Structural materials for load-bearing walls. External walls of buildings: purpose; impact on walls; wall requirements; classification

At the end of the work on laying the foundation, you can proceed to the next stage - the construction of walls. Wall erection is an important type construction works since in addition to protection from the adverse effects of the external environment and thermal insulation of the building, they determine its appearance.

The walls and facades of the building must meet the standards of fire resistance, fire safety adopted in our country, ensure sound insulation and heat protection of premises, be strong and durable.

The material for the construction of the walls is selected based on the wishes of the customer and the construction budget. It can be brick, natural stone, wood, concrete blocks or panels with the addition of expanded clay, slag, sawdust.

Structural building systems

The structural system of a building is a system of load-bearing structures (walls and floors) of a building designed to ensure the rigidity, strength and stability of the building as a whole.

Today in construction are used the following structural systems:

Frame constructions They are economical, high bearing capacity, light weight, show good heat and sound insulation properties. They do not shrink, are durable, retain their properties for 40-50 years. When erecting frame structures, a wide range of materials is used: piece materials, panels ("sandwich", reinforced concrete panels). Exterior walls frame structure are not carriers. Frame systems are most often used in the construction of small country houses.

Frameless (wall) structural system can be built using a wide range of materials: wood, brick, blocks and panels.

• Brick walls They are distinguished by a large margin of safety, fire resistance, excellent indicators of heat capacity - they keep cool in summer, keep warm in winter. Brick is not susceptible to decay processes, it is not afraid of insects. A significant disadvantage of bricks is good moisture absorption. Therefore, during seasonal operation (in summer), the first weeks after settling in the house is very damp. It will take several weeks for the moisture accumulated by the brick to evaporate during several months of “downtime” of the building without heating. This disadvantage leads to the destruction of brick walls after about 25 years of operation. To ensure good thermal insulation performance, they must be of sufficient thickness. Brick is best suited for the construction of large cottages designed for year-round use.
• Concrete block walls they are durable, fireproof, not susceptible to decay and pests. are small in size, easily amenable to mechanical processing, which makes it possible to erect walls of an unusual, complex shape. Lightweight concrete, due to the large reserve of heat capacity, keeps the room cool in summer and retains heat in winter. Concrete block walls are easy to build. In construction, standard blocks of clay concrete, cinder concrete and composite materials are used, as well as home-made blocks.
• Stone walls are distinguished by an increased margin of safety and durability. But due to low thermal insulation indicators, stone is most often used for the construction of utility structures.

Types and purpose of walls

By location and purpose, walls are divided into two types:

• Exterior walls;
• Internal walls.

Exterior walls are enclosing structures, the main purpose of which is to protect premises from adverse environmental factors.

Internal walls serve as the boundaries of the premises inside the building.

By the type of load, the walls are divided into three types:

• Load-bearing walls... They bear the load from their own weight along the entire height of the building, wind, floors and roof of the building.
• Self-supporting walls... They impart their own weight load to the foundation over the entire height of the structure and the wind.
• Curtain walls... They impart their own weight load to the interior walls and floors of the building within one floor.

Requirements for the types of walls vary significantly among themselves. For carriers and self load-bearing walls indicators of strength, reliability and durability come to the fore, because the stability of the building as a whole depends on them. Therefore, the materials for their construction are subject to strict selection and control.

Exterior walls- the most complex building structure. They are exposed to numerous and varied force and non-force influences (Fig. 1). Walls perceive their own mass, permanent and temporary loads from ceilings and roofs, wind, uneven deformations of the base, seismic forces, etc. from the inside - to the effect of heat flow, water vapor flow, noise. Performing the function of an external enclosing structure and a composite element of facades, and often a supporting structure, the outer wall must meet the requirements strength, durability and fire resistance, corresponding to the capital class of the building, to protect premises and adverse external influences, to provide the necessary temperature and humidity conditions of the enclosed premises, to have decorative qualities. At the same time, the structure of the outer wall must meet the industrial requirements, as well as the economic requirements of minimum material consumption and cost, since the outer walls are the most expensive structure (20-25% of the cost of building structures)

In the outer walls, there are usually window openings for lighting the premises and doorways - entrance and for access to balconies and loggias. The complex of wall structures includes filling the openings of windows, entrance and balcony doors, structures of open spaces. These elements and their connections to the wall must meet the requirements listed above. Since the static functions of walls and their insulating properties are achieved when interacting with internal supporting structures, the development of external wall structures includes a roar depending on the climatic and engineering-geological conditions of construction, and also, taking into account the peculiarities of space-planning solutions, are dissected by vertical expansion joints of various types: temperature-shrinkage, sedimentary, anti-seismic, etc.

