General principles of mechanization of production processes. H.5. Mechanization and automation of production processes Means of mechanization of production

Introduction

The mechanization of production makes it possible to increase labor productivity, freeing a person from performing difficult, labor-intensive and tedious operations. Particularly relevant is the problem of mechanization of labor in industries that are harmful and dangerous to human health.

The mechanization of production contributes to the rational and economical use of raw materials, materials and energy, the reduction of costs and the improvement of product quality. In addition to improving and updating technical means and technologies, the mechanization of production is inextricably linked with an increase in the level of qualification and organization of production, a change in the qualifications of workers.

This paper considers a technical and economic assessment of the level of mechanization of work (on the example of road construction).

The successful construction of each highway largely depends on the quality of the organization of work, on how rationally the workers, machines, and transport will be used.

At present, methods for an objective comprehensive assessment of the quality of organizational work have not yet been developed, and there is no single indicator that could be used to give an exhaustive assessment of the level of organization of work. The structure of specialized units, the choice of mechanization for their equipment, the procedure for interaction, the system of supply of materials, the provision of transport and other organizational factors have a complex effect on the timing, quality and cost of construction.

General principles of mechanization of production processes

The mechanization of production labor is the replacement of muscular human energy through the use of mechanical machines and mechanisms that are set in motion by various engines. With the help of mechanization, hard physical labor can be eliminated.

Complex mechanization is the highest level of mechanization. With such mechanization, systems of machines and mechanisms are used, which are interconnected in terms of productivity, ensure the performance of technical and production control operations. Complex mechanization allows you to move on to automation, both conventional and complex.

In the automation of production, instruments, machines and devices are used that carry out production activities without the use of human physical strength, but the work is carried out under his control. The system does not require sufficient periodic monitoring of the progress of work by the constant presence of an employee.

Integrated automation is automatic systems, providing control and management of processes without human intervention using the specified work parameters. A person is assigned only the function of a controller of the progress of processes, the operation of equipment and automation.

Automation is most often used in large-scale production with a mass character of work. Widespread in both the meat and dairy industries. In such industries, there are a large number of lines that perform one technological function. Workshops and factories are being comprehensively automated.

As a result of reducing the humanity of labor to a minimum, the number of industrial injuries is practically zero. Most of the accidents are related to the repair and adjustment of equipment, as well as to the irrational arrangement of equipment and the organization of workplaces. Thus, a large number of automated and mechanized labor can reduce injuries at work. Also, automation and mechanization can eliminate the work of a person in harmful and difficult working conditions.

Mechanization and automation are required not only in large productions of the same type. It is also necessary for enterprises with single and small-scale production. Currently, there are a huge number of automated lines that make it easier and safer for the worker. The ability to quickly re-equip such lines allows them to be used in a wide variety of production processes.

In small-scale production, efficiency and productivity can be increased through the widespread use of machine tools with special program management. In small-scale production, most of the worker's time is spent reading and choosing the best option drawing. An automated software system allows you to free the worker from these operations, the system will make the choice of an acceptable mode of operation before the start of the production process. All information about the shape, size of the part and other information is transmitted to the worker using a magnetic tape or card directly to the machine.

Software control is increasingly being used by modular reconfigurable machines, universal, wide profile for their automation. When working with program control, the worker starts the machine and removes the finished product. Thus, the presence of a worker in the danger zone of the machine is excluded. All of the above actions are performed with the working units turned off.

Machine complexes are several connected centers into a single machine system using a variety of devices, each of which runs on a corresponding program. Manual labor is kept to a minimum.

When automating technological processes, much attention is paid to loading. Even the use of machine complexes cannot free the worker from heavy loading and unloading work. Mechanized loading reduces the amount of manual labor by almost half due to the transformation of conventional equipment into automated ones. Such machines are used both independently and are built into automatic lines. Loading and unloading is most often combined with machine clamping devices, so manual work takes place away from the hazardous work area.

In manual measurement, the worker puts his or her hands at risk by bringing them into a potentially hazardous area. Manual control operations are the most common cause of work-related injuries. Work safety is carried out by automated operational control using various devices. For continuous measurement, automatic and semi-automatic machines are used.

Semi-automatic devices track changes and, upon reaching the required indicators, give light signals. In this case, the worker only needs to make a stop. Automatic devices themselves include working movements of the device to achieve the required indicators.

Thus, the technological process frees the worker not only from heavy physical labor, but also from constant nervous tension associated with the potential danger of his work. This can be easily achieved by switching to automatic and mechanical manual labor. The use of modern developments and the release of a person from manual operations will help to avoid injuries in the process of work, which is an improvement in labor safety.

1. Mechanization in history.

2. Role mechanization agricultural production.

3. Mechanization construction works.

Mechanization is using machines instead of people.

Mechanization - this is replacement of manual labor by machines; stage of evolution of the productive forces of society.

Mechanizationin history

It is customary to begin the history of computing technology with the abacus, Russian abacus, the Chinese sunpan, and in general with all sorts of similar devices of the pre-industrial era. Which, in my opinion, is not very correct: computer technology is, first of all, technology, that is, the use of machines in those operations that were previously performed manually, and abacus, abacus, and even slide rule It's hard to call "cars". But the subsequent history of the mechanization of the counting process, up to Babbage's "analytical engine" and even for a long time after it, is also only a prehistory. For one simple reason: all the "mechanics", from Pascal (XVII century) to Bolle and Steiger ( late XIX century), engaged in the fact that they designed calculators.

When you get acquainted with a heaped up modern calculator of some Casio, the difference is not so striking. But, nevertheless, it is there: a calculator - a device once and for all programmed to perform certain actions, like a mechanical jukebox, in the simplest case, these are four steps of arithmetic, and those electronic "adding machines" that are now used by sellers in all markets instead of accounts, in this sense they are not far from Pascal's adding machine. While a computer is a machine programmed (by the user) and theoretically capable of performing an infinite number of very different actions, including even those that are quite far from arithmetic-mathematics.

