Stone work is a piece-by-piece laying of a stone on a solution. Masonry is made of natural and artificial stones correct and freeform... From natural materials used bedded and torn stone from limestone, dolomite, sandstone and other rocks weighing up to 40 kg; cut stones for facing and decorative masonry; small sawn stones from limestone, tuff, shell rock and other rocks. Of the artificial materials, the most widespread are ordinary clay bricks (corpulent), porous, hollow and porous-hollow; clay facing and silicate bricks; hollow ceramic stones; small lightweight concrete stones with cracks and three through voids weighing up to 32 kg, etc. Natural stone materials and products are made from rocks, which are subdivided into sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous. Stone materials and products are characterized by the following indicators:

• bulk mass is the mass of a unit of volume;
• grade - compressive strength;
• frost resistance - the number of freezing and thawing cycles;
• softening - the ratio of the strength of a material saturated with water to its dry strength;
• water absorption - the ratio of the mass of water absorbed by the material to the mass of the material in a dry state.

Depending on the method of manufacturing materials and products from natural stones, they are divided into sawn, chipped, torn, crushed, fused and sorted. For laying foundations, rubble stone (torn, limestone, bedded), chipped and sawn piece stones of all types of rocks are used. For masonry walls, wall stones, large wall blocks, hewn stone from all types of limestone, dolomite, sandstone, volcanic tuff and gypsum stone are used. These materials and products are made from rocks weighing up to 2100 kg / m3; they must meet the regulatory requirements for compressive strength, frost resistance, moisture absorption, etc. Grades for compressive strength from 4 to 400 are established for natural stones. For laying foundations and external walls For natural stones, grades from 15 to 500 are established for frost resistance and water absorption For laying foundations and walls of underground parts of buildings, rubble, chipped and sawn stones with a stone softening coefficient of at least 0.6 and a grade of at least 400 are used.

Facing slabs and stones from natural materials are used for facing external and interior walls buildings, flooring, production of cornices, window sill slabs, etc. Facing slabs and stones are sawn or split from blocks of natural stone with their subsequent processing. For exterior cladding weather-resistant and dense igneous rocks are used, for internal - soft rocks that can be easily processed.

Building bricks are used for brickwork. There are the following types of it: ordinary clay plastic or semi-dry pressing, silicate, made of tripoli and diatomites, clay hollow plastic pressing, slag, etc. Bricks are produced in grades 75, 100, 125, 200, 250 and 300. The mass of bricks should not exceed 4 kg ...

Concrete and lightweight concrete stones are used for laying plinths, foundations, external and internal walls, etc. For laying foundations, plinths, as well as walls of wet rooms, stones made of heavy concrete are used; the grade for ultimate strength should be from 25 to 200, and for frost resistance not lower than Mrz 15. For masonry in rooms of normal importance, lightweight concrete stones are made on lightweight aggregates of grade 25-150 for frost resistance not less than 25 Mrz. Lightweight concrete stones are used for laying walls, pillars and plinths above the waterproofing layer. Concrete and lightweight concrete stones are produced both solid and hollow, with through or slot-like voids.

The following artificial stones are used for facing the facades of buildings: face brick corpulent and hollow; ceramic small-sized and facade tiles; carpet; concrete facade; the face ceramic stone is full-bodied and hollow with longitudinal and transverse slotted and through voids. Facade ceramic tiles and carpets are made from clays by dry and semi-dry pressing with a glazed and unglazed surface. Glass tiles from molten glass are produced by hot pressing or continuous rolling with a smooth or corrugated surface.

Masonry is a structure consisting of stones laid on mortar in a specific order. Depending on the type of stone used, masonry is subdivided into rubble, rubble concrete, plank, solid brick, lightweight brick, small-block and cladding masonry.

Rubble, rubble concrete and plank masonry is made from torn and bedded rubble; such masonry is used for the construction of foundations, basement walls, warehouses, retaining walls, etc. Rubble masonry is strong, durable, moisture resistant, but laborious to perform and requires a large consumption of mortar. Rubble concrete masonry is less labor-intensive, stronger than rubble.

Plank masonry is made of natural stones, which are given the correct shape during processing; It is used for cladding the basements of buildings, tunnels, embankments, etc. It has great strength, durable and has high decorative qualities.

Brickwork made of clay or silicate bricks, hollow ceramic stones and small blocks is used in the construction of walls, pillars, arches, vaults, etc. For external walls and for rooms with a wet regime, ordinary clay bricks of plastic pressing are used as more resistant to weathering. Lightweight brickwork consists of walls tied together in a half-brick, the space between which is filled with heat-insulating material; it is used, as a rule, for the construction of external walls. Such masonry for fencing premises with a wet mode is prohibited.

Small-block masonry is made of hollow ceramic, lightweight concrete and silicate stones for the construction of external and internal walls of heated buildings. Masonry with surface cladding is used to protect structures from the effects of aggressive environments, as well as to give them an architectural and decorative look. The facing material is heavy cement and silicate concrete slabs, hollow ceramic stones and facing bricks.

All of the listed types of masonry are used depending on the purpose of the structure and the conditions in which it will be located, the capital of the building under construction and the economic feasibility of using materials. Each type of masonry has its own specific features and properties (strength, thermal conductivity, water resistance, frost resistance, etc.), which determine the area of ​​their application in construction. Brick or stone masonry is usually performed in horizontal rows.

A brick or stone of regular shape has six planes (faces). The two opposite largest planes (edges) with which the brick is placed on the mortar are called beds (lower and upper); long side faces of a brick (stone) are called spoons; short edges - poked. Bricks and stones in a row of masonry that form the surfaces of structures are called miles. Versts distinguish between external, located on the side of the facade of the building, and internal, located on the inside of the room. Depending on the laying of bricks or stones, versts are divided into butcher and spoon. A row of bricks facing the surface of the wall with a long side face is called a spoon row, and those facing the surface of the wall with a short face are called a butt row. Bricks and stones laid between the outer and inner versts are called zabutovochny or zabutka. The width of the masonry walls, which is usually called thickness, is made a multiple of half a brick or stone: one, one and a half, two, two and a half bricks, etc. Partitions in buildings are laid out in half a brick or a quarter brick, that is, 12 and 6 thick , 5 cm. Solid walls without any complications are called smooth; walls with openings and with protruding structural elements or architectural details may have gaps, edges, ledges, pilasters, etc.

An overlap is a place of masonry in which its next row is laid not in the plane of previously laid bricks, but with a ledge on the front surface. As a rule, overlaps are made for no more than one third of the brick length in each row. By letting in several rows of masonry, they form belts, which separate individual parts of the building in height on the facades of houses, as well as cornices and other structural and architectural elements.

Masonry trimming is arranged with an indent from the front surface of the next row of masonry. The wall masonry above the edge has a smaller thickness than before the edge. The masonry is trimmed when moving from the basement to the wall, while the last row of masonry before trimming is necessarily laid out with pokes. The masonry ledge is those places where the front plane of one part of the wall protrudes to one side or the other from the front plane of the other part. The size of the ledge is determined by the project.

Pilasters are the parts of the wall masonry that protrude from the common front plane in the form of rectangular pillars, laid out in a bandage with the wall masonry. Furrows are arranged for placing pipelines, electric cables and other hidden wiring in the wall; after installation, the grooves are sealed flush with the wall plane. The furrows in the masonry can be horizontal and vertical. Horizontal grooves are made multiples of one row of masonry in height, that is, a quarter of a brick (stone), and half a brick (stone) in depth; vertical grooves in width and depth are made multiples of half a brick (stone). Niches are called recesses in the masonry of the wall, multiples of half a brick (stone). Built-in wardrobes, heating devices, electrical and other devices are installed in niches.

Usually, in any building, external walls are not made solid, but with window or doorways. The masonry located between two adjacent openings is called a wall; piers can be in the form of simple rectangular pillars, as well as pillars with quarters for fixing window and door blocks in them. The quarters are made by releasing the outer spoonful of versts from the masonry by 1/4 and laying quarters and bricks in them in the butt versts.

Fines are arranged in places of a temporary break in masonry. The slabs should be made so that with the further continuation of the work, it would be possible to ensure reliable bandaging of the new part of the masonry with the previously erected one; for this purpose, the punches are made runaway or vertical. Compared to the vertical one, a sliding (inclined) rail provides a better connection of the connected parts of the walls. For the reliability of the connection of the masonry, steel ties are laid in vertical bars from rods with a diameter of 8 mm every 2 m in height. The spaces between the individual stones in the masonry form seams. Depending on the location, the seams in the masonry can be horizontal (or bed) and vertical; vertical seams are divided into longitudinal, if they are located along the wall, and transverse, which run across the wall. There are different ways of finishing the seams, depending on this, the seams of the masonry acquire the corresponding names. When laying a wall intended for plastering, the mortar in the joints is not brought to the vertical surface of the wall by 1-1.5 cm in order to ensure better adhesion of the plaster to the wall. This type of masonry is called waste masonry. When filling the joints with mortar, the masonry is made to the wall surface. In this case, the walls are not plastered, but the seams are finished. If the excess mortar squeezed out by the brick during its laying is trimmed flush with a trowel, then the masonry is called undercut. Outside seams can be added different shape: rounded, concave, convex, etc. Finish the seams with special jointing. Finishing the jointed joints not only improves appearance masonry, but also increases the durability of the solution under atmospheric influences by compaction and smoothing it in the seams. The average size of horizontal joints in brickwork is taken no more than 12 mm, and vertical joints - 10 mm. For individual seams, a thickness of at least 8 and not more than 15 mm is allowed. Transverse vertical and horizontal joints are filled completely, and longitudinal vertical joints are partially filled. When laying pillars, walls, lintels and other critical structures, all seams must be completely filled. The following subdivision of masonry is accepted in terms of complexity:

• the simplest - external and internal walls without architectural design (not counting the cornices);
• of simple complexity - these are cornices, belts, sandriks, pilasters, semi-columns, openings of a curved outline, etc.;
• medium difficulty - walls with complicated parts, not exceeding 20% ​​of the area of ​​all walls;
• especially complex masonry is arches, vaults and other similar structures.

Brick in masonry is usually laid on a bed, that is, flat; it can be laid on the edge (with a spoon), for example, when installing eaves and partitions, or upright (poked), for example, when laying with a poke. To ensure the dressing of the seams of the masonry, an incomplete brick is used: a three-quarter, a half and a quarter. The strength of the masonry is highly dependent on the suture binding system. There are a large number of systems for ligating brickwork seams, of which single-row (or chain, sometimes it is called two-row) and multi-row (three and six-row) are the most widespread. The laying of all structural elements begins and ends with butt rows, for which only a whole brick is used. The halves and breaking of bricks are used in the zabutka. Masonry, made of individual stones, connected with mortar, must work as a monolithic mass, capable of withstanding the forces acting on it. The way the stones are arranged is called cutting the masonry, which must obey certain rules. There are three such rules in total.

The first rule for cutting sets the maximum permissible angle of inclination of the force acting on the horizontal row of masonry. It should be borne in mind that the tensile strength of masonry is much lower than that of compression, therefore masonry is usually used in structures working in compression. The transfer of pressure from one stone to another should not take place at separate points, but over the entire surface (bed) of the contacting layers of masonry. Therefore, the rows of stones among themselves should be located parallel and perpendicular to the direction of the acting load. The beds of stones should be placed in the plane of the row and rest on the underlying row along their entire plane, which is ensured by an interlayer from the solution. As a rule, masonry of walls and pillars takes vertical loads. In this case, the masonry is cut with horizontal planes; horizontal joints are formed between the stones, filled with mortar. A deviation from this rule is allowed provided that the shear forces arising from the action of forces inclined to the bed are completely extinguished by the frictional force of the stone. In this case, the angle of the perpendicular to the horizontal component of the bed with the direction of the acting forces should not be more than 17 degrees. In arches and vaults, the force changes its direction and acts tangentially to the pressure curve, which is the locus of the points of application of the resultant forces in each separate section. In this case, the cutting of the masonry is carried out by planes going in the direction of the radii.

The second cutting rule regulates the location of the vertical masonry cutting planes relative to the bed. In this case, the arrangement of stones in the masonry should be such that the possibility of their shift or chipping under the influence of forces acting on the masonry is excluded. For this, the lateral planes of the contacting stones should be perpendicular to the bed and to the outer surface of the masonry, i.e., within each row of stones, the masonry should be divided by a system of planes (seams) perpendicular and parallel to the bed of stones and the lateral surface of the masonry. When laying wedge-shaped stones, in the case of the formation of inclined planes to the bed under the influence of the forces arising in the masonry, they can push the adjacent stones, and non-perpendicular planes to the outer surfaces of the masonry will create conditions for the loss of individual stones; as a result, the integrity of the array may be violated.

The third cutting rule determines the relative position of vertical longitudinal and transverse seams in adjacent rows of masonry. To create the solidity of the masonry, the longitudinal and transverse vertical seams of each row or several adjacent rows should be overlapped (tied up) with the stones of the overlying rows. When bandaging the seams, the rows of stones should be laid so that there are no free-standing pillars for the entire height of the masonry. Individual stones should overlap the vertical seams of the underlying rows, both longitudinally and transversely; With such a masonry system, the influencing force P is transmitted throughout the masonry and the risk of delamination is eliminated.