Classification.

By static function distinguish between load-bearing, self-supporting or non-bearing structures.

Load-bearing walls in addition to the vertical load from its own mass, they perceive and transfer to the foundations loads from adjacent structures: floors, partitions, roofs, etc. Self-supporting walls perceive the vertical load only from their own mass (including the load from balconies, bay windows, parapets and other wall elements) and transfer it to the foundations directly or through plinth panels, round beams, grillage or other structures. Curtain walls floor by floor or through several floors supported on adjacent internal structures of the building (floors, walls, frame). They carry the load from their own weight and wind within a storey with a height of no more than 6 m. Load-bearing and self-supporting walls, along with vertical and horizontal loads, being vertical elements, perceive the rigidity of structures.

Bearing and non-bearing external walls can be used in buildings of any number of storeys. The height of self-supporting walls is limited in order to prevent operationally unfavorable mutual displacements of self-supporting and internal supporting structures, accompanied by local damage to the decoration of the premises and the appearance of cracks.

By material there are four main types of wall structures: concrete, stone, non-concrete and wooden. In accordance with the building system, each type of wall contains several types of structures: concrete walls - from monolithic concrete, large blocks or panels; stone walls - hand-made, walls made of stone blocks and panels; walls made of non-concrete materials - half-timbered and panel frame and frameless; wooden walls- frame-sheathing, frame-panel, panel and panel chopped from logs or beams.

Constructive decisions... Exterior walls can be of single or layered construction. Single layer walls are erected from panels, concrete or stone blocks, monolithic concrete, stone, brick, wooden logs or beams. In layered walls the performance of various functions is entrusted to various materials... Strength functions are provided by concrete, stone, wood; durability functions - concrete, stone, wood or sheet material (aluminum alloys, enameled steel, asbestos cement, etc.); thermal insulation functions - effective insulation (mineral wool boards, fiberboard, expanded polystyrene, etc.); vapor barrier functions - roll materials (cushioning roofing material, foil, etc.), dense concrete or mastics; decorative functions - various facing materials. An air gap can be included in the number of layers of such a building envelope. Closed - to increase its resistance to heat transfer, ventilated - to protect the room from radiation overheating or to reduce deformations of the outer facing layer of the wall.

Single and multi-layer wall structures can be made pre-assembled or using traditional techniques.

Walls made of small-sized elements (stone walls): field of application; materials and types of masonry; basic measures to ensure strength, stability, durability, heat-shielding ability; details of stone walls (plinths, openings, cornices and parapets).

Handmade walls. Material for stone walls, bricks or stones of the correct shape, made of natural or artificial (fired clay, concrete) materials, and mortar (lime, lime-cement or cement), along which stones are laid in horizontal rows with mutual dressing of seams, are used. Bricks (clay and silicate, solid and hollow) have a mass of up to 4-4.3 kg, stones (ceramic hollow with a density of up to 1400 kg / m3, lightweight hollow concrete with a density of up to 1200 kg / m3, from autoclaved and non-autoclave aerated concrete with a density of up to 800 kg / m3, from natural lungs stone materials density up to 1800 kg / m3) have a height of up to 20 cm and a mass of up to 30 kg.

Wall structure strength ensure the strength of the stone and mortar and the laying of stones with mutual dressing of vertical seams. At the same time, the dressing of the seams of the masonry is provided not only in the plane of the wall, but also in the plane of the adjacent to it cross walls... The most common type of masonry is six-row, where five spoon rows laid in succession with dressing in the plane of the wall are tied (in the plane and out of the plane of the wall) with a sixth row of pins. Only with high requirements for the strength of the wall, a more laborious two-row masonry is used with the dressing of all vertical seams in each row (the so-called chain masonry).

Resilience of stone exterior walls provided by their spatial interaction with internal supporting structures - walls and ceilings. To ensure spatial interaction, the outer walls are rigidly connected to the inner walls by bandaging the masonry, and with the floors made of reinforced concrete flooring, by inserting the latter into the wall by at least 100 mm, leaning on the wall through a layer of strong mortar and connecting the walls to the ceilings with steel anchors. When constructing ceilings along beams, the latter are inserted into the wall by 250 mm and tied with anchors to the masonry every 6 m. multi-storey buildings, in addition, provide for floor reinforcement belts, located in the mortar joint under the ceiling or above it (with high above-window lintels).