However, this backstory is quite interesting - in process mechanization of arithmetic counting, the inventors gained the necessary experience, theoretical and practical, which finally made it possible to take on real computers. Therefore, let's look at the activities of the first designers of "calculating machines" - adding machines - inevitably fragmentary, choosing the most delicious, according to E. Kozlovsky's favorite expression, since there were many of them in different countries and in different centuries.

On April 4, 1639, all the high society of Paris gathered in the Parisian mansion of the Duchess de Aiguillon. A performance was given - Syuderi's drama "Tyrannical Love" performed by children from noble families. The performance was attended by the almighty Cardinal Richelieu, a great lover of theatrical art (and, as you know, he wrote plays himself). One of the main roles, Cassandra, was played by Jacqueline Pascal, the daughter of a certain Etienne Pascal, who was in exile. A year earlier, Étienne had led a protest group made up of rentiers who had been deprived of rent by the government. Richelieu ordered to hide the instigator in the Bastille, because Pascal had to flee, and the family remained in Paris. The game of Jacqueline so captivated the audience that after the performance, Richelieu himself called the girl, hugged and sat him on his knees and carefully listened to her confused words, which turned out to be poems of her own composition - in them she asked the stern minister to forgive her father. The touched cardinal promised to do everything in his power, and kept his word - Etienne Pascal was not only forgiven, but also appointed to a high post - the royal intendant in Rouen.

The son of Etienne is the famous physicist, mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal, brother Jacqueline. Poor health, Blaise did not live even forty years, but in geometry there remained "Pascal's theorem" (derived by him at the age of 16; this work, "Experiment on Conic Sections", consisted of only 53 lines, but immediately made him famous), in physics - "Pascal" (and therefore his name is immortalized in the unit of measurement of pressure in the C system), and the philosophical treatise "Thoughts" put him on a par with the leading philosophers of all time (Pascal is considered the forerunner of modern existentialists). What interests us is this: at the beginning of 1640, the Pascal family arrived in Rouen, and Etienne Pascal immediately plunged actively into work- he had to sit for days on the calculations of tax collections. Seventeen-year-old Blaise helped his father, and he gradually came up with the idea of \u200b\u200ba machine that would help carry out such cumbersome calculations.

At the age of 18 he started work above her. The first model was made in 1642, but it did not satisfy the author, and the final version appeared only in 1645. The machine had six decimal places and two additional ones, one divided into 20 parts, the other into 12, which corresponded to the ratio of the then monetary units (1 sou \u003d 1/20 livre, 1 denier \u003d 1/12 sous).

AT process working on the machine, Pascal had to face the same difficulties that Babbage would face 200 years later - the technologies of that time simply did not allow the machine components to be made with the necessary accuracy. The mechanical craftsmen from the workshop where Blaise placed his orders often did not understand what he wanted, then Pascal himself took the file in his hands. Just like Babbage later, he had to invent not only the design itself, but also the technological methods for manufacturing its components. According to his own testimony, he “had the patience to make up to 50 different models: some wooden, others made of Ivory, from ebony, from cuprum?

Two things were key to Pascal's invention. The first is the mechanism for automatic transfer of tens, the principle of which survived almost unchanged until the era of Felix adding machines. The second is an ingenious implementation of the subtraction operation, because the design of the wheels only allowed addition, so he replaced the subtraction operation with addition with a decimal complement (just like in modern processors, isn't it?). For example, if it was necessary to subtract 18 from 345, then the machine (automatically!) Did the following operation: 000345+999982=1000327. Since the bit depth of the result is higher than the machine allows, the highest unit was automatically lost. In practice, in Pascal's machine, to move from addition to subtraction, it was enough to move the bar that closed the window with either the result of addition or the result of subtraction, and do all the same.

Pascal presented one of the first models of the car to Chancellor Seguier. On May 22, 1649, the scientist was granted a royal privilege, which gave him priority in the invention and the right to manufacture and sell machines. From 1648 to 1652, Pascal made and sold a number of machines, 8 copies survived to our priority. It is interesting that we do not know if Pascal's machines were used for practical calculations or only as an educational toy.

On April 14, 1652, one of the last demonstrations of Pascal's machine took place at the Luxembourg Palace of the same Duchess de Aiguillon. Richelieu had died by that time, but, as usual, all the high society of Paris was present at the reception. It was, according to contemporaries, a brilliant demonstration - one can imagine how all these earls, barons and marquises craned their necks in curiosity, listening to a lecture by a pale and sickly-looking young scholar. After 1652, Pascal abandoned the car and never returned to it.

Blaise Pascal's machine had a huge impact on the subsequent development of mechanized computing. And for 300 years it was believed that he was the first. But, as often happened in the history of science and technology, he had little-known predecessors. In 1957, a certain Dr. Hammer from Germany made a report at a seminar at the Research Mathematical Institute, from which it followed that a calculating machine similar to Pascal's (it even had the same bit capacity) had been invented two decades earlier by professor of mathematics Wilhelm Schickard from Tübingen. Shikkard outlined his concept in detail in letters to the famous astronomer Kepler back in 1624, so there was no doubt. Moreover, some components of the structure (in particular, the notorious mechanism for transferring tens) were implemented by the German scientist even simpler and more elegant than by Pascal. However, apparently, Schickard's machine was never built during the life of the professor (already after Hammer's research, Tubingen scientists recreated a copy of the machine from the surviving sketches). So the championship still remains with Pascal.

Some similarities in the personalities of Wilhelm Schickard and Blaise Pascal are curious - and, above all, the versatility of interests. Shikkard began his career as a professor at the Department of Oriental Languages.