The use of strong mortars on a cement binder in masonry makes it possible to deviate somewhat from this rule: it is allowed not to tie up vertical longitudinal seams in five adjacent rows or vertical transverse seams in three adjacent rows of masonry.

The production of stone work begins with preparation. For correct location horizontal rows of masonry, a mooring is used (a cord with a diameter of 2-3 mm), which is a guide when laying verst rows; it is installed on both sides of the wall and attached to the orders or to the pre-laid masonry with staples. The orders are installed in the corners of the masonry, at the intersections of the walls and on straight sections of the walls at least after 12 m. so that they protrude 2-3 cm beyond the wall plane. The mooring is pressed from above with a stone laid dry on the lighthouse. The quay serves as a guide when laying outer and inner versts, and on the outer layouts, the quay is installed for each row of masonry, and on the inner ones - after 3, 4 rows.

Practice has identified the two most typical ways of laying out bricks:

• the brick is laid out flat along the wall: for a bonded mile - in stacks of two bricks, for a spoon mile - one brick each;
• the brick is laid out in stacks of two bricks along the wall for a spoon-mile and perpendicular to the axis of the wall - for butt. With a wall thickness of two bricks, the layout for butt versts is carried out after spreading the mortar.

For masonry, bricks are placed in 2 pieces. spoons on one of the verst rows. For spreading the solution, use scoops, buckets, shovel buckets; mortar shovel is widespread. Masonry mortar must be plastic and free of stones and lumps. For masonry walls and pillars, a solution is used with a mobility corresponding to the immersion of a standard cone by 90-130 mm. When the solution is supplied through pipes, its increased mobility is allowed while maintaining the design grade of the solution. When laying in a washer, the solution is spread in a bed for a butt row 20-22 cm wide, for spoon rows - 7-8 cm.The thickness of the bed at the highest point is 2.5-3 cm.When the joint is completely filled, the solution is spread with an indent from the edge of the wall by 1- 1.5 cm. The solution is spread with a continuous tape under the filling. To obtain a washer, the solution is spread with a scoop or trowel with an indent from the front surface of the slab by 8-9 cm, that is, at a distance of 1-2 cm to the inner surface of the vertical wall.

Solid brickwork is carried out from all types of bricks: ordinary corpulent, porous, hollow and porous-hollow. One-row (chain) suture dressing system is performed according to two rules. The first rule applies to the laying of walls that have an even number of half-bricks in thickness, that is, walls with a thickness of 1, 2 and 3 bricks. The second rule applies to the laying of walls that have an odd number of half-bricks in thickness, that is, walls with a thickness of 1.5, 2.5 and 3.5 bricks. In the masonry, laid out according to the chain dressing system, all pokes, as well as spoons on the facade of the wall, must be on the same vertical. In places of vertical wall restrictions (when arranging window and door openings), the stitching rows of masonry should begin with laying three-quarters that protrude onto the facade with a butt, and spoon rows - laying three-quarters facing the facade with a spoon.

The resulting gap between the three-quarters is filled with a whole brick, laid, depending on the thickness of the walls, with a poke or a spoon. When arranging corners brick walls according to the chain dressing system, it is necessary to start laying the rows (or end) with three-quarters. It should be borne in mind that the rows in the mating walls must alternately be brought to the outer surface of the other wall without violating the order of laying bricks; the same requirement applies to the laying of wall abutments. At the intersections of the walls, as well as when laying the corners, the rows of mating walls are alternately superimposed on each other, and spoon rows are always superimposed, and the butt rows overlap.

Rice. 17.

Rice. eighteen.

Rice. 19.

The one-row seam ligation system is simple to implement and provides the greatest strength compared to other seam ligation systems, but requires a large number of incomplete bricks (fig. 17).

The multi-row seam dressing system (six-row) (Fig. 18) is carried out in six rows and is based on the position that for the strength of the masonry it is not necessary to tie up all the seams, thus, it is allowed to coincide the vertical longitudinal seams in five adjacent spoon rows with their overlap with the sixth butt nearby. In each spoon row, the transverse vertical seams are overlapped by 1/2 brick, and the longitudinal vertical seams are overlapped with bonded bricks every five horizontal spoon rows.

Walls with a multi-row dressing system (Fig. 19) are erected as follows. The first two rows are laid along a chain dressing system, taking into account that the first row should be butted, and the second - spoon. The subsequent third, fourth, fifth and sixth rows are laid out only with spoons with bandaging of the vertical transverse seams of 1/2 brick.

When joining the walls, the rows of masonry, placed at the same level, are laid out in the same way, that is, if a butt row comes out on the facade of one wall in the mating rows, then there should also be a butt row on the other wall.

Rice. twenty.

Rice. 21.

In the masonry of the corners, the first stitch rows of mating walls begin by laying one brick-three-four at the outer versts. Bonded rows are placed close to them in the usual way (Fig. 20). The remaining gaps are filled with quarters of bricks. The second rows should begin with spoons of outer versts with overlapping seams of the underlying rows. To comply with the dressing of the transverse seams in a backbone, and with a wall thickness of 1 1/2 and 2 1/2 bricks and in the inner verst, additional quarters are laid. In subsequent rows, the seams of spoon versts are overlapped by 1/2 brick. When crossing the walls, the butt row of one of the walls is passed through the other mating wall (Fig. 21).

The six-row dressing system is less labor-consuming in comparison with the chain one, since at the same time there is less volume of masonry of verst rows and more backfilling, less need for incomplete brick.

Three-row dressing consists in the fact that in it the butt row is placed not every five, but every three spoon rows. Such a dressing system is used when laying pillars and walls no more than 1 m wide, since it allows the use of a significantly smaller amount of incomplete bricks in comparison with other dressing systems. Brick pillars and piers are laid out of solid bricks, while wasted masonry is not allowed. Pillars and piers, working mainly in compression, are reinforced with transverse mesh reinforcement of a rectangular or zigzag shape. The diameter of the wire for the transverse reinforcement of the masonry is allowed at least 3 mm. At the same time, the diameter of reinforcement in rectangular meshes should be no more than 5 mm, and in zigzag meshes - no more than 8 mm, since the use of reinforcement of large diameters would cause an unacceptable increase in the thickness of horizontal seams and a decrease in the strength of the masonry.

In order to protect against corrosion reinforcement mesh must have a protective layer of mortar with a thickness of at least 2 mm above and below. In this regard, the total thickness of the seam, in which the rectangular mesh of wire with a diameter of 5 mm is located, must be at least 14 mm.

Bars of rectangular meshes are welded or tied together with knitting wire. The distance between individual rods in the meshes should be at least 30 and not more than 120 mm. The use of separate rods, laid mutually perpendicularly in adjacent seams instead of bonded or welded meshes, is not allowed. The grids should have such dimensions in plan that the ends of the rods protrude 2-3 mm beyond one of the inner surfaces of the wall or pillar (at these ends, the presence of reinforcement in the masonry is checked at the acceptance of work). Rectangular grids are laid at least after five rows of brickwork, zigzag ones - in pairs in two adjacent rows so that the direction of the bars in them is mutually perpendicular. The distance between the zigzag grids is the distance between the grids of the same direction. The grade of mortar for reinforced masonry must be at least 25 if the masonry is to be in dry conditions, and not lower than 50 when laying in wet conditions. Longitudinal reinforcement of masonry is used to absorb tensile forces in bent, stretched and eccentrically compressed structures; in thin walls and partitions to increase their stability and strength under the action of transverse loads; in poles to make them more resistant to buckling (with greater flexibility). Longitudinal reinforcement is also used in structures subject to significant dynamic stress. The cross-section of the bars and their location in the masonry are determined by calculations and indicated in the project. Longitudinal reinforcement bars are connected to each other, as a rule, by welding; connection of rods without welding is also allowed. When arranging such a joint, the rods are laid with an overlap and tied with a knitting wire. The ends of the rods should end with hooks, and embedding with concrete or crushed brick on mortar is carried out in place (Fig. 22).

Rice. 22.

Thin-walled brick partitions are necessarily reinforced according to the "mesh" type with round or bundle steel; Regardless of the dressing system, in the first (lower) and last (upper) rows of the laid out structures, as well as at the level of the edges of walls and pillars and in the protruding rows of masonry, they arrange butt rows of whole bricks; whole bonder bricks are also laid under beams, girders, Mauerlats and slabs.

The brickwork of walls of lightweight structures differs in that part of the masonry is replaced with voids filled with heat-insulating materials. Lightweight masonry is used in buildings with a height of no more than two floors and in the upper two floors of multi-storey buildings.

Rice. 23.

Brick-concrete masonry consists of two longitudinal walls 1/2 brick thick, the gap between which is filled with lightweight concrete or. ready-made lightweight concrete liners. The connection between the longitudinal walls is carried out by bonded brick rows (Fig. 23). Ties, that is, stitch rows, can be located at the same level or in different levels in a checkerboard pattern. The walls are erected in belts, the height of which is determined by the transverse ligation of the masonry with butt rows. In the walls, tied with stitch rows, located in the same plane, the laying begins with the stitch row. Having laid the first butt row, lay out the outer verst of the wall to the height of five spoon rows and then the inner verst of the wall to the same height. After that, the gap between the walls is filled with light concrete and the butt row is again put. The further masonry process is continued in the same sequence. If the staggered rows are staggered, then they spread the downloaded outer stitching mile and the inner spoonful, then two outer and two inner rows, after which they fill the space between the laid out rows with concrete. After that, three rows of masonry are again laid, and first the outer spoon wall, and then the inner one, in which the butt row is placed first, and then two spoon ones. Further, the masonry process is repeated. The well masonry is also made of two parallel 1/2 brick walls, the connection between which is carried out by transverse walls 1/2 brick thick, laid out through 2 1/2 - 4 bricks. The masonry of the transverse walls is tied with the longitudinal walls through one row in height. The resulting wells between the longitudinal and transverse walls are filled with lightweight concrete, covered with mineral heat-insulating materials (crushed stone and sand of light rocks, expanded clay, slag, etc.) or lightweight concrete inserts in the form of stones and slabs. When the thickness of the walls is not a multiple of half of the brick, the transverse walls are laid out with widened vertical seams.

The heat-insulating backfill is laid in layers with a thickness of 100-150 mm and compacted by layer-by-layer ramming. To prevent the backfill from settling, it is watered with a solution every 400-500 mm along the height of the masonry or bayonetted and after 5-6 rows of masonry anti-settling mortar diaphragms are made, which, if necessary, are reinforced with brackets made of wire or strip steel according to the project instructions. Due to the rigidity of the masonry body, the thermal insulating backfill can be performed immediately after the walls are erected to a height of five rows, that is, in such tiers at the level of which anti-settling mortar diaphragms are arranged.

In the practice of construction, other types of lightweight brickwork are also used, for example, masonry with cladding heat-insulating plates, masonry with widened seams. When maintaining lightweight brickwork, the following requirements should be observed:

• horizontal and vertical joints must be filled to the full thickness of the wall, while observing the thickness of the joints adopted for solid brickwork;
• plinths, cornices and window sills of the walls (the upper two or three rows) are erected with solid brickwork;
• when the width of the walls is less than 1.3 m, lightweight concrete filling of the brand not lower than 25 is laid within the height of the lintels to the entire height of the walls, and with the width of the walls of 64 cm or less, they are erected in continuous masonry;
• for masonry walls, a half timber is used, laying it with a break inside the wall and alternating rows of half timber with spoon rows of whole bricks;
• all butt rows are made of whole bricks.

Brickwork is done in the following ways:

• in verst rows - press-in, in-line, in-line with mortar trimming;
• in a back-up - in a way to a solution (in a half-filler).

Rice. 24.

Rice. 25.

Rice. 26.

Clamping brick laying (Fig. 24) is carried out with the most complete filling of the joints. The mortar for the vertical seam is raked with a trowel, pressed against the previously laid brick and finally clamped with the brick to be laid, at the same time pushing the brick down by pressing the palm of the hands and leveling it along the dock. The excess mortar squeezed out of the seam is cut with the edge of a trowel through several laid bricks.

Back-to-back brick laying (Fig. 25) is used when laying walls in a washer and only on a plastic mortar. The bricklayer evens out the spread mortar with a trowel, and then rakes part of it with a brick edge to form a vertical seam, settles the brick and aligns it along the dock. If the mortar is well laid and spread out with a shovel, then the brick can be laid with one or both hands, without using a trowel. The brick is upset by pressing the palm of the hand.

Masonry, butt-weld (Fig. 26) with undercutting of the seam is used when laying walls in full seams, that is, with filling horizontal and vertical seams. A brick is laid on the spread mortar, raking the mortar with its edge to form a vertical seam. Moving the brick to the previously laid bricks, the bricklayer gradually straightens it, presses it to the bed, aligns it along the dock and upsets it. The excess mortar squeezed out of the seam is trimmed with a trowel edge every three to four bricks.

Rice. 27.