Durability stone walls provide frost resistance of materials used for the outer part of the masonry. Accordingly, the grades of stones and facing materials for frost resistance for the outer walls of residential buildings of medium and increased number of storeys, under construction in a temperate climate, take at least 15 Mw, and for individual parts of the walls (cornices, parapets, window sills, belts, plinths, etc.), subject to particularly intense atmospheric moisture - 35 Mw.

Heat shielding ability external walls during the design are assigned in accordance with hygienic requirements and taking into account the need to save fuel resources. The thickness of the wall is taken according to the largest of the values ​​obtained as a result of calculations of the required R 0 tr, economically feasible resistance to heat transfer R 0 eq and static calculation. Materials and structures of stone walls have a variety of thermal properties. The thermal conductivity coefficient of solid masonry varies within 0.7 W / (m ° C) for tuff masonry up to 0.35 W / (m ° C) for ceramic hollow stone masonry. This makes it possible, by choosing the most heat-efficient material, to significantly reduce the cross-section of a single-layer wall, its massiveness, cost and laboriousness of construction. Therefore, the solid masonry of the outer walls is made mainly of hollow ceramic, lightweight concrete stones or bricks. To save stone and labor costs while maintaining the required heat-shielding ability, lightweight multilayer walls are used. In residential buildings, the most common are three-layer structures of lightweight masonry. They contain longitudinal walls with a thickness of half a brick and an inner insulating layer between them. Sometimes, according to the strength requirements, the inner layer of the masonry, to which the load from the floors is transferred, is made 1 brick thick.

Differences in masonry designs lie in the ways of ensuring joint static work of the outer layers of the masonry, as well as in the insulation material and the participation of this material in the static work of the wall. Links between layers are designed to be flexible or rigid. Flexible ties are made in the form of steel brackets. With flexible connections, the brick layers of the wall separately perceive the loads falling on them.

Rigid connections are made in the form of transverse diaphragms connecting the outer layers. By the location of the transverse diaphragms, wall structures with horizontal and vertical ties are distinguished. In walls with horizontal diaphragms, the latter are performed every five rows, in walls with vertical diaphragms (well masonry) the step of the diaphragms is 0.65 or 1.17 m. fiberboard, foam glass, liners made of lightweight or aerated concrete, monolithic lightweight concrete with a density of up to 1400 kg / m3 or mineral backfills with a density of up to 1000 kg / m3.

Details of stone walls. Plinths stone walls are made of solid solid brick of solid masonry. Brick frost resistance grade - 50 Mrz. At a distance of 15-20 cm from the top of the blind area, a horizontal waterproofing layer is laid, which protects the ground part of the wall from ground moisture. The waterproofing layer is made of two layers of roofing material on mastic or from cement mortar. In accordance with the compositional solution, the facing of a brick basement with slabs of natural stone or leaning against ceramic tiles is sometimes used.

When making a basement from concrete foundation blocks or basement panels, the latter are placed with an inward distance from the facade surface (the so-called basement with undercut). At the same time, in the hanging over the plinth outside wall facade stones the bottom row of masonry is replaced with reinforced concrete bars. A plinth made of concrete blocks is usually faced with pre-layered ceramic tiles, and the plinth panels have a protective finishing layer made at the factory from decorative concrete or facing tiles.

Openings window and door in stone walls are made with the arrangement of quarters from the outside along the vertical and upper edges. The quarters protect the joint between the masonry and the joinery block from filling the opening from infiltration. The size of a quarter in masonry is 65 by 120 or 88 by 120, in masonry - 100 by 100 mm. The openings are blocked, as a rule, with prefabricated reinforced concrete lintels, perceiving the vertical load from the overlying masonry, and in the load-bearing walls and from the floors.

The crowning part of the outer walls is made in the form of a cornice with an external drainage from the roof or a parapet with an internal drainage.

Cornice in stone walls, they are often laid out of brick or stone, however, the amount of removal of such cornices, according to strength conditions, is limited to half the thickness of the wall, and the sequential overlap of bricks to form an overhang should be no more than 1/3 of the stone in each row. If necessary, a cornice device with a large overhang is made of precast reinforced concrete slabs anchored into the masonry.

Parapet is a part of the wall that rises above the roof, made in solid masonry. The thickness of the wall in the parapet area is taken to be reduced (up to 1 stone). The elevation of the parapet above the roof surface must be at least 300 mm. The upper plane of the parapet masonry is protected from moisture by a galvanized steel drain or concrete parapet stone.