It is even more interesting that already in the sixties of the twentieth century, among the unpublished manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci, a sketch of a 13-bit adding machine with automatic transfer of tens on gears was found. Her model was recreated by IBM engineers.

Parliamentary Advocate Pierre Perrault had five sons. The most famous of them is Charles, the royal controller, who at the end of his life earned himself the fame of a famous storyteller. But perhaps the more interesting of the brothers is Claude Perrault. During his long life at that time (he died in 1688, a little short of 75), he managed to try the professions of a doctor, architect, physicist, naturalist, translator, archaeologist, designer, mechanic and also write poetry. In his Memoir on the Natural History of Animals, he was the first to correctly name the cause of the color change in a chameleon. Among his works are the four-volume Essay on Physics and the monograph On Five Types of Antique Columns. He was prompted to take up architecture by a commission from Minister Colbert, who replaced Cardinal Mazarin, to translate the work of the Roman architect Marcus Vitruvius entitled "10 Books on Architecture" for the purpose of educating young architects. Already elderly Claude (he was almost fifty) was unspeakably carried away by this business. Implementations of some architectural projects have survived to this day - for example, the eastern (main) facade of the ensemble of the combined palaces of the Louvre and the Tuileries, the so-called "Perro colonnade". And he went down in history mainly as an architect - for example, Bolshaya Soviet Encyclopedia She did not even consider it necessary to mention his other occupations.

Among them there are "weight lifting machine", "machine for increasing the effect firearms and the exotic "water-powered pendulum clock". Number 10 is the "adding machine".

The principle of its device was significantly different from Pascal's machine: if the latter used gears, then Perrault used gear racks. The design was called the "rhabdological abacus" (rhabdology - among the ancients, the science of performing arithmetic operations with the help of counting sticks). Claude Perrault's seven-digit machine could do addition and subtraction (moreover, subtraction was easier than Pascal's, although in some cases the result had to be corrected), it was also able to carry out automatic transfer of tens. Rack (cremal) mechanisms were not widely used among designers of counting mechanisms , so this direction is considered a dead end - but still, some of Perrault's ideas were subsequently used.

The role of agricultural mechanization

mechanization of agriculture - replacement of manual labor by machine; the introduction of machines and tools in agricultural production. The mechanization of agriculture is of great national economic importance, since it increases labor efficiency, reduces the initial cost of production, shortens the time for completing work, and saves a person from hard, laborious and tedious work. Raising the culture of agricultural production is inextricably linked with the mechanization of agriculture - the use of the latest achievements of science and technology, the development of advanced technology, the further intensification of agriculture, the implementation of large-scale work on land reclamation and the chemicalization of agricultural production. Technology is the most active part of the means of production; it is of exceptional importance in creating the material and technical base of agriculture.

The objects of mechanization of agricultural production are working processes: in agriculture - drainage and irrigation of lands, cultural and technical work, tillage (plowing, peeling, harrowing, disking, cultivation, rolling), sowing (planting), processing of row spacings, fertilizing, combating diseases and pests of cultivated plants and weeds, harvesting, cleaning and sorting of grain, forage harvesting; on livestock farms - preparation of feed for feeding, distribution of feed, cleaning of premises from manure, watering of livestock and poultry, milking of cows, shearing of sheep; in auxiliary enterprises - repair of agricultural machinery, processing of agricultural products.

The effectiveness of the mechanization of agricultural production is very high. Thus, the transition from live tax to mechanical traction made it possible to increase labor efficiency in plowing by 9 times, in harrowing, cultivation and sowing - 18 times, in harvesting and threshing grain crops - 44 times. The use of electric milking reduces labor by 67%, and operational expenses by 34%. The mechanized water supply of livestock farms, in comparison with the horse-manual one, reduces expense labor by 96% and operating costs by 90%. An even greater effect is obtained with the comprehensive mechanization of agriculture with the use of electricity.

The technical equipment of agriculture contributes to an increase in gross output while reducing the number of employees in agriculture more than double.

device and blower sprayers

The basic components of the sprayer are: a tank, a pump, a control panel, a power unit, a universal fan device, a cardan drive and a frame.

The sprayer is driven from the tractor power take-off shaft.

The rotation of the fan impeller is transmitted from the tractor power take-off shaft through the shafts of the cardan drive and the shafts of the power unit. The centrifugal clutch built into the fan wheel protects the mechanical gears from overload when starting and stopping the fan. When the wheel rotates, the fan sucks in air from the surrounding space and delivers it to the spray nozzles.

The crankshaft of the pump receives rotation from the shaft of the power unit through a chain drive.

The pump sucks in the working fluid from the tank through the filter and delivers it to the control panel. From the control panel, the liquid enters the spray nozzle mounted on the fan, is sprayed with air into droplets and transported by an air stream to the cultivated crops.

The required working pressure is set by the working valve of the control panel and is controlled by the pressure gauge of the separating-damping device.

The required flow of liquid through the sprayers is regulated by the dispenser. Excess liquid from the control panel is transferred back to the tank through the switch through the hose.

Part of the working fluid from the control panel is supplied through the sleeve to the hydraulic mixer, in the flange of which a safety valve is mounted.

Refueling of the sprayer with transportable filling equipment is carried out through the tank neck, in which the filling filter is located.

If there are no refueling facilities, then the sprayer is refueled using its own ejector-type refueling device.

The system for cleaning and transporting manure outside the production premises must meet the following requirements: ensure constant and easily maintained cleanliness of the premises for keeping animals, as well as passages and fences; limit the formation and penetration of harmful gases into the animal habitat; be easy to operate and not require large labor costs for management, repair and sanitation; exclude the penetration of infectious beginnings with manure from one section to another.