Brick laying in a backbone (half-round) is done with two hands (Fig. 27). Laying is carried out on a leveled mortar. Between the outer and inner versts, the bricklayer rakes up an insignificant part of the mortar with the edges of the bricks and settles them with the pressure of his hands to the level of the previously laid versts. Partially unfilled vertical seams in the backbone are filled with mortar when spreading it for the next row.

Masonry for joining is carried out with complete filling of the joints with mortar. Masonry is carried out with cutting of the mortar. With the help of jointing, the masonry seams are given one shape or another. First, the vertical seams are embroidered, then the horizontal ones. The jointing ensures a more complete and even filling of the masonry joint.

Waste masonry is carried out when the front surface is plastered or tiled. On the side of the surface to be plastered, the vertical and horizontal joints are not filled with mortar to a depth of 10-15 m, which contributes to a stronger adhesion of the plaster and masonry. Waste-stacked masonry is most often done using the sprinkling method.

The openings in the walls are blocked along the masonry with jumpers. At low loads, ordinary, wedge-shaped, bow and arched lintels can be used (for the device of the latter, a special formwork is installed - it was circled). Ordinary, onion and wedge-shaped lintels overlap window and door openings up to 2 m wide, up to 4 m wide - with arched brick lintels. Ordinary lintels are laid out on the formwork from selected whole bricks of grade not lower than 75 on lime-cement mortar of grade 25. For strength, in order to avoid brick falling out of the bottom row of masonry, reinforcement from strip or round is pre-laid in a layer of mortar previously laid on the formwork with a thickness of at least 2 cm steel with a section of at least 0.2 cm2 for every 13 cm of wall thickness. The rods are wound in both directions behind the opening to a depth of at least 25 cm, the ends of the rods are bent in the form of hooks. The height of the lintel masonry is not less than 1/4 of the opening width, but not more than 4 rows of bricks. Wedge, bow and arched lintels are laid out on the formwork of the appropriate shape and most often in brick buildings laid out under the joining. Wedge, bow and arched lintels are made of curved, hewn or ordinary selected bricks. When installing such jumpers from ordinary brick over small openings, the mortar seams are made wedge-shaped, their width in the lower part should be at least 5 mm, and in the upper part - no more than 25 mm. Jumpers are laid out from an odd number of stones, work is carried out simultaneously from two opposite ends. To ensure strength, bricks are placed on the edge. The outermost rows of lintel masonry rest on the support feet laid out in the masonry wall. The brick should fit tightly into the central locking row and jam the lintel tightly. The direction of the radial seams and the curvature of the arch are controlled with a cord and a square pattern. For lowering the formwork, special wedges are provided, which provide a smooth opening of the arch after it has been laid out. The holding period of the lintels on the formwork with a mortar grade of at least 25 at positive temperatures is from 5 to 20 days.

Large openings and spans are covered with brick vaults of various designs. Spans of up to 21 m can be laid with arches of double curvature, made in 1/4 of a brick, with spans of more than 21 m, laying is carried out in 1/2 brick. With a vault thickness of 1/4, the brick is laid flat with the long side in the direction of the span to be covered with displacement of adjacent rows by 1/4 of the brick and then grouting the upper surface of the vault with mortar. With a vault thickness of 1/2 brick, it is placed with its long side in a direction perpendicular to the span to be covered. For better filling of the joints, the upper surface is poured with a liquid solution. The width of the wave of the arch with a thickness of 1/4 brick is taken 2-2.5 m, and with a thickness of 1/2 brick - up to 3 m. The masonry of arches of double curvature is carried out from selected whole brick of grade not lower than 75 on cement mortar not lower than grade 50 at span length up to 18 m and brick not lower than grade 100 on cement mortar not lower than grade 75 with a span of more than 18 m. The thickness of the masonry seams is 10-12 mm. Above rooms with high air humidity (relative humidity more than 60%), clay bricks of semi-dry pressing, silicate, slag and trefoil bricks, aerated concrete stones and cinder-concrete stones on boiler slags are not used.

Cornices and belts are laid along a chain linking system of selected whole bricks. When installing eaves, the overhang of each row of bricks should be no more than 1/3 of the brick length, and the total removal of the eaves should not exceed half the wall thickness. With a large takeaway, the cornices are laid out with reinforcement on a solution of grade not lower than 25. The total removal of a brick unreinforced cornice should not be more than half the wall thickness.

Masonry of structures made of ceramic hollow stones is made, as a rule, according to a single-row ligation system. Stones are laid with voids up; both vertical and horizontal joints are filled completely with mortar with a mobility of 7-8 cm according to the immersion of a standard cone. Horizontal and transverse seams are made the same as for brickwork. Walls, piers and pillars are made of ceramic stones with transverse slotted voids.

Masonry of concrete and natural stones of the correct form is used for the construction of walls. In this case, stones are used made of light cellular concrete, cinder concrete, silicate masses and processed natural stones from soft rocks - shell rock and tuff. Laying is carried out on a mixed or light mortar with dressing of seams in each row. Quarters are laid out of ordinary bricks or special shaped parts. When laying from concrete and natural stones, a multi-row dressing of the seams is allowed, but with the laying of transverse butt rows at least in every third row. The laying of concrete and natural stones is the same as brick, except for the processes of laying out, laying and spreading the mortar. So when laying spoon rows, stones are laid out either flat along the wall, or upright at a distance of 80 cm from the place of laying. Before this, the bricklayer applies the mortar with a trowel to the end of the previously laid stone or to the end of the one being laid. Then he takes the longitudinal edges with both hands and places it on the previously spread mortar, slightly scooping up an additional amount of mortar with an edge to ensure a more complete filling of the vertical seam. The stitch row is laid in the same way as when laying from hollow ceramic stones. Hollow concrete stones with slit-like voids are laid with the open side of the voids downwards, thereby creating closed air spaces, and concrete stones with large through voids - in order, followed by filling the voids with heat-insulating material and sealing it.

Masonry made of natural stones of irregular shape is called rubble; it is performed "under the bay", "under the scapula" and with lining. Laying "under the bay" is carried out in horizontal rows 15-20 cm high from rubble stone or cobblestone. Rubble stone and mortar are fed into the trench along trays and gutters, the base is covered with small stone or crushed stone. The first row is laid out dry from the largest bed stones and tamped. The gaps between the stones are split and poured with a solution with a mobility of 12-15 cm with a layer of up to 10 cm. After that, a second row of stones is placed on the solution and poured with a liquid solution. The cleavage of the masonry prevents the penetration of the mortar into the seams, therefore the masonry is carried out simultaneously with the pouring of the mortar or the vibration of the masonry is used. Laying "under the shoulder blade" is made in horizontal rows 0.3 m high from bed stones of the most regular shape with bandaging of the seams, for which the butt and spoon rows are alternated. The transverse seams in adjacent rows are shifted relative to each other by half the width of the stone. The first row of masonry from large bedded stones is laid dry and tamped; the seams between the stones are filled with a solution of mobility of 4-6 cm and split. The next row of stones is laid on a layer of mortar 15 mm thick, observing the dressing of the seams. If necessary, the seams of the front surfaces are embroidered. Masonry with facing in half a brick is done when it is required to obtain a smooth front surface. After every 4-6 spoon rows, a butt row is laid, which is the connection of the cladding with rubble masonry. The horizontal seams of the butt rows must match the horizontal seams of the rubble masonry.

Rubble concrete masonry is made of concrete and rubble or cobblestone in vertical trenches with their walls or in formwork. A concrete mixture with a mobility of 5-7 cm is laid in layers 20 cm thick and stones are embedded in it at least half their height with a gap between themselves and the formwork of 4-6 cm, followed by vibration or tamping. The masonry of the partitions is made of piece materials. Partitions, along with walls, are among the main structural elements of buildings. Depending on the design of the partitions, the quality of the material and the production methods, the operational qualities of the premises are ensured - sound insulation, fire resistance and appearance. To ensure sound insulation, partitions of the following structures are used:

• from homogeneous solid materials;
• with a continuous closed air gap 5-6 cm thick;
• laminated with soundproofing materials.

Partitions made of homogeneous solid materials are designed to separate living quarters from utility rooms. Partitions with a continuous closed air gap and layered serve as inter-apartment. The partitions are installed on the supporting part of the floor structures on the mortar layer. Seams and places of abutment of partitions to walls and ceilings must be thoroughly poured with tow or mineral felt moistened with gypsum mortar. The laying of partitions made of piece materials is performed with longitudinal and transverse dressing of the seams; if it is without transverse ligation, then steel transverse ties are placed in the seams after 2-3 rows. Tolerances and quality control of partitions masonry are the same as for masonry. When erecting partitions made of bricks, it is laid on the bed with a solution of at least 10 grade. Interior partitions 1/2 or 1/4 of a brick are reinforced in height and length with reinforcement made of bundle or round steel with a diameter of 5-6 mm. The maximum permissible height of the partition is 3.7 m, the length is 9 m. Interroom partitions are arranged from two interroom partitions 1/4 thick, placed on a supporting beam. Fastening of masonry with reinforcement with a diameter of 3-4 mm or metal ruffs, which are hammered into the seams of the main walls, is carried out through five rows of bricks. To fasten the door frames, at least three pieces of wooden plugs in height are laid in the body of the partition. To increase the soundproofing capacity, a soundproofing gasket is made at the base of the partition. Brick partitions are plastered on both sides or covered with sheets of dry plaster on mastic. Partitions made of gypsum and gypsum concrete slabs are designed for rooms with a relative humidity of up to 70%. On the base made of mortar and a layer of roofing material, the first row of slabs is installed dry with a groove up and aligned with the level and along the template rail. Then a plaster mortar is prepared, and horizontal and vertical seams are filled with it, after having smeared the outside seams with a solution. The masonry of the partitions is performed with the dressing of the seams (Fig. 28, 29).

Rice. 28.

Rice. 29.:
1 - glass blocks, 2 - fittings, 3 - cement-sand mortar, 4 - elastic gasket

If there is an opening after the third row of plates, a door frame is placed and fixed with nails as the partition is erected. Nails are driven into wooden plugs between the slabs, and the gap between the slabs and the box is filled with plaster mortar. Interroom partitions are arranged from two interroom partitions with an air gap of 60 mm, placed on a special supporting beam. The partitions are fixed to the outer wall with ruffs, metal rods and wooden plugs, laid into the wall at the level of the horizontal seams. The gaps between the ceiling and the top of the last row of 15-20 mm thick slabs are caulked with tow and sealed with gypsum mortar on both sides of the partition. Glass blocks are used in the construction of partitions and to fill skylights in industrial and public buildings... The blocks are installed on cement or cement-lime mortar without bandaging the joints in combination with reinforcement with a diameter of 4-6 mm. Seams between blocks are carefully filled. The solution is applied to the edges of the glass block. After the block is laid, the squeezed mortar is trimmed, and the vertical and horizontal seams are sewn up. For better fastening of the first and side rows, staples are sealed into the walls, and to isolate the partitions from load-bearing structures expansion joints filled with elastic gaskets are arranged.

To protect the outer surfaces of stone walls from the effects of an aggressive environment and to give greater architectural expressiveness, buildings are faced with facing bricks, ceramic and concrete slabs. For cladding, a facing brick is used, which is a multiple of the size of an ordinary brick. For cladding, a facing brick with a glazed or embossed surface, a brick made of colored clay and with various color shades is used. Face brick - silicate, ordinary clay of high quality or with decorative coating, as well as facing ceramic or natural stones - they clad the facades of buildings simultaneously with the laying of walls. At the same time, laying from ordinary clay bricks with facing with facing bricks is carried out in the same way as ordinary laying on a six-row dressing. When laying with brick facing, the outer verst rows are laid out of facing brick with subsequent jointing, and the rest of the masonry is made of ordinary brick or stones. When erecting walls with facing with bricks of different shades, the masonry is performed according to a single-row (chain) seam dressing system, and when using facing bricks with an artificial decorative coating - according to a multi-row seam dressing system. The dressing of the facing brick with the masonry of the wall made of ceramic, cinder-concrete and other artificial stones with a height of 138 mm is arranged in two rows (Fig. 30). The facing masonry with facing with ceramic stones is tied in stitch rows with brick walls in six rows, and with ceramic stone walls in three rows.

Rice. thirty.

Rice. 31.

Rice. 32.:
1 - wall, 2 - cladding, 3 - mortar, 4 - anchor leg

Rice. 33.:
1 - wall, 2 - clamps, 3 - metal rods, 4 - staples, 5 - facing, b - mortar

Wall masonry with simultaneous facing with ceramic, concrete or natural stone slabs is performed as follows (Fig. 31). A mortar is spread on a carefully prepared horizontal surface, and facing plates are installed at the corners of the walls, and a mooring cord is pulled over them. All intermediate slabs are aligned along the berth with their subsequent fastening to each other using hooks and brackets (Fig. 32, 33). To hold the slabs in design position they are fixed with temporary connections. After aligning the slabs by level and plumb line, begin laying the walls to the full height of the slabs. Plates are fixed to the masonry by embedding the ribs in the masonry or by pinching. Subsequent rows of slabs are placed on wedge spacers to form horizontal seams. They are filled with mortar after the completion of the construction of the building, and the vertical seams - during the masonry process. Filling horizontal joints in the facing with mortar simultaneously with the laying of the wall, as an exception, can be allowed when working in summer conditions in low-rise construction... Wall surfaces of previously erected buildings are faced with leaning ceramic tiles after settling has stabilized (Fig. 34). The laying should be done in a flush position. The tiles are fixed to the wall using a mortar grade of at least 50 without bandaging with masonry (Fig. 35).