Large-block walls: scope; materials for large blocks; types of blocks depending on their location in the wall; cutting walls into large blocks; ensuring the strength, stability, durability of block walls.

Large-block houses are usually designed frameless, on the basis of two design schemes: with longitudinal walls for 5-storey buildings and with transverse walls for multi-storey buildings. Sometimes (on separate sections of the building volume), a combined structural system of large-block buildings with an internal frame is used. Accordingly, large-block walls are made load-bearing or self-supporting with a cut along the height of the floor into 2, 3 or 4 rows of blocks. The choice of the type of cut depends on the material and the static function of the walls.

Materials for large blocks there are lightweight concrete with a density of up to 1600 kg / m3 on various porous aggregates, autoclaved aerated concrete with a density of up to 800 kg / m3, brick solid or lightweight masonry, natural stone (limestone, tuff, etc.) with a density of up to 1800 kg / m3 ...

For any of the cuts, the principle of bandaging the seams and laying the blocks on the mortar is observed. In accordance with the location, they distinguish between paving blocks, lintel blocks, window sills, basement blocks, cornice blocks, parapet blocks, ordinary and corner blocks. Jumper blocks have quarters on the inner side: at the top for supporting the floors, at the bottom for setting the filling of the opening. Quarters along the vertical side edges are provided for the installation of filling the openings in the wall blocks. On the outside, the blocks have a protective and finishing layer.

Strength large-block walls are achieved by the strength of concrete blocks and mortar, by bandaging the masonry of blocks and their adhesion to the mortar, by floor strapping by bulkhead blocks connected by steel ties. The concrete grade in terms of compressive strength for lightweight concrete blocks is assigned according to a static calculation, but not less than M 50, and mortar - not less than M25.

Sustainability large-block external walls are provided with their spatial interaction with ceilings and internal transverse walls, combined with external walls by special steel ties.

In mid-rise buildings, the connections of intersecting walls are designed from T-shaped or T-shaped welded meshes, from strip or circular reinforcing bars laid in a solution of horizontal seams.

Durability large-block walls ensure the use of concretes with a frost resistance grade of at least 25 Mrz with corresponding frost resistance grades of concrete and solutions of protective and finishing layers. The frost resistance grade of concrete for cornice, parapet and basement blocks is 35-50 Mrz.

Panel concrete walls and their elements: scope; main types of wall cuts on the panel; material and construction of wall panels; rigid and flexible connections in three-layer wall panels.

Exterior walls made of large panels can be load-bearing or non-load-bearing. The massive use of panel walls in almost all countries of the world has determined the exceptional variety of their designs and cuts. However, in most cases, only single-row cutting is used (without ligating vertical seams) and sometimes (for low and medium-rise houses) two-row, vertical, cruciform and T-shaped.

Panels of concrete materials are designed as both laminated and single-layer. Load-bearing walls are designed from layered reinforced concrete panels made of heavy or structural lightweight concrete. Single-layer panels made of lightweight structural and heat-insulating concrete are used for load-bearing walls of a building with a height of no more than 12 floors. Load-bearing panel walls made of autoclaved aerated concrete are used only in low-rise buildings. Curtain walls are made from panels of any design.

Single layer concrete panels are made of lightweight or autoclaved aerated concrete. The density of concrete should be no more than 1400 kg / m3. Load-bearing and self-supporting single-layer wall panels are designed as eccentrically compressed concrete structures. Nevertheless, single-layer panels of even curtain walls contain structural reinforcement, which protects against brittle fracture and the development of cracks during transportation and installation.

The concept of "single-layer panel" is conditional. In fact, in addition to the main structural layer of lightweight or aerated concrete, such panels contain an outer protective and finishing layer and an inner finishing layer.

The facade protective and finishing layer of lightweight concrete panels is made with a thickness of 20-25 mm from vapor-permeable decorative concrete, mortars or from ordinary solutions (with subsequent painting), the shrinkage deformations and modulus of elasticity of which are similar in magnitude to those of the main concrete layer of the panel. For the facade layer, they also use finishing with ceramic and glass slabs, thin slabs of sawn natural stone, and crushed stone materials. On the inside, a finishing layer of mortar with a density of up to 1800 kg / m3 and a thickness of no more than 15 mm is applied to the panels.

The required density and water resistance of the facade protective and finishing concrete layer is achieved when the panels are molded with the facade surface to the face-down pallet. This same molding process guarantees maximum adhesion of the concrete panel to the slabs.