Manure removal systems are divided into mechanical and hydraulic. Mechanically, manure can be removed by stationary and mobile means or combined: mobile - from manure passages to transverse channels; stationary - from transverse channels to manure receivers or tractor trailers

Mechanization of construction works

firms, positioned in this market, can be conditionally divided into two categories. First - enterprises, the basis of the machine park of which is equipment acquired for the most part ten or more years ago. Lacking the possibility of its renewal, deprived of permanent orders, these relics of the planned economy keep afloat thanks to the austerity regime and the renting out of their premises. The second category is companies new formation, but for most of them the main one is not determined by the proceeds from the operation of equipment.

Delivery of equipment to rentau as a field of activity is still underdeveloped. Per rare exception firms operating in this market are few in number (sometimes they are private individuals with 1-2 cars). AT major cities There are a number of companies that sell rentau imported cars, but, as a rule, for a short period due to the high cost of these services.

The present time is characterized by an increase in the share of imported cars. This is due to market requirements, as the customer is becoming more demanding on the quality of work (products), their cost and deadlines. At the same time, domestic manufacturers are far from always able to offer a potential buyer high reliability at a competitive price.

Many of them are trying to solve the problem of the reliability of their machines by completing them with parts and assemblies. foreign production. Equipment with imported engines and hydraulics is offered. Moreover, some manufacturers are already purchasing in Europe for the manufacture of working equipment. All this significantly increases price products and, attracting potential buyers with increased reliability, at the same time repels with a high price.

Formation of "one's own" buyer in this way is unlikely to lead to positive results. And if the old, albeit not very good, but thoroughly known models, sooner or later will be implemented by a not too fastidious buyer, then such "transitional" models will remain an expensive "pig in a poke". And the more demanding and possessing funds somewhat larger than necessary for the purchase of a new domestic car, most likely, will opt for imported equipment from leading manufacturers, even if it was in use.

More demanding and having more funds than necessary to purchase a new domestic car, the buyer will most likely opt for imported equipment from leading manufacturers, even if it was used.

Be that as it may, but before construction organizations, the issues of optimizing the technical and economic indicators of the operation of machines are becoming more and more acute. And if in other areas of business at the time of choosing a solution it is still permissible to be guided by the principle of "profitable - unprofitable" on an intuitive level, then in construction there comes a moment when it forces you to make only balanced and carefully calculated decisions, the quality of which determines not only the position of the organization in the market, but also a question of its very existence. The formation of normal market relations eventually forces enterprises to look for the best ways for the company to operate equipment, since the business management mechanisms already found and determined by time on the scale of the whole enterprise do not always provide the desired result in a rather specific area - mechanization.

The last few years have given a new impetus to rethinking the processes of managing the mechanization of production in construction. This is primarily due to a certain suspension of inflation, which previously more than covered the previously produced by increased prices, which made the definition original cost production or construction with the allocation of an item of expenditure on mechanization is not so necessary. All this was superimposed on the lack of a normal system for calculating the cost of operation.

The existing methods developed and approved by the State Construction Committee of the Russian Federation and industry departments turned out to be far from reality today (in the vast majority of them, the estimated costs are overstated) and do not take into account changes in legislation and market realities. Thus, the share of costs for mechanization in construction is from 10 to 20%, and according to the estimate documentation - 2 times more. Such a bias made it possible to cover excess costs for the purchase of materials (after all, the estimate, at best, is recalculated with the customer once a year and for the next period, and the materials were already bought in the past) and for wages.

Stopping price growth generates rapid growth competition in the construction market, and even with the steady rise in the cost of materials, it forces builders to reduce their prices. The contractor has a need to either reduce the fund payment labor, which will negatively affect the quality of products, or save on mechanization. If in the first case the "resource" exists, then it is very small. At best, the way out is to hire less paid specialists from countries CIS, including "illegal immigrants".

But mechanization, in this context, is seen as an undeveloped field of activity. At the same time, the issue of saving is solved in a radical way, namely, by reducing funding. Many are familiar with the situation when invoices for spare parts, fuel, materials, and repair services brought to management are ignored or not paid in full. Or, if it is necessary to update the fleet, the cheapest cars are purchased. Or a machine that has a “permanent residence permit” in the repair zone is stubbornly exploited.

It is the lack of methods of approach to determining optimal solutions that generates low-quality managerial actions. And who is right: the head of the enterprise who made this decision, the mechanic who failed to convince him of the correctness of his vision of the problem, or the economist who has no idea about the operation of equipment, but substantiates the effectiveness of one or another point of view, is unknown. But, most likely, not everyone will be right.

It's no secret that you can buy used equipment at a European auction 2-3 times cheaper. Western countries the operation of an old machine may be unprofitable, not so much because of the high costs due to wear and tear, but because of the amount of taxes. It is extremely problematic to sell such a machine “at home” (due to an excess supply of new equipment and stagnation in the construction industry), and a large part of this equipment is exported abroad, incl. in Russian Federation . Since many of these machines are in good technical condition, they enter into a struggle for the purchaser with new technology and often win it, occupying a significant part of the market. But it is impossible to say that this will continue for a long time, given the experience of the development of the automotive market. Surely, everyone remembers the times when Russian Federation there were caravans of second-hand foreign cars. Now, old cars are becoming rarer, and more and more consumers are buying new ones. Most likely, subsequently, used construction machines will also be less popular.

The second important difference lies in the fact that the decrease in the operating time of machines over the service life, due to an increase in downtime due to failures, is not taken into account. This, in turn, is explained by the fact that in the West, few people operate equipment more than the service life set by the manufacturer. Our situation is different. In addition, the manufacturer, setting some values for the costs of materials and spare parts for maintenance (TO) and repairs, does not take into account the fact that the owner may use non-original products. The compilers of the methods also believe that the owner will not make repairs on his own, but will call a service dealer, paying him 1 standard hour at the appropriate rates. In fact, not everyone can afford such a “luxury” in our country.