Rice. 34.:
1 - wall, 2 - mortar, 3 - bracket, 4 - plates, 5 - cladding

Rice. 35.

The thickness of horizontal and vertical joints should be no more than 10 mm. The tiles are installed in rows from bottom to top with or without dressing the seams. For cladding wall surfaces, plates and parts from natural materials with a mirror, polished, polished, point, grooved and "under the rock" texture. Plates are attached to the wall in various ways; metal crutches with a diameter of 6-12 mm, embedded to a depth of 25 cm in the lower rows of cladding and to a depth of 12-15 cm in the upper ones; an anchor paw with a diameter of 10-16 mm, embedded in the wall to a depth of 15-25 mm; staples with a diameter of 6-12 mm, and between them plates and pins; staples, clamps and vertical metal rods with a diameter of 10-12 mm. When erecting walls, metal tires are laid in them, into which a freely sliding hook is inserted, the second end of which is attached to the facing plate. Thin slabs up to 25 mm thick and up to 600 mm high are fixed to the wall with mortar, mortar and temporary wooden wedges. The thickness of the cladding seams is taken depending on the texture of the slabs and is 1.5 ± 0.5 mm for mirror and glazed, 5 ± 1 mm for polished, grooved and point-like, and 10 ± 2 mm for “rock” and sawn pieces. All slabs are installed with a gap from the surface and then they are poured with a solution, having previously sealed the vertical seams. Horizontal seams are sealed with specially prepared mastic. After the solution has hardened, the caulk is removed, and the seams are closed and cut. After the completion of all work, the cladding with a mirror and polished surface is washed and wiped dry.

© 2000 - 2009 Oleg V. site ™

Artificial stone materials include ceramic and silicate solid and hollow bricks, hollow ceramic and silicate stones and concrete and gypsum wall stones.

Solid ceramic brick has dimensions 250 × 120 × 65 mm and modular (thickened) - 250 × 120 × 88 mm, brick weight 3.6 ... 5 kg. Density 1.6 ... 1.8 t / m 3, brick grade (ultimate strength of a brick under compression in kg / cm 2) - M75, M100, M150, M200, M250 and M300, water absorption up to 8%, frost resistance (number of freezing cycles followed by wet thawing without significant (more than 20%) loss of strength) - F15, F25, F35, F50.

Hollow, porous and perforated bricks have, with the same other dimensions, heights of 65, 88, 103 and 138 mm (1.25, 1.5 and 2 times the height compared to solid brick) (Fig. IV-4) and a lower density - 1.35. .1.45 t / m 3. Brick grades - M75, M100 and M150. The surface is smooth and grooved.

The use of this type of bricks makes it possible to reduce the mass of wall structures by up to 30%: voids make up a significant part of the volume.

Hollow brick cannot be used for laying critical load-bearing structures, as well as foundations, basement walls, plinths, where it can come into contact with water.

Several years ago, the concern Wienerberger (Austria) built three factories for the production of ceramic bricks in Russia under the name “ porous ceramic blocks».

The main advantages of porous blocks:

ü good sound insulation properties, high thermal resistance and heat capacity;

ü groove-comb connection, which allows laying with increased accuracy and significantly reducing mortar consumption.

Table IV-1. Nomenclature and properties of porous ceramic blocks produced in Russia in comparison with solid ceramic / silicate bricks

PTH 51	PTH 44	PTH 38	PTH 25	PTH 12	PTH 8	PTH 2.1

Name	Size, mm	Volume equivalent standard bricks n× (250 × 120 × 65) =	Thermal conductivity coefficient λ 0, W / (m ∙ С °)
PTH 51	510 × 250 × 219	14,3	0,15
PTH 44	440 × 250 × 219	12,3	0,138
PTH 38	380 × 250 × 219	10,7	0,145
PTH 25	250 × 380 × 219	10,7	0,24
PTH 12	120 × 500 × 219	6,7	0,24
PTH 8	800 × 500 × 219	4,5	0,14
PTH 2.1	250 × 120 × 140	2,1	0,19
Solid ceramic / silicate brick	250 × 120 × 65	1,0	0,81 / 0,9

Silicate brick used for walls operated at a relative humidity of no more than 75%, brick brands - M75, M100 and M150. The brick is made by pressing a raw mixture of lime and quartz sand and subsequent autoclaving. Among the disadvantages of silicate brick can be noted lower than that of ceramic, water resistance, fire resistance and frost resistance.

Silicate hollow (perforated) stones have dimensions: (normal - 250 × 120 × 138 mm, enlarged - 250 × 250 × 138 mm and modular - 288 × 88 × 138 mm. The thickness of the stone corresponds to two bricks laid on the bed, taking into account the thickness of the seam between them.

Hollow and sand-lime bricks should not be used for laying walls below the cut-off waterproofing layer, for laying basements, walls of wet rooms.

Concrete and gypsum wall stones produced solid and hollow. They are made of heavy, lightweight and lightweight concrete (Fig. IV-5) and gypsum concrete with dimensions of 400 × 200 × 200 mm, 400 × 200 × 90 mm and weighing up to 35 kg.

Front (front or finishing) brick hollow and full-bodied is produced in single (250 × 120 × 65 mm), thickened (250 × 120 × 88 mm) or euro format (250 × 85 × 65 mm) of higher grades M100… M300 with increased frost resistance F25… F100; characterized by high quality, precise geometric parameters, durability of color and shape. This is very important from the point of view of aesthetics and durability of the finishing layer of the facade masonry.

Shaped brick is a type of ceramic facing brick that has rounded corners and edges, beveled, curved or textured edges.

Masonry mortars. The solutions used for the construction of stone structures are called masonry. The solutions bind individual stones into a single monolith, with their help they level the beds of stones, as a result of which a uniform transfer of the acting force from one stone to another is ensured; the mortar fills the gaps between the stones and prevents the penetration of air and water into the masonry. Thus, the solutions provide a uniform transfer of forces, protect the masonry from blowing, water penetration, and increase the frost resistance of structures. Masonry mortars can be made on a lime, cement-lime or cement base.

Rice. IV-6. Figured (shaped) brick and its application

Classification of solutions by the type of binder:

· lime mortars they are used for masonry in dry places and under low load; they are used extremely rarely for masonry of load-bearing structures. Prepared from lime dough (slaked lime) and sand. Lime dough is mixed with sand and water until a homogeneous mass is obtained.

· mixed or complex solutions - cement-lime and cement-clay compositions from 1: 0.1: 3 to 1: 2: 15, grade of solutions 10, 25, 50, 75 and 100. In the volumetric dosage of mixed solutions, the first digit indicates the consumption of cement, the second - lime or clay dough, the third - sand. Such solutions are used for laying most building structures.

· cement mortars used for laying structures below the surface of the earth, in heavily loaded pillars, walls, in reinforced masonry.

Masonry, made of separate bricks, connected with mortar into a single whole, should be a monolith in which the laid stones would not be displaced under the influence of loads acting on the masonry. The forces acting on the masonry are resisted mainly by the stone (the mortar is much less durable). Therefore, it is necessary that the stone perceives only compressive forces and mainly - the bed. To prevent the stones from shifting, they are laid in compliance with certain conditions, called the rules for cutting masonry.

Rule one.Laying is performed in flat rows perpendicular to the acting force, that is, the rule sets the maximum permissible angle of inclination of the force acting on the horizontal row of masonry. The permissible deviation of the vertical force is no more than 15 ... 17 °, it depends on the frictional force of the stone over the surface of the solution (Fig. IV-8).

The second rule.Longitudinal and transverse vertical seams in the masonry should not be through the height of the structure, otherwise the masonry will be dismembered into separate posts(Figure IV-9) . The rule regulates the location of the vertical masonry cutting planes relative to the bed. In relation to the front surface of the wall, the seams should be perpendicular or parallel to it. Failure to do so can lead to wedging of the masonry rows.

Rule three.The planes of vertical cutting of the masonry of adjacent rows should be shifted, that is, stones, and not seams, should be located under each vertical seam of a given row of masonry. The rule determines the relative position of vertical longitudinal and transverse seams in adjacent rows of masonry.

4. Bandaging systems and types of masonry

The layout of bricks and stones in layers of masonry and the alternation of layers is carried out in a certain sequence, which is called masonry seam dressing system. Layers of masonry from stones of the correct shape are called rows of masonry.

Horizontal joints have an average thickness of 12 mm for bricks and about 15 mm for natural stones, while vertical joints should be 10 mm thick for bricks and about 15 mm for natural stones. The permissible thickness of individual seams is from 8 to 15 mm.

The thickness of walls and pillars is taken as multiples of half or a whole brick or stone, with the exception of reinforced partitions in ¼ bricks.

The thickness of the solid brickwork is assigned a multiple of 0.5 bricks, therefore, walls and partitions made of bricks can have the following thickness (taking into account the thickness of the seam): in half a brick -12 cm; in a brick - 25 cm; one and a half bricks - 38 cm; in two bricks - 51 cm; two and a half bricks - 64 cm; in three bricks - 77 cm (Figure IV-11).

The height of the masonry rows is made up of the height of the brick or stones and the thickness of the horizontal mortar joints. With an average thickness of a mortar layer of 12 mm and a brick of 65 mm, the height of a row of masonry will be 77 mm, with a thickened brick thickness of 88 mm - respectively 100 mm. Thus, with a brick with a thickness of 65 mm per 1 m of masonry, 13 rows are placed in height, with a brick with a thickness of 88 mm - 10 rows.

Rice. IV-12. Seam dressing system using the example of a 2 brick wide wall

The standard dimensions of the brick made it possible to establish a certain order and the relationship of its location in structures that ensure the integrity and solidity of the masonry. This is achieved by placing stones in accordance with the so-called masonry dressing systems.

Dressing system Is the order in which the stones are stacked relative to each other. It must comply with the rules for cutting masonry.

When laying, the dressing of vertical, longitudinal and transverse seams is distinguished.

The main applied dressing systems: single-row chain, multi-row and three-row(Figure IV-12).

Single row chain dressing system - a method of laying, which is formed as a result of the alternation of spoon and butt rows.

Multi-row the dressing system involves the construction of stitching rows every 3,4,5 or 6 spoonfuls. In spoon rows, the transverse vertical seams are displaced by half a brick, and in bonded rows - by a quarter. From the second row to the sixth, the vertical and longitudinal stitches are not tied. Such a masonry system is more effective, in contrast to a single-row system and allows the use of halves of bricks for the inner part of the masonry, however, its strength is inferior to the masonry with a single-row dressing system.

Three-row the dressing system is obtained by alternating one butt and three spoon rows. Only the vertical transverse seams in three adjacent rows are not tied. This dressing system is used when constructing pillars and narrow walls, which should be laid out only from a whole selection of bricks.

Brickwork begins and ends stitching rows. They are located in the places of support of beams, girders, trusses, floor slabs and coverings, in protruding rows of masonry - cornices, belts, regardless of the sequence of masonry rows of the adopted dressing system. The milestone rows are also connected with milestones with zabutka, so they should always be made of whole bricks.

Types of masonry.

Wall masonry with cladding they are used to increase the expressiveness of facades and increase the resistance of enclosing structures to atmospheric influences. Use facing bricks, ceramic and natural stone slabs with obligatory single-row or multi-row dressing of the entire masonry.

Wall masonry cladding with bricks and stones of regular shape used to decorate the facades of unique buildings and objects of mass construction.

Wall cladding with bricks and ceramic stones simultaneously with brickwork is performed by laying it in spoon rows and ligating it with the main masonry in butt rows with bricks embedded 1/2 of the length into the body of the main masonry (Fig. IV-13). Allow connection facing masonry with the main one using stainless steel or composite pins.

Walls where part of the masonry is replaced with heat-insulating material or an air gap are called lightweight. Such designs are economical in cost and expense. wall materials... The following types of lightweight masonry are most common.

Reinforced masonry... Reinforcement is used to increase the strength of the masonry. To do this, steel or composite reinforcement is laid (sunk) in a mortar of seams between bricks. Under the action of compressive forces, the reinforcement is clamped in the seams and due to the forces of friction and adhesion to the mortar, it works as a whole with the masonry.

Reinforcement can be transverse and longitudinal.

Bricklaying methods

The masonry consists of the following operations: setting the order and pulling the mooring (in modern conditions, the role of the mooring can be performed by a laser plane builder placed in the horizon of a new row of masonry); bed preparation, filing and leveling solution; laying stones on the bed with the formation of seams; checking the correctness of the masonry; jointing (when laying under joining).