Concrete panels two-layer construction have bearing and insulating layers: bearing - from heavy or structural lightweight concrete, insulating - from structurally heat-insulating lightweight concrete of dense or cellular structure. The denser carrier layer has a thickness of at least 100 mm and is located on the inside.

Concrete panels three-layer construction have external and internal structural layers of heavy or lightweight structural concrete and an insulating layer enclosed between them. The minimum grade of heavy concrete is M 150, light - M 100. For the insulation layer, the most effective materials with a density of not more than 400 kg / m3 are used in the form of blocks, slabs or mats made of glass or mineral wool on a synthetic bond, foam glass, fiberboard, polystyrene or phenolic foam.

The concrete layers of the panel are united by flexible or rigid ties, ensuring its assembly unity and meeting the requirements of strength, durability and thermal insulation. The most advanced design of flexible ties consists of individual metal rods, which provide the assembly unity of the concrete layers, regardless of their static work. Flexible ties do not prevent thermal deformations of the outer concrete layer of the wall and completely exclude the occurrence of temperature forces in the inner layer. Elements of flexible connections are made of low-alloy steels, resistant to atmospheric corrosion, or from ordinary building steel with durable anti-corrosion coatings. In three-layer panels with flexible ties, the outer concrete layer performs only enclosing functions. The load from it, as well as from the insulation, is transmitted through flexible connections to the inner concrete layer. The outer layer is designed with a thickness of at least 50 mm from concrete of the frost resistance grade Mrz 35 and reinforced with a welded mesh. These measures provide the required durability and crack resistance of the facade layer. Along the butt edges of the panel and along the contour of the openings, the outer concrete layer is thickened for the device of waterproof profiling of the joints and edges of the openings. The thickness of the inner concrete layer of three-layer panels with flexible ties in load-bearing and self-supporting walls is assigned at least 80 mm, and in curtain walls - 65 mm. The panels are insulated with the most effective materials - expanded polystyrene, mineral wool and glass wool plates. Steel elements designed to connect the panel with the rest of the building are placed in its inner layer.

In three-layer concrete panels, along with flexible ones, rigid connections are also used between layers in the form of transverse reinforced ribs molded from heavy or lightweight concrete. Rigid connections provide joint static work of concrete layers, protection of connecting fittings from corrosion, ease of implementation, and allow the use of heaters of any type. The design flaw is through heat-conducting inclusions formed by the ribs. They can lead to the formation of condensation on the inner surface of the wall in their area. To eliminate the danger of condensation, the heat capacity of the inner concrete layer is increased, thickening it to 80 -120 mm (according to the results of calculating the temperature panels), and the thickness of the connecting ribs is set to no more than 40 mm.

The structural reinforcement of three-layer panels with rigid ties is performed on both sides. It consists of spatial reinforcement blocks similar to those used in single-layer panels, but supplemented with a welded mesh with a cell of 200X200 mm, reinforcing the facade concrete layer.

Wall- a vertical structural element of the building that separates the premises from the external environment.

Wall classification:

by location:

outdoor;

internal.

by the nature of static work:

1. non-bearing;

   self-supporting.

by material:

stone;

wooden;

made of synthetic materials.

by design:

from small-sized elements;

from large-sized materials.

by the method of construction:

1. monolithic.

Wall requirements:

strength;

durability;

heat and sound insulation;

profitability and industrialism.

1.4.2 Concept of masonry and its elements

Masonry- a structure made of separate stones, the seams between which are filled with mortar.

Masonry elements:

Outside (front) verst- rows facing the front surface of the masonry.

Internal verst- rows facing the inner surface of the masonry.

Forgetfulness- rows of masonry located between the outer and inner verst.

Long-sided bricks along the wall form spoon row, and the walls laid across form butt row.

The masonry is tied up by alternating stitch and spoon rows.

Dressing- a certain order of laying stones in the masonry; mismatch of vertical seams. The dressing is necessary to evenly distribute the load in the wall.

The seam- the gap between the stones, filled with mortar. The horizontal seam is 12 mm, the vertical seam is 10 mm.

1.4.3 Types of masonry. Exterior wall construction

Types of dressings:

1) a single-row (chain) dressing system is a sequential alternation of poke and spoon rows. This system is labor intensive but more durable.

2) a multi-row dressing system, tied with pokes every 3-5 spoon rows

Untied rows of masonry are replaced with less heat-conducting material. The result is a lightweight wall structure. Advantages: low thermal conductivity, high production cost.

