About 98 percent are themselves Austrians. The rest is occupied by Hungarians, Slovenes, Czechs, Gypsies and Croats. Since 1970, Austrian population growth began to fall, as the birth rate declined, but life expectancy increased markedly. The main language spoken by the Austrians is German. But it is very different from literary German. The majority of Austrians (73.6 percent according to the census since 2001) identify themselves as Catholics.

culture

The culture of Austria, like the country itself, is truly special. The reason for this is the interweaving of history and modernity, as well as the fact that the culture itself was formed under the influence of several neighboring states. Austria is developed in technological progress, but it does not forget its traditional culture, which is more and more vividly displayed in architecture, music and painting.

If you visit the territory of the Danubian lowland, you can see large villages where they are engaged in agriculture. And if you look into the mountainous regions, you can see houses that are built of stone from the bottom and wood from the top. Really interesting. You can feel the whole atmosphere of the past.

Although folk costumes are not worn in everyday life, they are not forgotten during important events. As for the costume itself, it is made of homespun cloth.

• Women's clothing: White jacket with puffy sleeves. There is a corsage and a fluffy skirt, on which huge aprons are located.
• Men's clothing: White shirt, leather pants (short), jacket and a hat with a feather.

Austrian cuisine is different, but special in its own way. For example, in the Alpine regions, dairy products predominate. In the Danube region, more flour is used.

Austria is still famous for its folk dances, one of which resembles the Viennese waltz.

Austria is a really interesting country that will not make any traveler or tourist bored.

Option 2

The history of Austria is rooted in the distant past, and its ethnic composition has undergone many changes during the formation of the state. Historians have established that one of the first peoples who inhabited the territory of modern Austria were the Celts, who founded in the II century. BC. the kingdom of Norik (the territory between the upper reaches of the Danube and the Drava). Thanks to allied relations with the Romans during the era of the Roman Empire, the local population gradually became more diverse. By the end of the 5th century AD under the onslaught of neighboring Germanic tribes, the Romans were forced to leave Coastal Norik. This event marked the beginning of the German period in the history of Austria, which had a significant impact on its culture and language.

The territory of modern Austria is located in the center, or, as the Austrians themselves like to say, in the heart of Europe and has no access to the sea. The largest (about 89%) ethnographic group in Austria are German-speaking Austrians who speak the Austro-Bavarian dialect. In addition to the Austrians, people from nearby countries (the former Yugoslavia, Germany, Hungary, the Czech Republic) and immigrants (mostly Turks) also live here. The population of Austria as of 2013 is 8.47 million people.

The culture of Austria is closely intertwined with the culture of Germany, Italy, Hungary and the Czech Republic and represents a kind of synergy of all four cultures. In the Middle Ages, the cultural milestone of Austria remained hidden in the shadows, but with the beginning of the New Age, it began to shine. She showed herself especially brightly in music: in the 18th-19th centuries. Vienna was considered the capital of European classical music (largely thanks to the Vienna Opera and such outstanding composers as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Johann Strauss, Ludwig van Beethoven and many others).

As for the Austrian holidays, they are quite diverse. Most of them have a religious theme (for example, Christmas, Epiphany, Catholic Easter, All Saints' Day, etc.), but the Austrians also love to celebrate carnivals, and in each region in its own way.

It is worth mentioning the Austrian cuisine, because it is also not spared the influence of neighboring cultures. Desserts are very popular in this country. Traditional desserts are strudel, Sacher cake, Linz cake, etc. Their main meal is lunch, so they have a very hearty high-calorie meal, consisting of soup, a main course of meat, a side dish and salad.

The culture of Austria is colorful and multifaceted, thanks to the unique historical development, it has absorbed the best features of various countries and transformed them into something new, its own, which today is considered to be primordially Austrian, and this cannot but surprise.

Grade 3 World around

Cigarettes and tobacco in general have a huge negative impact on the human body. Although many do not believe that smoking has serious consequences, scientists have long proven that this is not so.

A plant with an unusual mysterious name, sleep-grass is a beautiful flower. He also has other names: Backache or anemone open. A flower rises in the Ranunculaceae family