The orders are installed in the corners of the masonry, at the intersections of the walls and on straight sections of the walls at least after 12 m. The berth is pulled between the orders, in order to avoid its sagging every 4 ... sizes so that they protrude 2 ... 3 cm beyond the wall plane. The berth is pressed from above with a stone laid dry on the lighthouse. The quay serves as a guide when laying outer and inner versts, and on the outer layouts, the quay is installed for each row of masonry, and on the inner ones - after 3, 4 rows.

Preparing the bed consists in cleaning it and laying out bricks on it. For the masonry of the outer mile, the brick is laid out on the inner half of the wall, and for the masonry of the inner mile - on the outer half. The mortar is served on the bed, as a rule, with shovels, and it is leveled with a trowel.

The solution is spread in a bed 2 ... 2.5 cm thick, not reaching the edge of the wall by 2 ... 3 cm. The width of the solution for the butt row is 22 ... 23 cm, and for the spoon row - 9 ... 10 cm.

The choice of the method of brickwork depends on whether you are going to make the wall - for plastering or for joining. Under the plaster, a simple method is used "inset", under the joining - more complex methods "inset with undercutting the mortar" and "pressed against".

The brick is laid without a trowel by the adhesion method. The bricklayer, holding the brick in his hand at an angle to the bed, moves it towards the previously laid brick, grabbing part of the mortar (Fig. IV-24). They begin to grab the mortar at a distance of 6 ... 7 cm from the previously laid brick. The brick to be laid is upset by hand pressure. When placing the brick in place, the vertical joint between it and the previously laid stone should be almost filled with mortar. Masonry can be done using two hands, which increases labor productivity.

Each method requires a solution with a different mobility. For the “in-fill” method, a mobile solution is used, for the “in-fill with mortar trimming” and “in-press” methods, a more rigid solution is required: 10 ... 12 cm and 7 ... 9 cm of cone settlement, respectively.

Methods of laying "inset with cutting of the mortar" and "pressing" involve laying the mortar bed in such a way that it does not reach 1 cm to the edge of the wall. Then, when laying bricks, the excess mortar will be squeezed out, and the bricklayer will trim them with a trowel and throw them back onto the mortar bed.

When using the "injected with mortar trimming" method, the same actions are repeated as in the "injected" method, but after the vertical seam has been formed, the bricklayer removes the excess mortar by trimming them with a trowel.

Masonry "press-on" is carried out as follows. Right hand hold the trowel, and then use it to scoop up a part of the mortar and press it against the previously laid brick (Fig. IV-24). With his left hand, the bricklayer lays the brick, pressing it close to the edge of the trowel. After that, the trowel is removed. Again, the brick is upset by hand. The press-on method provides the strongest masonry, clean and well-filled. At the same time, this method is the most time consuming of all of the above.

In the "half-notch" method, a zabutka is laid, for which a solution is spread between the inner and outer versts. The bricklayer lays two bricks at a time, operating with both hands. He rakes up the mortar with the edges of the bricks, moving them to the previously laid bricks and settling the bricks with his hand.

7. Masonry from ceramic, concrete and natural stones of regular shape and porous ceramic blocks.

Walls, piers and pillars are laid out of ceramic stones with transverse slotted voids according to a single-row dressing system. The stones are laid with voids upwards on solutions with mobility, excluding the flow of the solution into the voids of the stones. The thickness of the vertical and horizontal joints should match those of solid brick masonry. When laying from concrete and natural stones, a multi-row dressing system is used, but with the laying of transverse butt rows at least as often as in every third row.

For masonry products from porous ceramic blocks, it is necessary to use compositions with a low density and high thermal insulation properties - light masonry mixtures: a type of mortar characterized by the ability to form layers in the masonry body that impede heat transfer. Such compositions fill horizontal and vertical seams between masonry elements, but at the same time have thermal conductivity indicators close to those of masonry elements and create uniform thermal resistance along the entire width of the wall. There is no need for most of the vertical mortar joints due to the grooves and ridges on the side faces of the blocks. Due to this, the rate of masonry increases (by 2 ... 2.5 times), the consumption of masonry mortar is reduced (by 3 ... 5 times).

In connection with the new increased requirements for the thermal protection of buildings, an additional, heat-insulating layer is often introduced into the structure of external load-bearing and enclosing brick walls. When using a heat-insulating layer, flexible connections must be provided between the inner and outer versts. Previously, they were made of steel reinforcement, now - from alkali-resistant glass or basalt-plastic reinforcement. This option is preferable due to the lower thermal conductivity of such rods. The thermal conductivity of the bonds has a strong influence on the thermal homogeneity of the structure. Replacement of steel flexible ties with composite ones allows to reduce the thickness of the heat-insulating layer by 5-10%.

Typical solutions for layered masonry can be divided into two types: with and without an air gap (Fig. IV-26). The device of the air gap allows you to more efficiently remove moisture from the structure: excess moisture from load-bearing wall and the insulation will immediately go into the atmosphere, while in a structure without an air gap, steam will also pass through the layer facing brick, contributing to its faster destruction. The air gap increases the overall wall thickness and therefore the width of the foundation; the length of flexible links increases.

In new construction, a protective (facing) brick wall can be made to the entire height of the building. At the same time, it can be self-supporting up to a height of 6-7 m, and then hinged with support on belts protruding from the load-bearing wall every two floors (6-7 m) along the height of the building. In multi-storey frame and monolithic buildings the wall is self-supporting to a floor height of up to 3.6 m with a free length of up to 6 m. The wall rests on a reinforced concrete floor with thermal inserts.

For layered masonry, semi-rigid stone wool slabs and slabs of extruded and ordinary expanded polystyrene of the PSB-S-25, PSB-S-35 brands should be used, which retain geometric integrity (do not shrink) throughout the entire service life. Laying semi-rigid slabs allows you to fill in all the defects of the masonry well, to create a continuous layer of thermal insulation (the slabs can be "squeezed" a little, avoiding cracks).

8. Rubble and rubble concrete masonry.

Natural stone materials are classified into rubble stone and natural stone blocks.

Butovoy is called a masonry of natural stones (pieces of stones) of irregular shape with a maximum size of not more than 500 mm, connected with mortar. For masonry, stones weighing no more than 50 kg of various configurations and sizes are used (Fig. IV-27):

■ torn stone irregular shape;

■ bedded, which has two approximately parallel planes;

■ cobblestone, having a rounded shape.

Rice. IV-27. Types of rubble stone

Natural stone blocks are cut or cut out of limestone, shell rock, tuff, sandstone, etc. Blocks are used for external and internal walls, as well as for foundations and basement walls. Currently, artificial stone is mainly used in construction, natural is used only for restoration work and, in case of economic feasibility, during construction in areas of its mass occurrence, if it is impossible to deliver other materials, etc. etc.

Foundations, basement walls, retaining walls, gabions and other structures are erected from rubble stone (buta), and in areas with large reserves of bedded stone - walls of low-rise buildings. It is advisable to keep rubble masonry with dressing of seams, alternating bonding and spoon stones. In the places of abutments and intersections of walls and in the corners of the building, larger bed-shaped stones should be laid.

The first row of rubble masonry is laid out of bed stones dry, the voids are carefully filled with rubble, tamped and poured with a liquid solution. Subsequent rows of masonry are performed in one of two ways - "under the bay" or "under the shoulder blade".

Laying "under the bay". Each row of stones 15 ... 20 cm high is laid out dry in a spacer with the walls of a trench or formwork, the voids are filled with crushed stone and filled with a liquid solution with a mobility of 13 ... 15 cm (Fig. IV-28, a). The mortar does not fill all the cavities between the stones, the masonry is obtained with voids, which reduces its strength. Stones are laid without strict dressing of seams and arrangement of verst rows; it is less labor intensive and does not require highly skilled bricklayers. Therefore, on such foundations and with such a masonry system, it is allowed to erect buildings with a height of no more than two floors.

Laying "under the shoulder blade" perform in horizontal rows from stones selected in height with dressing of sutures according to a single-row dressing system (Fig. IV-28, b). The laying begins with laying the outer and inner versts on a mortar with a row height of up to 30 cm. In the intervals between versts, a mortar with a mobility of 4 ... 6 cm is thrown and stones are laid. The resulting gaps between the stones are filled with rubble. The masonry turns out to be quite strong, the foundations, walls and pillars are laid out in the "under the shoulder" method. To give the masonry more strength, it can be led with cladding the outer side with a brick in a multi-row system with dressing after 4 ... 6 rows.

When laying in a trench, the stone and mortar are always placed outside the trench, often the bricklayer is in the trench itself, and the auxiliary, being on the edge, feeds into the work area necessary materials.

Concrete masonry differs in that the stones are sunk into the laid concrete mix in horizontal rows followed by vibration. The concrete mix is ​​laid in layers of 20 cm, the stones are sunk in half their height with gaps between them of 4 ... 6 cm. The maximum size of stones should not exceed a third of the thickness of the structure being erected. The masonry vibrates with the mobility of the concrete mixture 5 ... 7 cm or compacted with rammers with the mobility of the mixture within 8 ... 12 cm. Such masonry is durable, less laborious than rubble, but requires a rigid formwork and a significant consumption of cement, since the volume of the stone from the total volume masonry is a little over 50%.

9. Organization of the workplace and provision of materials for the bricklayer

Bricklayer workplace or a link includes a section of the wall being erected, a space where workers are located, the necessary materials, tools and fixtures. The workplace can be located on the ground, on intermediate floors, on working scaffolds and on scaffolding.

When performing masonry, the productivity of bricklayers depends on the organization of the workplace , excluding the movement of workers, not related to the process, and ensuring minimum distances moving bricks and mortar from the place of storage to the place of laying.

The workplace must be within the range of the assembly crane. Practice has shown that the total width of the workplace should be 2.5 ... 2.6 m, including (Fig. IV-29):

· work zone - a width of 0.6 ... 0.7 m between the wall being erected and the materials;

· material storage area - strip 1.0 ... 1.6 m wide for placing pallets with bricks and boxes with mortar;

· free or transport area - strip 0.3 ... 0.4 m wide, when feeding materials by crane - 0.6 ... 0.75 m and can reach up to 1.25 m for the movement of workers engaged in the delivery and placement of materials within the working area.

Pallets with bricks and mortar boxes are installed with the long side perpendicular to the axis of the wall being erected, which reduces labor costs when recruiting materials. The number of pallets with bricks and boxes with mortar and their alternation depends on the thickness of the wall being erected, the presence of openings in the masonry area, the complexity of the architectural design.

When laying blank walls, the distance between the boxes with mortar is taken as 3.6 m, four pallets with bricks, cinder-concrete or ceramic blocks, or stones are installed between them, the distance between the pallets is 0.25 ... 0.4 m. When laying walls with openings, brick placed against the walls on two pallets, and the solution is placed opposite the openings. The solution is fed to the workplace in boxes with a capacity of up to 0.27 m 3, the boxes are usually installed opposite the openings, the average distance between them is within 2.0 ... 2.5 m.

12. Construction of stone structures in winter conditions

Subzero temperatures have a significant impact on the physical and mechanical processes occurring in freshly laid masonry. The hardening of the solution in the masonry stops due to the transition of the solution water into ice, and the cement hydration reaction, which began with the laying of the solution, fades out and stops as the temperature of the solution decreases. When frozen, the solution turns into a strong mechanical mixture of cement (lime), sand and ice. Water, passing into ice, increases in volume, which leads to an increase in the volume of the solution, as a result of which it loosens, the bonds between its particles are broken, and the strength decreases sharply. An ice film forms on the surface of the stones, which further reduces the adhesion strength of the solution to the stone. As a result, with early freezing of the masonry, its final strength at the age of 28 days and later turns out to be significantly lower than the strength of the masonry, which hardened under normal conditions.

Depending on the type of masonry and the structures being built, stone work in winter is performed in the following ways: freezing, using antifreeze additives, followed by heating.

Distinctive features of the freezing method:

ü at a positive temperature, after thawing, the masonry will continue to gain its strength if the solution has gained critical strength, which is usually more than 20% of the design;

ü freezing method is not applicable for eccentrically compressed structures with significant eccentricity and structures subject to vibration, as well as in rubble masonry, in rubble concrete walls, in vaults;

ü use only cement and complex mortars, as lime and lime-clay do not retain the ability to harden after thawing;

ü vehicles, in which the solution is delivered to the construction site, must be insulated, a portion of the solution is supplied to the place of work only for 20 ... 30 minutes of work and at a solution temperature not lower than + 20 ° C;

ü The temperature of the solution during laying should not be lower than 5 ° C at an air temperature of -10 ° C, 10 ° C - at an air temperature of -10 to -20 ° C, 15 ° C - at an air temperature below -20 ° C ...

ü It is imperative to keep a log of control over the implementation of the brickwork and its defrosting, since due to the unequal density of the solution during thawing, uneven precipitation is possible.