If the wall is subsequently not plastered from the front surface, then the vertical and horizontal joints between the bricks should be completely filled with mortar to reduce the air permeability of the walls and give the wall a good appearance. To do this, "jointing" is performed, i.e. the seam is sealed and its outer surface is shaped.

A significant disadvantage of walls made of solid bricks (clay or silicate) is its large bulk and high thermal conductivity. There are no materials that would completely block the flow of heat, but there are materials that limit its leakage - these are thermal insulation materials.

But the building cannot be constructed from heat-insulating materials, because it has no structural properties. In order for the walls to be strong, they must be made of brick or concrete, and only supplemented with heat-insulating layers.

Walls can be insulated in three main ways:

- with the location of thermal insulation on the outside of the wall;

- with the location of thermal insulation in the thickness of the wall;

- with the location of thermal insulation on the inside of the wall.

External insulation has a number of advantages:

- the walls are protected from the adverse effects of temperature. These influences are perceived by the heat-insulating layer, but they do not pose a danger to it;

- the wall is reliably protected from atmospheric precipitation;

- in the cold season, external thermal insulation prevents the walls from cooling to the dew point temperature and the formation of condensation in their thickness.

Thermal rehabilitation of existing buildings is also carried out with the help of external insulation.

There are two types of design solutions for external insulation:

1) "thermal fur coat" method;

2) a ventilated insulation system, called a ventilated facade.

Part thermal fur insulation systems includes the following layers and elements:

- rigid thermal insulation boards (mineral wool, glass wool);

- adhesive for fixing the plates to the base (wall); if necessary, use additional fastenings with special dowel-anchors;

- the reinforcing layer, in which the reinforcing mesh is embedded - this layer is the protection of the heat-insulating plates;

- a primer to improve the adhesion of the protective and decorative layer;

- protective and decorative layer;

- additional elements that provide reinforcement of the corners of the building, slopes, etc.

Ventilated facade is a heat-insulating system in which the individual layers are arranged as follows: insulated wall, heat insulation, ventilated air gap, protective and decorative screen.

A ventilated facade system is a structure consisting of cladding materials (slabs or sheet materials) and a sub-cladding structure, which in turn is attached to the wall in such a way that an air gap remains between the cladding layer and the insulation. The system is attached to the insulated fence using a supporting frame and an anchoring system for the insulation.

The supporting frame is made of timber or metal elements. Not every insulation is suitable for ventilated facades, because high requirements are imposed on the insulation. Mineral wool is more often used, sometimes glass wool, since these materials are an unfavorable environment for the formation of fungi, and also have high heat and sound insulation properties. In order to remove moisture (construction, hygroscopic, atmospheric) from the insulation, a ventilated air gap is arranged.

Insulated walls inside the building envelope(well masonry)

Well masonry is a three-layer structure consisting of a facing layer, an insulating layer and an inner layer.

The inner layer

With this system of wall insulation, the inner load-bearing wall of the building is first erected. The inner layer of the outer walls must ensure the perception of loads from its own weight, as well as the weight of the heat-insulating and facing layers and external force and temperature factors acting on the walls. The layer thickness is determined only by the strength requirements.

Thermal insulation layer

Three-layer walls must contain an effective heat-insulating material of such durability that it does not have to be replaced during the entire service life. repair and restoration work is impossible. These requirements are met:

- polystyrene foam plates;

- polystyrene concrete slabs;

- polyurethane foam;

- mineral wool mats.

The thickness of the insulating layer is determined by calculation.

Fixation of the heat-insulating layer should be ensured by fixing it to the inner layer using adhesives. When designing and operating three-layer walls with an internal insulation, there is one problem - moisture condensation inside the structure. Water vapor, as a result of diffusion, entering the thickness of the structure, can lead to a progressive dampness of the insulation and its gradual loss of its heat-insulating properties.

To combat this phenomenon, a vapor barrier layer is used and / or an air ventilation gap is arranged. The ventilated air gap must have holes through the outer facing layer to remove moisture from the insulation by ventilation. Vertical and horizontal masonry joints unfilled with mortar can serve as holes. The thickness of the air gap is taken depending on the number of storeys of the building from 10 to 40 mm.

Facing layer

As the material of the facing layer, as well as for the device of cornices, belts of other parts, brick and face stones, ceramic or silicate are used.

The facing layer of external walls must ensure the architectural and aesthetic qualities of building facades, have the required durability and, with an appropriate degree of reliability, perform the functions of protecting the thermal insulation layer from hazardous external influences.