Mechanization is

Sources

dorogi.kiev.ua - Roads

homepc.ru - Digital Technology Center

referat.ru - Abstracts

dic.academic.ru - Dictionaries and encyclopedias on Academician

glossary.ru - Glossary

Encyclopedia of the investor. 2013 .

Synonyms:

See what "Mechanization" is in other dictionaries:

MECHANIZATION- MECHANIZATION, mechanization, pl. no, female (book). 1. Action according to Ch. mechanize and mechanize. “... The mechanization of labor processes is that new and decisive force for us, without which it is impossible to maintain either our pace or the new ones ... ... Dictionary Ushakov

History of mechanization, management of mechanization, means of mechanization, labor mechanization

Use of machines instead of people, mechanization of construction work, mechanization of agriculture, complex mechanization, mechanization of production

1. Mechanization in history.

2. The role of mechanization of agricultural production.

3. Mechanization of construction works.

Mechanization is using machines instead of people.

Mechanization - this is replacement of manual labor by machines; stage of evolution of the productive forces of society.

Mechanizationin history

It is customary to begin the history of computing technology with the abacus, Russian abacus, the Chinese sunpan, and in general with all sorts of similar devices of the pre-industrial era. Which, in my opinion, is not very correct: computer technology is, first of all, precisely technology, that is, the use of machines in those operations that were previously performed manually, and it is difficult to call abacus, abacus and even a slide rule "machines". But the subsequent history of the mechanization of the counting process, up to Babbage's "analytical engine" and even for a long time after it, is also only a prehistory. For one simple reason: all "machinists", from Pascal (17th century) to Bolle and Steiger (late 19th century), were engaged in constructing calculators.

Nevertheless, this background is quite interesting - in the process of mechanization of arithmetic counting, the inventors gained the necessary experience, theoretical and practical, which finally made it possible to take on real computers. Therefore, let's look at the activities of the first designers of "calculating machines" - adding machines - inevitably fragmentary, choosing the most delicious, according to E. Kozlovsky's favorite expression, since there were many of them in different countries and in different centuries.

The son of Etienne is the famous physicist, mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal, brother Jacqueline. Poor health, Blaise did not live even forty years, but in geometry there remained "Pascal's theorem" (derived by him at the age of 16; this work, "Experiment on Conic Sections", consisted of only 53 lines, but immediately made him famous), in physics - "Pascal's law" (and therefore his name is immortalized in the unit of measurement of pressure in the C system), and the philosophical treatise "Thoughts" put him on a par with the leading philosophers of all time (Pascal is considered the forerunner of modern existentialists). What interests us is this: at the beginning of 1640, the Pascal family arrived in Rouen, and Etienne Pascal immediately plunged into work actively - he had to sit for days on the calculations of tax collections. Seventeen-year-old Blaise helped his father, and he gradually came up with the idea of \u200b\u200ba machine that would help carry out such cumbersome calculations.

At the age of 18, he began work on it. The first model was made in 1642, but it did not satisfy the author, and the final version appeared only in 1645. The machine had six decimal places and two additional ones, one divided into 20 parts, the other into 12, which corresponded to the ratio of the then monetary units (1 sou \u003d 1/20 livre, 1 denier \u003d 1/12 sous).

In the process of working on the machine, Pascal had to face the same difficulties that Babbage would face 200 years later - the technologies of that time simply did not allow the machine components to be made with the necessary accuracy. The mechanical craftsmen from the workshop where Blaise placed his orders often did not understand what he wanted, then Pascal himself took the file in his hands. Just like Babbage later, he had to invent not only the design itself, but also the technological methods for manufacturing its components. According to his own testimony, he “had the patience to make up to 50 different models: some wooden, others made of ivory, ebony, copper?”

Pascal presented one of the first models of the car to Chancellor Seguier. On May 22, 1649, the scientist was granted a royal privilege, which gave him priority in the invention and the right to manufacture and sell machines. From 1648 to 1652, Pascal manufactured and sold a number of machines, 8 copies have survived to this day. Interestingly, we don't know if Pascal's machines were used for practical calculations or just as an educational toy.

Parliamentary Advocate Pierre Perrault had five sons. The most famous of them is Charles, the royal controller, who at the end of his life earned himself the fame of a famous storyteller. But perhaps the more interesting of the brothers is Claude Perrault. During his long life at that time (he died in 1688, a little short of 75), he managed to try the professions of a doctor, architect, physicist, naturalist, translator, archaeologist, designer, mechanic and also write poetry. In his Memoir on the Natural History of Animals, he was the first to correctly name the cause of the color change in a chameleon. Among his works are the four-volume Essay on Physics and the monograph On Five Types of Antique Columns. He was prompted to take up architecture by a commission from Minister Colbert, who replaced Cardinal Mazarin, to translate the work of the Roman architect Marcus Vitruvius entitled "10 Books on Architecture" for the purpose of educating young architects. Already elderly Claude (he was almost fifty) was unspeakably carried away by this business. The implementation of some of his architectural projects have survived to this day - for example, the eastern (main) facade of the ensemble of the combined palaces of the Louvre and the Tuileries, the so-called "Perro colonnade". And he went down in history mainly as an architect - for example, the Great Soviet Encyclopedia did not even consider it necessary to mention his other occupations.

Among them are a "weight-lifting machine", "a machine for increasing the effect of firearms" and exotic "water-powered pendulum clocks". Number 10 is the "adding machine".