In practice, the following masonry methods are used in winter conditions:

Freezing method, in which the laying is carried out on the heated components of the solution. Water is heated in boilers or flow heaters up to 80 ... 90 ° С, sand is warmed up to a positive temperature, or heated up to 60 ° С. Apply cement, cement-lime or cement-clay mortars with a minimum temperature at the time of laying not lower than 5 ° C at an air temperature of -10 ° C, 10 ° C - at an air temperature of -10 to -20 ° C, 15 ° C - at an air temperature below -20 ° C. In order for the temperature of the solution not to fall below the required one, the laying has to be carried out in a short time - the solution must be consumed within 20-30 minutes. Laying is carried out on bricks, cleared of snow and ice. The solution freezes without gaining the brand strength, but having already acquired critical strength, therefore, at a positive temperature, the strength will continue, but the masonry usually does not gain full brand strength. To obtain branded strength, a grade of solution is used that is one or two classes higher than the design grade.

Laying is carried out on the entire width of the wall at the same time. It is desirable that the mortar freezes only after 5 ... 6 subsequent rows of masonry have been laid, which will ensure its better compaction and reduce sediment in the spring. To increase the strength of the masonry, arrange metal ties at junctions and intersections, usually at the floor level of each floor. Prefabricated elements are mounted immediately after the completion of the floor masonry, and floor slabs - with mandatory anchoring in the seams of the outer masonry masonry.

Masonry with anti-frost additives. When chemical antifreeze additives are introduced into mortars with a cement binder, the freezing point of the water contained in the solution decreases. The additives also speed up the chemical hardening of the cement. Due to these factors, the mortar builds up strength at lower temperatures than usual. Calcium chloride and sodium chloride, potassium carbonate (potash) and sodium nitrate are introduced into solutions as chemical additives. Solutions with additives 3 ... 6% sodium chloride, calcium, ammonium allow to push the freezing point of the solution to - 10 ° С. Potash as an antifreeze additive must not be used for masonry made of silicate materials used in conditions of high humidity (more than 60%). When using potash, one must take into account its effect on the rapid thickening of the solution. In this case, it is necessary to introduce setting retarders, for example, sulphite-yeast mash or lignosulfonate (LST).

Table IV-6. The amount of added chemical antifreeze additives,

in% to the mass of cement:

Mortars with antifreeze additives cannot be used for the construction of stone structures operating in conditions of high humidity (more than 60%), at temperatures above 60 ° C, in the immediate vicinity (closer than 100 m) to sources direct current high voltage, as well as under significant dynamic loads.

When laying brick and stone on mortars with anti-freeze additives, they are cleared of snow and ice. At frosts down to -10 ° C, laying is carried out on mortars with the addition of sodium nitrite (5 ... 10% of the mass of cement). The workability of such solutions remains in the cold for 1.5 ... 3 hours. Solutions with sodium nitrite at temperatures below -15 ° C hardly gain strength.

15990

Masonry is a structure that consists of stones laid in a certain order on a mortar. She carries loads from her own weight and the weight of others relying on her structural elements, and also performs heat insulation, sound insulation and other functions.

Types of masonry and their purpose

There are the following types of masonry that are used in the construction of houses:

• brick
• ceramic stone masonry
• masonry of artificial large blocks made of concrete, brick or ceramic stones
• masonry of natural stones of the correct shape (sawn or hewn)
• rubble masonry from natural rough stones with irregular shape
• mixed masonry (rubble, lined with brick; from concrete stones, lined brick, and brick lined with cut stone)
• rubble concrete masonry
• lightweight brickwork and other materials

To perform masonry, lime, mixed cement-lime and cement mortars, as well as cement-clay mortars, in which clay serves as a plasticizing additive, are used.

• Masonry from ceramic bricks plastic pressing has excellent moisture and frost resistance, increased strength, as a result of which it is used in the construction of walls and pillars of buildings, retaining walls, chimneys, structures of various underground structures.
• Masonry from ceramic hollow or porous hollow bricks used mainly in the construction of the walls of buildings. Due to their low thermal conductivity, these masonry can reduce the thickness of the outer walls by 20-25% compared to the thickness of walls lined with solid bricks.
• Masonry from concrete stones, made on heavy concrete, is used in the construction of foundations, basement walls and other underground structures.
• Masonry from hollow and lightweight concrete stones used in the construction of external and internal walls of the building. This material has good thermal insulation properties, but at the same time, hollow and lightweight concrete stones are moisture-absorbing, as a result of which they have insufficient frost resistance. Considering this quality, the facades of the outer walls, laid out of these stones, are plastered.
• Masonry from silicate stones and bricks has greater strength and durability than masonry from hollow and lightweight concrete stones. However, it is more thermally conductive. Both internal and external walls are erected from silicate stones and bricks.
• Low-grade lightweight concrete and hollow concrete stones are used exclusively for the construction of structures located inside the building, with a normal thermal and humidity regime. Masonry made of this material has a higher thermal conductivity, density, however, it is stronger and more durable than masonry made of lightweight concrete stones. Therefore, it is widely used for the construction of not only internal walls, but also external ones.
• Masonry from large concrete, silicate or brick blocks, as well as from piece materials, are used for the construction of underground and aboveground structures of buildings and structures, blocks of lightweight concrete, silicate, hollow and porous-hollow bricks - mainly for laying the outer walls of buildings.
• Masonry from natural stones and blocks of the correct shape has good decorative qualities, strength, resistance to freezing and weathering, is little subject to abrasion. Soft porous rocks in the form of sawn piece stones weighing up to 45 kg (porous tuffs, shell rock, etc.) are used for laying the outer and inner walls of buildings. Large wall blocks are also made from porous rocks (limestones, tuffs), intended for stacking (mounting) by mechanisms.

Hard rock stones have a high cost and are laborious in processing, therefore they are mainly used in non-residential construction - for cladding plinths or individual parts of buildings and structures, cladding supports of bridges, embankments.
Rubble and rubble concrete masonry requires a lot of manual labor and has a high thermal conductivity. This material is best used for the construction of foundations. Brick-faced, rubble and rubble concrete masonry is suitable for basement and retaining walls.
Masonry made of dry-pressed silicate bricks and ceramic hollow bricks are not used in structures located in damp soils, in damp and wet rooms, for the construction of pipes and furnaces.
Ceramic hollow stone masonry is mainly used in the construction of external walls of heated buildings. The good thermal properties of this material make it possible to reduce the thickness of the outer walls in the middle zone of the country by half a brick in comparison with masonry made of ordinary ceramic or silicate bricks.

Masonry elements

Below we will cover the main terms:

Two large brick faces located on opposite sides are called upper and lower bed... They put the brick on the mortar. The long sides are called spoons, short - jabs.
The laying is done in horizontal rows, the bricks are in most cases laid on the bed (flat). There are times when bricks are laid on a spoon edge (on an edge) - for example, when laying cornices, thin partitions.
Versts- extreme rows of bricks in rows that form the surface of the masonry. The versts located on the side of the facade of the building are called external, located inside - internal.
Lozhkovy masonry row - a row formed of bricks that are laid with their long side to the outer surface of the wall.
Tychkovy masonry row - a row facing the short side.
Backbone bricks(zabutka) - bricks laid between the inner and outer versts.

The height of the rows of masonry is the sum of the height of the brick and the thickness of the horizontal layer of the mortar (joint). The average joint thickness is 12 mm.
The width of the masonry (wall thickness) is made a multiple of 1/2 brick. When determining it, it is also necessary to take into account the vertical seams, the average thickness of which is 10 mm.

Walls lined with brick or stone are deaf or with openings. In the latter case, they can have protruding elements - gaps, belts, edges, ledges, pilasters.


Overlapping- a fragment of the masonry, in which its next row is laid with a ledge on the front surface. The width of the overlap should not exceed 1/2 of the length of the brick in each row. Belts, cornices and other and other elements dividing the facade vertically are formed as a result of several rows of masonry with a ledge.
Trim- done with an indent from the front of the masonry when moving from the basement to the wall, with a decrease in the thickness of the walls in the upper floors of buildings, etc. Above the edge, the wall has a smaller thickness. The last row of masonry before trimming should be bonded.
Ledge- masonry, offset relative to the main plane of the wall vertically.
Pilasters - rectangular pillars, which protrude from the common front plane of the wall, are laid out in a bandage with it.
Furrows- recesses in the wall designed to accommodate pipelines, hidden electrical wiring, etc. After installing the wiring, the grooves are closed flush with the wall plane. The vertical grooves are laid out in multiples of 1/4 of the brick. Horizontal grooves are made in multiples of 1/4 brick in height and 1/2 brick in depth.
Niches- recesses in the wall, intended for the equipment of built-in cabinets, electrical devices, etc. They are laid out in multiples of 1/2 brick.
Partition- in wall structures that provide for window and door openings, this is the name of the masonry section located between two adjacent openings. They can be laid out in the form of simple rectangular pillars, or they can be laid out in the form of pillars with quarters, in which the door and window blocks.
Shtraba- an element arranged in those places where the laying is temporarily interrupted. They are laid out so that with the subsequent continuation of the masonry, it would be possible to ensure reliable bandaging of the next part of the masonry with the previous one. Slabs are flat and vertical. Convincing provide a more reliable connection of the connected parts of the walls. In order to increase reliability, steel reinforcement is laid in vertical punches.

Cutting masonry

In order for the stones in the masonry to better withstand the load of the entire wall acting on them, they are placed in accordance with the rules of the so-called cutting. The stones are laid in such a way that they are in contact with each other as much as possible. For example, if the upper stone rests on the underlying stone with only two points, then sooner or later, under the influence of the load from the overlying rows, it will deform or break. Conversely, a stone supported by its entire plane can withstand much greater loads. To do this, it is necessary to level the cavity in his bed by filling it with a solution.

1. The first rule of cutting
   If the surfaces with which the stones are in contact with each other are perpendicular to the force acting on them, the stones will only work in compression. Consequently, the beds of stones must be placed perpendicular to the force acting on the masonry, and the stones must be laid in horizontal rows.
2. The second rule of cutting
   The stones of each row are laid in such a way that they do not shift. Stones with beveled side surfaces form wedges in the masonry, which will push the adjacent stones apart. In order to prevent this from happening, the masonry must be built in such a way that the planes between adjacent stones are perpendicular to the beds. At the same time, if the two side planes are not perpendicular to the outer surfaces of the walls, and the other two side planes are not perpendicular to the first, then stones having, for example, sharp corners at the outer surface, may fall out of the masonry.
   Thus, the masonry must be separated by vertical planes (seams) parallel to its outer surface (parallel seams), as well as by planes perpendicular to the outer surface (transverse seams).
3. The third rule of cutting
   If the longitudinal and transverse vertical seams are through, the result will be masonry, divided into separate columns. This is a very unstable structure, in which the seams will expand under the influence of a vertical load, which will sooner or later lead to deformation and destruction of the masonry. To avoid this, the transverse and longitudinal seams in the adjacent horizontal rows are tied up with the stones of the overlying row, shifting them by half or a quarter of their length relative to the stones of the underlying row (Fig. 8). In this case, the load will be distributed evenly over the entire mass of the masonry. Consequently, the vertical cutting planes of each row must be shifted relative to the planes adjoining the rows.

Masonry dressing system

The dressing system is the order in which the bricks (stones) are laid relative to each other. When laying, the dressing of vertical seams, longitudinal and transverse, is distinguished.

• Ligation of longitudinal seams do so that the masonry does not stratify along the wall into thinner walls, and so that the load in the masonry is evenly distributed over the width of the wall.
• Ligation of transverse seams is necessary for the longitudinal connection between individual bricks, which ensures the distribution of the load on adjacent sections of the masonry and the solidity of the walls in case of uneven precipitation, temperature deformations, etc.
  The ligation of the transverse seams is performed with spoon and butt rows, and the longitudinal ones - with butt rows.

The main systems for dressing brickwork of walls, widely used in our country, are single-row (chain) and multi-row, as well as three-row dressing.

Single row dressing- spoon and butt rows alternate in it. The transverse seams in adjacent rows are shifted relative to each other by a quarter of a brick, and the longitudinal seams are shifted by half a brick. All vertical seams of the lower row are overlapped by the bricks of the overlying row. Chain dressing is used when laying walls. When erecting walls in which the front layer is laid out from facing or other effective brick, the chain ligation is applied only with the appropriate indication in the project.

Multi-row dressing- with it, the masonry consists of separate walls 1/2 brick (120 mm) thick, folded from spoons and tied in several rows in height with a butt row. Depending on, the maximum height of the spoon masonry is set between the stitching rows for different types masonry: made of single bricks 65 mm thick - one bonded row for 6 rows of masonry; from thickened bricks with a thickness of 88 mm - 1 stitch row for 5 rows of masonry.

With a multi-row dressing of single brick masonry, the longitudinal vertical seams are overlapped with a butt joint every 5 spoon rows. In this case, the pokes can be located both in separate rows and in other rows alternating with spoon bricks. The transverse vertical seams in four spoon rows are overlapped with spoons of each adjacent row by half a brick, and the seams of the fifth spoon row are overlapped with pokes of the sixth row for a quarter of a brick. Such a clutch is called five-row. Sometimes, in order to enhance the reloading of the masonry, the stitch rows are laid through 3 spoon rows.

When using a multi-row dressing, the third rule for cutting masonry is not fully observed. At the same time, the absence of ligation of longitudinal seams to a height of five rows of masonry practically does not reduce its strength, at the same time, due to the high thermal resistance of these seams located in the path of the heat flow, the thermal performance of the masonry improves. The laying of external and internal versts is the most laborious operation.