To ensure the stability of the outer walls and prevent their deformations from external loads, the walls, if necessary, must have connections with the elements of the supporting frame. The connections of the facing and inner layers of the outer walls can be designed both rigid and flexible - using steel bent rod and sheet products.

Well masonry is used when erecting walls of buildings with a height of more than 5 floors.

Housing of mass series differs, first of all, in the type of choice of the fencing option, which determines in the future and constructive solution interfacing of load-bearing structures, since internal partitions, ceilings, escape routes - inside brick, large-panel, large-block buildings are made of unified types of prefabricated reinforced concrete structures... Those. The “stuffing” of the building itself, regardless of its structural scheme and the choice of material for the outer walls, is typologically monotonous. Moreover, the first mass series had the same internal layout in both brick and large-panel versions, and cutting into blocks was carried out according to the same layout type.

Outer walls are the most complex building structure. They are exposed to numerous and varied power and non-power influences. In addition to the payload transmitted from the ceilings, the snow load and the weight of the roof, they perceive their own mass, the effect of wind, uneven deformations of the base, seismic forces, etc. air, external noise, and from the inside - the effect of heat flow, water vapor flow, noise.

Acting as an external enclosing structure, walls are the main compositional element of the facade. At the same time, the fence must meet the requirements of strength, durability and fire resistance, corresponding to the capital class of the building, protect the premises from adverse external influences, and provide the necessary temperature and humidity conditions for the enclosed premises.

R is. one ... External walls: load-bearing; self-supporting and non-bearing

Industrialization has made some stringent demands on the walls. External walls are the most expensive structure of a modern building, their cost is more than25% the cost of the entire building, therefore, first of all, they must meet the requirements of the minimum material consumption.

The complex of external structures includes window openings for room lighting and doorways - entrance and exit to balconies and loggias. The mating of door and window fillings with the wall must meet the requirements listed above.

Since the static functions of walls and their insulating properties are achieved in interaction with internal supporting structures, the development of external wall structures includes the solution of mating joints with floors, internal walls or a frame.

External wall structures are classified according to the following characteristics:

the static function of the wall, determined by its role in the structural system of the building;

material and construction technology determined by the building's building system;

constructive solution - in the form of a single-layer or layered enclosing structure.

By static function, load-bearing, self-supporting or non-bearing wall structures are distinguished (rice. one).

Carriersthe walls, in addition to the vertical load from their own mass, perceive and transfer to the foundations loads from adjacent structures: floors, partitions and roofs.

Self-supportingthe walls take the vertical load only from their own weight (including the load from balconies, bay windows, parapets and other wall elements) and transfer it to the foundations directly or through basement panels, randbeams, grillages or other structures.Non-bearingwalls, floor by floor or through several floors, are operated on adjacent internal structures of the building (floors, walls, frame). In this case, the design of the non-bearing railing is such that the end of the floor is reliably protected from external influences. Curtain walls are most often referred to ashinged.

Bearing and self-supporting walls perceive along with vertical and horizontal loads, being the vertical stiffeners of structures. In buildings with non-bearing external walls, the functions of vertical stiffeners are performed by the frame, internal walls, diaphragms or stiffeners.

Bearing and non-bearing external walls can be used in buildings of any number of storeys. The height of self-supporting walls is limited in order to prevent operationally unfavorable mutual displacements of self-supporting and internal supporting structures, accompanied by local damage to the decoration of the premises and the appearance of cracks. V panel houses, for example, it is permissible to use self-supporting walls with a building height of no more than4 floors. The stability of self-supporting walls is ensured by flexible connections with internal structures.

Load-bearing external walls are used in buildings of various heights. The maximum number of storeys of a load-bearing wall depends on the bearing capacity and deformability of its material, structure, the nature of the relationship with internal structures, and economic feasibility. Panel lightweight concrete walls are most justified in buildings up to9-12 floors, carry brick exterior walls - in buildingsmedium-rise, and the walls with steel gratingthat shell structure - inbuildingson the70-100 floors.

By material, there are four main types of wall structures: concrete, stone, from notconcrete materials and wooden... In accordance with the building system, each type of wall contains several types of structures: concrete walls - made of monolithic concrete, large blocks or panels; stone walls - hand made , walls made of stone blocks and panels; walls made of non-concrete materials - half-timbered and panel frame and frameless; wooden walls - frame-sheathing, frame-panel, shield and panel walls, chopped from logs or beams. As noted above, the type of industrial structure was adopted for state housing programs, therefore, we will consider only concrete and stone walls used in serial structures before 25 floors.