The role of agricultural mechanization

The mechanization of agriculture - the replacement of manual labor by machines; the introduction of machines and tools in agricultural production. The mechanization of agriculture is of great national economic importance, since it increases labor productivity, reduces the cost of production, shortens the time for completing work, and saves a person from hard, laborious and tedious work. The process of improving the culture of agricultural production is inextricably linked with the mechanization of agriculture - the application of the latest achievements of science and technology, the development of advanced technology, the further intensification of agriculture, the implementation of major works on land reclamation and the chemicalization of agricultural production. Technology is the most active part of the means of production; it is of exceptional importance in creating the material and technical base of agriculture.

The objects of mechanization of agricultural production are working processes: in agriculture - drainage and irrigation of land, cultural and technical work, tillage (plowing, peeling, harrowing, disking, cultivation, rolling), sowing (planting), processing of row spacings, fertilizing, combating diseases and pests of cultivated plants and weeds, harvesting, cleaning and sorting of grain, forage harvesting; on livestock farms - preparation of feed for feeding, distribution of feed, cleaning of premises from manure, watering of livestock and poultry, milking of cows, shearing of sheep; in auxiliary enterprises - repair of agricultural machinery, processing of agricultural products.

The effectiveness of the mechanization of agricultural production is very high. Thus, the transition from live tax to mechanical traction made it possible to increase labor productivity in plowing by 9 times, in harrowing, cultivation and sowing - by 18 times, in harvesting and threshing grain crops - by 44 times. The use of electric milking reduces labor costs by 67%, and operating costs by 34%. The mechanized water supply of livestock farms, in comparison with the horse-manual one, reduces labor costs by 96% and operating costs by 90%. An even greater effect is obtained with the comprehensive mechanization of agriculture with the use of electricity.

The technical equipment of agriculture contributes to an increase in gross output while at the same time reducing the number of people employed in agriculture by more than half.

Device and technological process of fan sprayers

The basic components of the sprayer are: a tank, a pump, a control panel, a power unit, a universal fan device, a cardan drive and a frame.

The sprayer is driven from the tractor power take-off shaft.

The crankshaft of the pump receives rotation from the shaft of the power unit through a chain drive.

The required working pressure is set by the working valve of the control panel and is controlled by the pressure gauge of the separating-damping device.

The required liquid flow through the sprayers is regulated by the dispenser. Excess liquid from the control panel is transferred back to the tank through the switch through the hose.

Part of the working fluid from the control panel is supplied through the sleeve to the hydraulic mixer, in the flange of which a safety valve is mounted.

Refueling of the sprayer with transportable filling equipment is carried out through the tank neck, in which the filling filter is located.

If there are no refueling facilities, then the sprayer is refueled using its own ejector-type refueling device.

Mechanization of construction works

Organizations positioned in this market can be conditionally divided into two categories. The first one is the enterprises, the basis of the machine park of which is the equipment acquired for the most part ten or more years ago. Unable to renovate, deprived of permanent orders, these relics of a planned economy are kept afloat thanks to the austerity regime and the leasing of their premises. The second category is organizations of a new formation, but for most of them the main profit is not determined by the proceeds from the operation of equipment.

Leasing equipment as a field of activity is still underdeveloped. With rare exceptions, organizations operating in this market are few in number (sometimes they are private individuals with 1-2 cars). In large cities, there are a number of firms that rent imported cars, but, as a rule, for a short period due to the high cost of these services.

The present time is characterized by an increase in the share of imported cars. This is due to market requirements, as the customer is becoming more demanding on the quality of work (products), their cost and timing. At the same time, domestic manufacturers are far from always able to offer a potential buyer high reliability at a competitive price.

Many of them are trying to solve the problem of the reliability of their machines by completing them with foreign-made parts and assemblies. Equipment with imported engines and hydraulics is offered. Moreover, some manufacturers are already purchasing steel for the manufacture of work equipment in Europe. All this significantly increases the cost of products and, while attracting potential buyers with increased reliability, at the same time repels them with a high price.

The formation of "your" buyer in this way can hardly lead to positive results. And if the old, albeit not very good, but thoroughly known models, will sooner or later be sold to a not too fastidious buyer, then such “transitional” models will remain an expensive “pig in a poke”. And the buyer, who is more demanding and has more funds than necessary to purchase a new domestic car, will most likely opt for imported equipment from leading manufacturers, even if it is used.

More demanding and having more funds than necessary to purchase a new domestic car, the buyer will most likely opt for imported equipment from leading manufacturers, even if it was used.

Be that as it may, but before construction organizations, the issues of optimizing the technical and economic indicators of the operation of machines are becoming more and more acute. And if in other areas of business at the time of choosing a solution it is still permissible to be guided by the principle of “profitable - unprofitable” on an intuitive level, then in construction there comes a moment when competition forces you to make only balanced and carefully calculated decisions, the quality of which depends not only on the position of the company in the market but also a question of its very existence. The formation of normal market relations ultimately forces enterprises to look for optimal ways to organize the operation of equipment, since the business management mechanisms already found and determined by time on the scale of the whole enterprise do not always provide the desired result in a rather specific area - mechanization.

The last few years have given a new impetus to rethinking the processes of managing the mechanization of production in construction. This is primarily due to a certain suspension of inflation, which previously more than covered the previously incurred costs with increased prices, which made determining the cost of production or construction with the allocation of an item of costs for mechanization not so necessary. All this was superimposed on the lack of a normal system for calculating the cost of operation.

The existing methods developed and approved by the State Construction Committee of the Russian Federation and industry departments turned out to be far from reality today (in the vast majority of them, the estimated costs are overstated) and do not take into account changes in legislation and market realities. Thus, the share of costs for mechanization in construction is from 10 to 20%, and according to the estimate documentation - 2 times more. Such a bias made it possible to cover the excess costs for the purchase of materials (after all, the estimate, at best, is recalculated with the customer once a year and for future period, and the materials were already bought in the past) and for wages.