Labor productivity when laying bricks in a structure depends on the ratio of the number of bricks in versts and backbone, that is, on the masonry dressing system. With a five-row dressing of walls, for example, two bricks thick, 1.3 times are laid in versts fewer bricks than with chain (single row). This greatly facilitates the work of a bricklayer, since laying spoon bricks along a mooring cord is more productive than bonding bricks; it is easier to ensure the accuracy of the dressing, the number of transverse seams of the masonry, which requires accuracy in work, is reduced.

The multi-row dressing system is recommended as the main one for the construction of walls, including walls faced with facing or other bricks. A multi-row dressing system is not allowed to be used for laying posts, since they will not be strong enough due to incomplete dressing of the seams.

Brick layout

The brick is placed on the wall as close as possible to the place of laying. They do it in this order: for spoon rows - parallel to the wall or at a slight angle to it, for butcher rows - perpendicular to the wall axis. For the outer verst, the brick is placed on the inner half of the wall, for the inner one - on the outer.

The bed, intended for laying a mile or so, should not be occupied with bricks.

On walls with a thickness of two or more bricks (rice) for butt outer versts, bricks are placed in stacks of two pieces perpendicular to the axis of the wall; for laying spoon outer versts in stacks of two bricks parallel to the axis of the wall or at an angle of 45 ° to it with a distance between the stacks of one brick. For walls 1/2 brick thick, for the butt row, the bricks are stacked two at a time, one close to the other parallel to the wall axis; for a spoon row in the same way, but with a distance between the stacks of one brick.

For walls one brick thick, for laying a spoon row, bricks are placed in stacks of two bricks, placed in the middle of the wall parallel to its axis with a distance between the stacks of one brick; for laying the butt row - in the middle of the wall perpendicular to its axis with a distance between the stacks of 1/2 bricks.

For walls and partitions 1/3 brick thick, the bricks are laid out parallel to the wall axis one after another.

They begin to place the brick on the wall, retreating 50-60 cm from the last brick of the mile to be laid - so that there is room for spreading the mortar. With this order, the laid out brick does not interfere with the leveling of the mortar on the bed. In addition, a minimum amount of movement is required to move the brick to the place of laying.

When laying bricks on the wall, make sure that they are facing the front of the building with a side that is free of damage and spalling.

Preparation of incomplete bricks

For the correct dressing of the seams of the masonry of vertical restrictions, places of abutment and intersection of walls, when laying pillars and walls, incomplete bricks are required: quarters, halves and three-quarters.

They are usually prepared by the bricklayers themselves directly at the workplace during the production process. To obtain quarters, three-quarters and halves, in order to save money, it is necessary to use bricks that have broken corners or other defects. Everyone should be able to accurately determine the size of the required incomplete brick and cut it off correctly.

This is necessary because with the wrong dimensions of the laid incomplete bricks, the dressing of the joints is disturbed and the consumption of mortar increases, and this reduces the strength of the masonry. In order to correctly measure the length of an incomplete brick, notches are made on the handle of the hammer, corresponding to the lengths of the brick parts. The brick cut line is marked with a hammer blade. Then they make a notch with a hammer blow, first on the spoon on one side, then on the spoon on the other side, and finally, with a strong blow, cut the brick along the marked line.

When chopping bricks, the hammer blow should be directed perpendicular to the spoon, otherwise the cutting line may turn out to be incorrect and an incomplete brick with an oblique end will turn out. If the brick needs to be split lengthwise, then first light blows are applied to its four planes, and then with a strong and short blow along the stump line at the end of the brick, they split it into the required parts. Bricks can also be cut with the edge of a trowel. With a simple brick, used for laying rounded belts and other parts of the building, use a pick hammer.

Spreading and leveling the mortar on the bed

The spreading of the mortar even in thickness is perhaps the most important moment in the process of brickwork - it depends on this whether the compression and density of the mortar in the masonry will be the same.

For a spoon mile row, the solution is spread in the form of a bed 80-100 mm wide, for a butt row - 200-220 mm. When laying in a wasteland, that is, when the seams are left unfilled to a depth of 10 mm from the outer surface of the wall, the mortar is spread with a distance of 20-30 mm from the face. When laying with complete filling of the joints, the mortar is spread with an indent from the front surface of the wall by 10-15 mm. The thickness of the bed of mortar, laid on the wall, should, on average, be 20-25 mm. This provides a joint thickness of 10-12 mm when laying bricks. The quality of the brickwork depends not only on the correct spreading and leveling of the mortar on the bed, but also on the properties of the mortar. For example, lime or mixed cement-lime or cement-clay mortars, which have high plasticity, are easily spread, leveled over the masonry and evenly compacted when laying bricks.

Cement mortars are less plastic and more difficult to spread and level. To increase the plasticity of cement mortars, plasticizing additives are added to them during the preparation process.

Plasticized solutions delaminate more slowly and, after application to a porous base, give off little water, which ensures the hardening of the binder in solutions within normal periods.

The mobility of the mortar for masonry walls and pillars made of ordinary ceramic or silicate bricks, depending on the method of masonry, the type and condition of the brick, is characterized by the immersion of the reference cone by 9-13 cm. 7-8 cm, in order to prevent its loss when flowing into holes and voids in the brick and to avoid deterioration of the thermal properties of the masonry. The mobility of the solutions should be increased by introducing plasticizing additives until the cone is immersed by 12-14 cm when laying in hot weather from dry bricks.
When laying the walls, spread the mortar under the spoon rows through the side edge of the shovel, and under the butt rows through its front edge; the mortar bed is leveled with the back of the shovel.

When laying the backbone, the solution is thrown with a shovel into a trough formed between versts, and it is also leveled with the back of the shovel.

When laying free-standing pillars of a small cross-section, the solution is fed to the middle of the pillar, and then spread and leveled with a trowel along the entire row in the process of laying bricks. When laying pillars of a larger section, the solution is spread in the same way as when erecting walls.

On sections of walls with a large number of smoke and ventilation channels, the solution between the channels is spread with a trowel, and it is taken from a solid part of the wall or from an inner verst, where the solution is supplied in advance. Immediately before being fed to the wall, the solution is stirred, since during the time it lies in the box, heavy sand particles settle, the solution stratification occurs and it becomes inhomogeneous.

7. Productivity of cyclical transport, the method of its calculation. Transporting soil by cyclic transport

8. Methods for the production of earthworks and the conditions for their application.

9. Technology of soil development by excavators with dragline working equipment

10. Technology of soil development by excavators with working equipment "front shovel"

11. Technology of soil development with working equipment "backhoe"

12. The productivity of single-bucket excavators, the method of its calculation and ways to increase it

13. Technology of soil development by bulldozers. Development methods, schemes of working movements and their characteristics

14. Productivity of bulldozers, the method of its calculation

15. Technology of soil excavation with scrapers. Development methods, schemes of working movements and their characteristics.

16. Productivity of scrapers, method of its calculation

17. Factors affecting the intensity of soil compaction and their characteristics

18. Methods of soil compaction, their characteristics and conditions of use

19. Technology of soil compaction by machines of statistical and dynamic action

20. Productivity of soil compactors,

21. Technological features of soil development in winter

22.1. Concrete mixing technology

57. General provisions for the reconstruction of buildings and structures.

23.1. Technology of placing concrete mixture in concreting blocks.

24. Technology of special methods of concreting, their characteristics and conditions of use

25. Technology of production of concrete works in winter

26. Defects of concrete masonry and ways to eliminate it. Care of the laid concrete mix

27. Quality control of concrete works

28. Technology of driving piles

29. Technology of the device of rammed piles

30. Acceptance of pile works. Quality control

31. The main technological schemes for the installation of reinforced concrete structures

32. Scope of work on the installation of welded structures at the construction site

33. Features of the installation of reinforced concrete structures in winter conditions

34.1. Types of stone work. Masonry mortars

35. Technology for the production of masonry

36. Features of stone work in winter

37. Purpose and types of waterproofing works (gir)

38. Technology of production of waterproofing works

39. Technology of production of heat-insulating works.

40. Features of the production of weights in winter conditions

41. Features of the device of thermal insulation in winter conditions.

42.1 Types of roofs and roofing technology

43. Features of performance of works on the device of the roof in winter conditions

45. Features of the production of plastering in winter conditions

44. Technology of surface preparation for plastering and surface plastering

46. ​​Production of works on cladding of buildings with various materials

47. Features of the production of facing work in winter conditions

48. Preparation of surfaces, application and processing of prepared layers for painting

51. Painting and wallpapering works performed in winter conditions

49. Painting internal and external surfaces of structures

50. Technology of pasting surfaces with wallpaper

52.1. Technology of flooring from various materials

53. Technology of construction of earthworks and road pavements (improved capital and transitional types)

59. Concrete and reinforced concrete works

54. Road clothes with transitional coatings.

55. Road clothes of improved types.

56. Quality control in road construction

58. Dismantling and liquidation of buildings and structures

60. Dismantling of building structures. Strengthening building structures

34.1. Types of stone work. Masonry mortars

Stone work is a piece-by-piece laying of a stone on a solution. Such masonry is performed at construction of foundations, walls of buildings and structures, columns, pillars, arches and other building structures, working mainly in compression.

The process of laying stones in the structure does not lend itself to mechanization. Therefore, the main direction for improving this process is the further mechanization of procurement, transport and auxiliary processes, methods, techniques, tools, devices, organization of the workplace and labor.

Consequently, masonry is associated with hand-made structures from stone-like materials and masonry.

The placement of piece wall materials in a stone structure in a certain combination is called masonry.

Depending on the type of materials used, masonry is subdivided into masonry of artificial stones (brick and block) and masonry of natural stones (rubble, rubble concrete and plank).

The brick is made of clay and silicate bricks. It is used for the construction of walls, pillars, arches, vaults, etc .;

Small-block - from ceramic and natural stones of the correct shape for the construction of walls and basements;

Lightweight - made of hollow bricks and heat-insulating materials for the construction of external walls;

Tesovaya - from natural stones, which are given the correct shape during processing, for the construction of monumental buildings and engineering structures;

Butovaya - from natural stones of irregular shape;

Rubble concrete - from a concrete mixture and stones embedded in it, which is used for the construction of foundations, basement walls, retaining walls, etc.

Masonry is also performed with artificial or natural stone cladding.

Rubble masonry is strong, moisture resistant, but it has a significant weight and requires a large amount of mortar. Therefore, instead of it, rubble concrete masonry is used, which has great strength and durability.

According to the complexity of the execution, the masonry is divided into the simplest (external and internal walls without architectural details); simple complexity (cornices, belts, pilasters, semi-columns, openings with a curvilinear outline); medium difficulty (walls with complicated parts up to 20% of the area of ​​all walls); especially complex (arches, vaults, etc.).

In addition, brickwork is distinguished by its thickness: in half a brick (120 mm); in 1 brick (250 mm); 1.5 bricks (380 mm); in 2 bricks (510 mm); 2.5 bricks (640 mm).

The stones have support and side surfaces. The supporting surfaces are the bed of the stone, and the side surfaces are the poke and spoons.

The extreme stones in the wall are called milestones, and the intermediate stones between the milestones are called zabutka.

Masonry is made of separate stones, joined by a solution into one whole. The solutions used for the construction of stone structures are called masonry; they bind individual stones together, preventing their mutual movement.

A solution is a mixture of a binder, fine aggregate, water, chemical additives and other fillers with certain technological and physical and mechanical properties. The mortar protects the masonry from blowing and moisture penetration and ensures a more even transmission of forces.

For masonry, simple solutions are used - cement and lime and complex - cement-lime and cement-clay.

By the type of binders, solutions are:

1.Limestone. They have great mobility, easily spread over a row of stones, and provide high performance of stones.

Disadvantages: acceptable for light loads and dry places.

2. Mixed or complex mortars (cement-lime, cement-clay).

They are used in structures of normal strength and in damp places. The additive improves the mobility, water retention capacity and density of the solution.

3. Cement with a small addition of lime or clay.

They are used for masonry of high-strength structures (pillars, lintels, reinforced masonry).

4. Clay and gypsum mortars for multi-storey masonry are used in areas with a dry climate.

Grades of solutions are selected according to the project, depending on the degree of durability of buildings and temperature and humidity conditions (underground, aboveground structures).

The mortars are divided into grades 4, 10, 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200 and 300 according to their compressive strength.

The masonry must be a monolith, in which the laid stones would not move under the influence of the loads acting on the masonry. To meet this requirement, individual stones must be laid under certain conditions called masonry cutting rules.

There are 3 rules for cutting seams in masonry:

The first rule sets the maximum permissible angle of inclination of the force acting on the horizontal row of masonry. Stones should be laid in flat layers (rows) perpendicular to the direction of the applied load. This rule follows from the properties of the stone to resist compression well and badly to stretch and bending. To avoid bending, the support of the overlying stone should take place not at separate points, but throughout the bed, i.e. on the plane.