The halt in real estate prices generates a rapid increase in competition in the construction market, and even with a steady rise in the cost of materials, it forces builders to reduce their prices. The contractor has a need to either reduce the wage fund, which will negatively affect the quality of products, or save on mechanization. If in the first case the "resource" exists, then it is very small. At best, the way out is to hire less paid specialists from the CIS countries, including "illegal immigrants".

It's no secret that you can buy used equipment at a European auction 2-3 times cheaper. In Western countries, the operation of an old car can be unprofitable, not so much because of the high costs due to wear and tear, but because of the amount of taxes. It is extremely problematic to sell such a machine “at home” (due to an excess supply of new equipment and stagnation in the construction industry), and a large part of this equipment is exported abroad, incl. in Russia. Since many of these machines are in good technical condition, they enter the struggle for the consumer with new equipment and often win it, occupying a significant part of the market. But it is impossible to say that this will continue for a long time, given the experience of the development of the automotive market. Surely, everyone remembers the times when caravans of used foreign cars went to Russia. Now, old cars are becoming rarer, and more and more consumers are buying new ones. Most likely, subsequently, used construction machines will also be less popular.

The second important difference lies in the fact that the decrease in the operating time of machines over the service life, due to an increase in downtime due to failures, is not taken into account. This, in turn, is explained by the fact that in the West, few people operate equipment more than the service life set by the manufacturer. Our situation is different. In addition, the manufacturer, setting some values of the cost of materials and spare parts for maintenance (TO) and repairs, does not take into account the fact that the owner may use non-original products. The compilers of the methods also believe that the owner will not make repairs on his own, but will call a service dealer, paying him 1 standard hour at the appropriate rates. In fact, not everyone can afford such a “luxury” in our country.

Sources

dorogi.kiev.ua - Roads

homepc.ru - Digital Technology Center

referat.ru - Abstracts

dic.academic.ru - Dictionaries and encyclopedias on Academician

glossary.ru - Glossary

Mechanization and automation of production processes is one of the main directions of technical progress. The purpose of mechanization and automation is to facilitate the work of a person, leaving the functions of maintenance and control to a person, to increase labor productivity and improve the quality of manufactured products.

Rice. 3.2. ASh-NYu-1 model manipulator used for mechanization of loading operations, including equipment loading

Mechanization- the direction of development of production, characterized by the use of machines and mechanisms that replace the muscular labor of the worker (Fig. 3.2).

According to the degree of technical perfection, mechanization is divided into the following types:

partial and small-scale mechanization, characterized by the use of the simplest mechanisms, most often mobile. Small-scale mechanization can cover parts of movements, leaving many types of work, operations, and processes non-mechanized. Small-scale mechanization mechanisms may include trolleys, simple lifting equipment, etc.;

full, or complex mechanization, includes the mechanization of all basic, auxiliary, installation and transport operations. This type of mechanization

characterized by the use of fairly complex technological and handling equipment.

The highest level of mechanization is automation. Automation means the use of machines, instruments, devices, devices that allow production processes to be carried out without the direct participation of a person, but only under his control. Automation of production processes is inevitably associated with the solution of management processes, which must also be automated. The branch of science and technology that solves control systems for automatic equipment is called automation. Automation is based on the management, control, collection and processing of information about the automatic process with the help of technical means - special instruments and devices. The automated control system (ACS) is based on the use of modern electronic computers and electronic mathematical methods in production management and is designed to increase its productivity.

Automation production processes are also divided into two parts:

partial automation, covers part of the operations performed, provided that the remaining operations are performed by a person. As a rule, a direct impact on the product, i.e., processing, is automatically performed, and the loading operations of the workpieces and the re-enabling of the equipment are performed by a person. Such equipment is called semi-automatic;

full or complex automation, characterized by the automatic execution of all operations, including boot operations. A person only fills the loading devices with workpieces, turns on the machine, controls its actions, carrying out adjustments, tool changes and waste disposal. Such equipment is called automatic. Depending on the volume of introduction of automatic equipment, automatic lines, an automatic section, a workshop and a plant are distinguished.

As practice has shown, ordinary automation schemes and complex automation are effectively used only in large-scale and mass production. In multi-product production, where frequent changeover of the flow is required, ordinary automation schemes are of little use. Equipment equipped with stationary automation systems does not allow switching to manual control. The usual automation scheme implies the use of loading devices (slips, trays, hoppers, feeders, etc.) and processing equipment adapted to perform automatic operations. Processed products are removed using a device for receiving processed products (slides, trays, magazines, etc.).

Auto-operators and mechanical hands, long used in ordinary automation schemes, served as prototypes for a new kind of automation. A new type of automation using industrial robots (IR) allows you to solve problems that cannot be solved using conventional automation schemes. Industrial robots, as conceived by their developers, are designed to replace humans in hard and tedious jobs that are hazardous to health. They are based on modeling the motor and control functions of a person.

Industrial robots solve complex product assembly processes, welding, painting and other complex technological operations, as well as loading, transporting and storing parts. The new type of automation has a number of properties that qualitatively distinguish it from other types of properties, giving PR significant advantages over ordinary schemes:

high manipulation properties, i.e., the ability to move parts along complex spatial trajectories;

own drive system;

program control system;

autonomy of PR, i.e., their non-integration into technological equipment;

universality, i.e., the ability to move products of various types in space;

compatibility with a fairly large number of types of process equipment;

adaptability to various types of work and products replacing each other;

the ability to turn off the PR and switch to manual control of the equipment.

Depending on the participation of a person in the processes of controlling robots, they are divided into biotechnical, autonomous.

Biotechnical are remote copying robots controlled by a human. The robot can be controlled from the remote control using systems of handles, levers, keys, buttons, or by “putting” special devices on the arms, legs or body of a person. These devices serve to reproduce human movements at a distance with the necessary increase in effort. Such robots are called exoskeleton robots. Robots of semi-automatic action also belong to biotechnical robots.