Layers (rows) of masonry must be positioned so that the force acting on the masonry is directed perpendicular to the bed of stones. Vertical deviation from the acting force is allowed no more than 15 ... 17 0. Within these limits, the shear force is perceived by the frictional forces between the layers of stones.

34.2. The second rule regulates the location of the vertical masonry planes relative to the bed. The division of the masonry within each row must be done with three mutually perpendicular planes. With such a division, seams appear in the masonry array: horizontal - along the bed of the layer and vertical - transverse and longitudinal. If the division of the masonry is made with inclined planes, then wedge-shaped stones will appear in it, which, under the action of the load, will tend to push the neighboring stones, as well as stones with easily chipping sharp corners and violate the integrity of the structure.

The third rule determines the relative position of vertical longitudinal and transverse seams in adjacent rows of masonry. The stones of the overlying row must be placed on the underlying row so that they overlap the vertical joints between the stones in the longitudinal and transverse directions, i.e. laying should be carried out with bandaging of vertical seams in adjacent rows. Such a ligation of the seams eliminates the danger of the masonry stratification into individual posts, which can lead to the destruction of the masonry under load.

The use in masonry of strong mortars on a cement binder allows you to deviate somewhat from this rule. Currently, it is allowed not to tie vertical longitudinal seams in five adjacent rows or vertical longitudinal seams in three adjacent rows of masonry.

The degree of filling with mortar of the external walls on the facades depends on the finish of the walls on the surface.

If the project provides for the plastering of the walls, then for better adhesion of the plaster and masonry, the joints from the outside are not filled to a depth of 10 ... 15 mm. Such masonry is called "wasted" masonry.

If the plaster or facing of the masonry is not provided, then the masonry is carried out "under the joining", i.e. with complete filling of the seams and with their subsequent processing (jointing). Outside, the seams can be finished giving them different shapes, convex outward, concave.

Inventory, tools and fixtures

for masonry

Scaffolding and scaffolding.

When laying walls simultaneously with the installation of interfloor ceilings and facing of facades during the laying process, the device of scaffolding is not provided. The masonry is carried out from the scaffolds arranged on the ceilings.

Scaffolding is installed when laying walls with a height of more than 5 m.

Scaffolding and scaffolding should be light, strong, stable, easy to assemble, disassemble and transport.

In the presence of cranes, block scaffolds are used, which can be rearranged with a crane, and in the absence, a standing scaffold is used.

There are the following designs of inventory scaffolding and scaffolding: bolt-free tubular scaffolding; scaffolding with wedge connections.

Tools and fixtures.

1) control and measuring: steel tape, as a rule, level, plumb line, square, mooring cord.

2) production: trowel, hammer "Kirochka" for chipping bricks, jointing for joints.

With rubble masonry, rectangular and acute-angled sledgehammers, metal and rectangular thrombosis are used for stone processing.

To maintain the exact direction of the masonry, the same thickness of the rows and the correctness of the masonry, orders are established where the rows of masonry are marked, the place of windows and doorways, the place of laying the cornices.

There are corner and intermediate orders. They are installed in corners or on straight sections every 12 m.

When laying with overlapping, the order is set so that its side with the marking of the rows is facing the wall. When laying from external scaffolding, the rows are placed on both sides of the order, which is more convenient for the bricklayer. Between the orders, a mooring cord is pulled, defining the upper surface of each row of bricks.

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The wide distribution of natural stone materials in nature and the abundance of raw materials for the manufacture of artificial materials, as well as such important properties as strength and durability, fire resistance, contribute to the widespread use of stone materials in construction.

The purpose of stone work is the construction of foundations, load-bearing and enclosing structures of buildings, decorative finishing.

Stone structures consist of separate stones, connected into one whole with a solution, when solidified, a monolithic mass is formed.

The disadvantages of masonry are a large relative mass of structures, low labor productivity, high material costs, the inability to mechanize the masonry process.

Depending on the type of materials used, masonry is subdivided into masonry made of artificial and natural stones. In turn, for masonry from artificial stones, solid and hollow bricks, solid and hollow rectangular stones (blocks) are widely used.

Types of masonry, depending on the stones used:

brick- from clay and silicate solid and hollow bricks;

brick with cladding- from artificial and natural stones and blocks;

small-block- from natural (shell rock, porous tuff) or artificial, concrete and ceramic stones, laid by hand;

tesovaya- from natural processed stones of the correct shape, laid by hand or by crane;

rubble- from natural stones of irregular shape; rubble concrete - from rubble and concrete mixture, usually in formwork.

7.1.1. Masonry elements

Regularly shaped bricks and stones are delimited by six edges. The lower and upper are called beds, two side larger ones - spoons, two side smaller ones - butts (Fig. 7.1).

Beds are surfaces of stones that receive and transmit forces to the underlying layers of masonry.

A spoon is a stone laid with its long side along the wall.

A jab is a stone laid with its short side along the wall.

Seams - the space between stones in the longitudinal and transverse directions, filled with mortar.

Versts - the outer rows of bricks when laying. There are external and internal versts, filling between versts is zabutka.

Spoon row - a way of laying when the outer verst consists of spoons.

Rice. 7.1. Brickwork elements

° - brick; 6 - stone; c - brickwork; I - poke; 2 - bed; 3 - spoons; 4 - outer verst, 5 inner verst. 6 - zabutka; 7 - spoon row; 8 stitch row; 9 - horizontal-TAL seam (mortar bed); 10 - vertical longitudinal seam, 11 vertical transverse seam; 12 - outer verst of masonry

Rice. 7.2. Types of finishing of masonry seams:

a - wasted; b - with filling the seam (trimming); c - convex seam; g - concave

Poke row - the outer verst is laid out of pokes.

There is a whole stone, a half, a three-quarter, and a quarter.

The masonry is called wasteland if the outer seams are not filled with mortar to a depth of 1 1.5 cm, which leads to a better connection between the masonry and the mortar during subsequent plastering.

The masonry is called for joining if outer wall will have a natural look and the seams of the masonry are filled completely, giving them a different shape - convex, concave, triangular, rectangular, etc. (Fig. 7.2).

Undercut is called masonry if the mortar fills the seams flush from the outer surface of the wall.

7.1.2. Materials for masonry

Artificial stone materials include ceramic and silicate solid and hollow bricks, hollow ceramic and silicate stones and concrete and gypsum wall stones.

Solid clay brick has dimensions of 250 x 120 x 65 mm and modular (thickened) - 250 x 120 x 88 mm, brick weight 3.6 ... 5 kg. Density 1.6 ... 1.8 t / m3, brick grades 75, 100, 150, 200, 250 and 300, water absorption up to 8%. The brick is made by plastic pressing followed by firing. The main disadvantage is high thermal conductivity.

Hollow, porous and perforated bricks have, with the same dimensions in plan, heights of 65, 88, 103 and 138 mm (1.25, 1.5 and 2 times the height compared to solid brick), lower density - 1.35- 1.45 t / m3. Brick grades - 75, 100 and 150. The use of this type of bricks can reduce the mass of wall products by up to 30%.

Silicate bricks are used for walls with a relative humidity of not more than 75%, brick grades - 75, 100 and 150. Bricks are made by autoclaving.

Ceramic and silicate hollow stones have the following dimensions: ordinary - 250 x 120 x 138 mm, enlarged - 250 x 250 x 138 mm and modular - 288 x 138 x 138 mm. The thickness of the stone corresponds to two bricks placed on the bed, taking into account the thickness of the joint between them. The surface of the stones is smooth and grooved.

Concrete and gypsum wall stones are produced solid and hollow. They are made of heavy, lightweight and lightweight concrete and gypsum concrete with dimensions of 400 x 200 x 200 mm, 400 x 200 x 90 mm and weighing up to 35 kg.

Hollow and silicate bricks cannot be used for laying walls below the waterproofing layer, for laying basements, walls of wet rooms.

7.1.3. Masonry mortars

The solutions used for the construction of stone structures are called masonry. The solutions bind individual stones into a single monolith, with their help they level the beds of stones, as a result of which a uniform transfer of the acting force from one stone to another is ensured; the mortar fills the gaps between the stones and prevents the penetration of air and water into the masonry. Thus, the solutions provide a uniform transfer of forces, protect the masonry from blowing, water penetration, and increase the frost resistance of buildings.

Classification of mortars by type of aggregates:

heavy or cold - solutions on quartz or natural sand from dense rocks with a density of more than 1500 kg / m3;

light or warm - solutions on slag, pumice or tuff sand, ash from thermal power plants, granulated blast furnace or fuel slag with a density of less than 1500 kg / m3.

The size of sand grains for all types of mortar should not exceed 2.5 mm, the mobility of mortar for masonry is 9 ... 13 cm. Plasticizing additives are widely used: organic - sulfite lye and soap and inorganic - lime and clay.

Classification of solutions by the type of binder:

cement mortars - used for structures below the surface of the earth, in heavily loaded pillars, walls, in reinforced masonry. Composition from 1: 2.5 to 1: 6, grade of mortar from 100 to 300. The minimum consumption of cement per 1 m3 of sand - for the underground part of buildings is not less than 75 kg, for the aboveground part - 125 kg. Portland cement And slag Portland cement are used only in high-grade solutions for critical structures, in reinforced masonry, in the masonry of underground structures, in soils saturated with water, or during winter masonry performed by the freezing method;

lime mortars are used in dry places and under light load. They have great mobility, plasticity, and provide the highest labor productivity. Apply formulations from 1: 4 to 1: 8 and grades 4, 10 and 25;

mixed or complex mortars - cement-lime and cement-clay compositions from 1. 0.1: 3 to 1: 2: 15, mortar grades 10, 25, 50, 75 and 100. Such mortars are used for masonry of most building structures. The second binder pushes back the onset of setting, improves workability and plasticity, but significantly reduces the strength of the mortar. In the volumetric dosage of mixed solutions, the first number indicates the consumption of cement, the second - lime or clay dough, the third - sand.

The rate of increase in the strength of the solution depends on the properties of the binders and the conditions of hardening. At a temperature of 15 ° C, the strength of a simple solution will increase as follows: after 3 days - 25% of the brand strength, after 7 days - 50%, after 14 days - 75% and after 28 days - 100%. With an increase in the temperature of the hardening solution, its strength grows faster, with a decrease - more slowly.

The workability of the prepared solution depends on the degree of its mobility and water-holding capacity, which protects the solution from stratification - rapid separation of water and settling of sand. The degree of mobility of solutions is determined depending on the immersion in it of a standard cone weighing 0.3 kg.

Masonry mortars must be not only durable, but also plastic, that is, they must allow them to be laid in a masonry in a thin, uniform layer. Such a layered mortar fills well all the unevenness of the base and evenly adheres to its entire surface. In addition, such an easy-to-use solution helps to increase the productivity of bricklayers and improve the quality of the masonry.

The water-holding capacity of the solution, which prevents the separation of water and sedimentation of the sediment, is especially important when laying the solution on porous bases and to protect the solution from delamination during its transportation over long distances, when it is supplied to the site of work through pipelines. Usually, the water-retention capacity of the solution is increased by introducing surface-active organic additives or finely dispersed mineral substances (lime, clay).

7.1.4. Masonry cutting rules

Masonry, made of individual bricks, connected with mortar into a single whole, should be a monolith, in which the laid stones would not be displaced under the influence of loads acting on the masonry. The forces acting on the masonry are resisted mainly by the stone (the mortar is much less durable). Therefore, it is necessary that the stone perceives only compressive forces and mainly - the bed. To prevent the stones from shifting, they are laid in compliance with certain conditions, called the rules for cutting masonry (Fig. 7.3).

Rice. 7.3. Masonry cutting rules:

a - the impact on the masonry of the inclined force; b - correct, mutually perpendicular arrangement of vertical planes for cutting the masonry; at the same. wrong, g - masonry with correct dressing of vertical seams

Rule one. The masonry is carried out in flat rows perpendicular to the acting force, i.e. the rule sets the maximum permissible angle of inclination of the force acting on the horizontal row of the masonry. The permissible deviation of the vertical force is no more than 15 ... 17 °, it depends on the frictional force of the stone over the surface of the solution.

The second rule. Longitudinal and transverse vertical seams in the masonry should not be through in the height of the structure, the masonry will be dismembered into separate posts. The rule regulates the location of the vertical masonry cutting planes relative to the bed. In relation to the front surface of the wall, the seams should be perpendicular or parallel to it. Failure to do so can lead to wedging of the masonry rows.

Rule three. The planes of vertical cutting of the masonry of adjacent rows should be shifted, that is, stones, and not seams, should be located under each vertical seam of a given row of masonry. The rule determines the relative position of vertical longitudinal and transverse seams in adjacent rows of masonry. The stones of the overlying row must be laid on the underlying row so that they overlap the vertical seams between the stones in the longitudinal and transverse directions; the laying should be carried out with bandaging of the seams in adjacent rows. Such a ligation of the seams eliminates the danger of stratification of the masonry into separate posts, which, working independently, are not able to perceive the forces that can be resisted by monolithic masonry.

When using durable cement-sand mortars in masonry, some deviations from these rules are possible. It is allowed not to tie vertical longitudinal seams in five adjacent rows or vertical transverse seams in three adjacent rows of masonry.