Autonomous robots work automatically with the help of program control.

Over the relatively long history of the development of robotics, several generations of robots have already been created.

First generation robots(software robots) are characterized by a rigid program of actions and elementary feedback. These usually include industrial robots (IR). At present, this system of robots is the most developed. The first generation PRs are divided into universal, target PRs of the lifting and transport group, target robots of the production group. In addition, robots are divided into standard size rows, into rows according to maximum productivity, according to the radius of service, according to the number of degrees of freedom, etc.

Second generation robots(sentient robots) have coordination of movement with perception. The control program for these robots is carried out using a computer.

To third generation robots includes robots with artificial intelligence. These robots create conditions for replacing a person in the field of skilled labor, have the ability to adapt in the production process. Robots of the third generation are able to understand the language, can conduct a dialogue with a person, plan behavior, etc.

Carrying out complex automation of technological processes of sites, workshops and factories, they create robotic technological complexes (RTC). robotic technological complex is a set of technological equipment and industrial robots. The RTK is placed on a certain area and is intended for one or more operations in automatic mode. The equipment included in the RTK is divided into processing equipment, servicing equipment and equipment for monitoring and control. The processing equipment includes the main technological equipment upgraded to work with industrial robots. The service equipment contains a device for placing parts at the entrance to the RTK, interoperational transporting h storage devices, devices for receiving processed products, as well as industrial robots (Fig. 3.3). Monitoring and control equipment ensures the mode of operation of the RTK and the quality of products.

Pic. 3.3. Floor robot with horizontal retractable arm and cantilever lifting mechanism PR-4

An increase in the efficiency of the use of industrial robots is facilitated by a rational reduction in the range of PR and an improvement in their adaptability (adaptability). This is achieved by PR typing. A comprehensive analysis of production is carried out, a grouping of robotic objects and the establishment of types and main parameters of the PR. Typification of PR is the basis for the development of their unification, which should be aimed at ensuring the possibility of creating robots by aggregation. To ensure the principle of aggregation, standardization is carried out: 1) connecting dimensions of drives, transmission mechanisms and feedback sensors; 2) rows of output parameters of drives (powers, speeds, etc.); 3) methods of communication of program control devices with executive and measuring devices.

The result of work on the unification of PR should be the creation of their optimal type and a system of modular construction. The aggregate-modular system for building industrial robots is a set of methods and tools that ensure the construction of different sizes of PR kz of a limited number of unified nodes (modules and assemblies). It allows the use of a minimum number of mass-produced functional units, which are selected from special industrial catalogs. This makes it possible in multi-product production to quickly rebuild the robotic systems of machines for the production of new products. On the basis of PR with aggregate-modular construction, flexible automated production (FAP) is based.

Planning for the introduction of mechanized and automated equipment is associated with an analysis of production. Analysis of production is reduced to identifying a number of conditions that contribute to the use of this equipment. The analysis is not subject to production associated with the use of heavy manual labor. The mechanization and automation of heavy manual labor is a paramount task and does not depend on the results of economic calculation.

The design of mechanization and automation of technological processes must begin with an analysis of the existing production. During the analysis, those features and specific differences are clarified and specified, on the basis of which one or another type of equipment is selected. The pre-design stage of the development of mechanization and automation of production processes includes the solution of a number of issues.

1. The analysis of the product release program includes the study of: the annual release program of the product, stability and release prospects; level of unification and standardization; specialization and centralization of production; the rhythm of production; cargo turnover (cargo turnover is the total mass of incoming and outgoing cargo - for loading operations). It must be remembered that the effectiveness of mechanization and automation of the process to a large extent depends on the product release program. Mechanization and automation devices in mass and small-scale production will differ significantly.

2. The analysis of the technological process of manufacturing products subject to mechanization and automation includes: determining the suitability of the technological process for mechanization and automation; identification of shortcomings of the current technological process; determination of the labor intensity of the main and auxiliary operations;

comparison of existing manufacturing modes with modes recommended in reference books; analysis of the application of group technology; division of the technological process into classes.

The first main class includes processes that require the orientation of the workpiece (part) and are characterized by the presence of a machined tool. These processes are characteristic of the main range of products that are manufactured by cutting, pressure or assembled, controlled, etc. The second main class includes processes that do not require orientation of the workpiece (part), they use a working environment instead of a processing tool. These include heat treatment, tumbling, washing, drying, etc.

The first transitional class includes processes that require the orientation of the workpiece (part), but there is no tool, and its role is played by the working environment; deposition of local coatings, hardness control by magnetization, etc. The second transitional class includes processes that do not require the orientation of the workpiece (part), but they involve a machining tool; production of parts by powder metallurgy, production of metal-ceramic and ceramic parts, etc.

3. Analysis of the design of the product, while establishing the clarity of the processing of the product and the completeness of the technical requirements for the manufactured part; the shape, dimensions, materials, mass of the product are investigated and suitability for one or another type of mechanization and automation is established.

4. Selection of information on various types of mechanization and automation. Before starting work, all techniques and technological schemes, as well as equipment, devices and facilities mastered by the industry. Before making a decision, a search is made for information on the production of similar products in the country and abroad.

5. Economic calculation of the effectiveness of the proposed mechanization and automation of production.

6. Development and approval of recommendations for changing existing production conditions. Recommendations are developed on the basis of the analysis carried out and may include: unification, i.e. reduction to one standard size of products with similar designs; change in the sequence of technological operations or the use of a completely new progressive technological process; the use of a group technological process of products similar in design; application of a new type of product blank; clarification and, if necessary, change of the technical requirements of the drawing; change in the shape and size of the product; change in product material.

7. Making a decision on the use of a certain principle of mechanization and automation and drawing up a technical assignment for development.