Concrete and stone exterior walls can be single or sandwich construction. Single-layer walls are built from panels, concrete or stone blocks, monolithic concrete, stone and brick. In layered walls, strength is provided by concrete and stone, thermal protection functions are performed by effective insulation. An air gap can be included in the number of layers of such a building envelope. Single and multi-layer wall structures can be fully assembled or performed in traditional technique.

Assigning a static function to an exterior wall, the choice of materials and designs isis carried out taking into account the requirements of SNiP "Againstbuilding design fire codesstructures ". According to these norms, I carrywalls, as a rule, must be uncomfortableparadise. Use of flame retardantload-bearing wallswith a fire resistance limit of at least0.5 hour allowed only in one-two-storeyhouses. Fire resistance limit of non-combustiblewall structures of industrial buildings should be at least2 hours , therefore, they can only be made of stone or concrete materials, since novfire breakdown of vertical carriersstructures can lead to the collapse of allstructures based on them and buildings inthe whole.

Curtain wall designsfireproof orhardly combustible. V residential buildings above9 floorscurtain external walls can only be fireproof. Tore-combustiblenon-bearing external walls are used only when the number of storeys is less9 floors, they haveexistsignificantly lower fire resistance( 0.25-0.5 hours ), since their destructionleads onlyto local damage to the building.

The thickness of the outer walls was chosen according to thethe larger of the values ​​obtained as a result of static and thermal calculations, andappointed in accordance with the constructiveand heat engineering features I enclosegeneral design. In prefabricated concrete housingthe calculated thickness of the outer wall was tiedwith unifi dimensionsa tiled row of outer walls,adopted at centralized manufacturingmolding equipment250, 300, 350, 400 mm for panel and 300, 400, 500 mmfor large-block buildings. The estimated thickness of stone walls was matched with the dimensions of a brick or stone and was taken to be equal to the designtive thickness obtained during masonry. Atbrick sizes250x120x65 or 250x120 × 88 mm(modular brick) thicknesssolid masonry walls in one, one and a half, two, two and a half and three kirpich (taking into account the vertical seams along10 mmbetween individual stones) is250 , 380 , 510 , 640 and 770 mm... Structural thickness of the sawn wallstone or lightweight concrete small blocks, uniwhose dimensions are390x190x188 mm, when laying in one stone is equal to 390 and one and a half stones -490 mm.

Panel concrete walls maybe load-bearing or non-load-bearing. Self-supportingpanel walls are used in buildings notabove4 floors. The massive use of panel walls in almost all countries of the world has determined the exceptional variety of their construccias and cuts.However, of all this variety forload-bearing walls in most cases applyma only single-row cutting (without slingki of vertical seams) and sometimes (for low and medium-rise houses) two-row, vertical, cruciform and T-shaped.

Rice. 2. Exterior wall concrete panels: a - single layer; b - two-layer; в - three-layer; 1 - structural and heat-insulating concrete; 2 - protective finishing ny layer; 3 - structural concrete; 4 - effective insulation body

Forcurtain walls any application is possiblecutting. For almost any wallsingle-row cutting is most often used in this function. She gives the maximumthe level of factory readiness of walls, including the installation of window blocks in the factorycovs, drains, window sills, sealing of sopryazheniya window block with a wall, etc. Withthe ratio of labor costs at the plant and its installation at the construction site is70% To30%.

Panels made of concrete materials in the USSR since the beginning of industrialization for different climatic regions and number of storeys of structures are designedwere layered and single-layered(rice. 2 ). Almost all load-bearing walls were designed fromlayered reinforced concrete panels, madefrom heavy or constructive lightconcrete. Single-layer panels made of lightweight structuralheat-insulating concrete primewere used for load-bearing walls of buildings with a height of not more lee 12 floors under construction to the west of the third climatic region.

Load-bearing panel walls made of autoclavedaerated concrete was used only in fewstorey buildings. Curtain walls were made from panels of any design.

Single layer concrete panels perform from lightweight or autoclaved aerated concrete.Single-layer lightweight concrete panels are formed from structural heat-insulating concreteon artificial porous aggregates(expanded clay, perlite, slag pumice, shungesite,agloporite) and natural lungs filllyakh (crushed stone of volcanic rocks - pumice,slag, tuff, etc.). The density of the concrete must be no more 1400 kg / m 3 .

Single layer aerated concrete panelsautoclave hardening due to low cost (for10-15% cheaper than walls made of legstheir concrete), relative availability andthe prevalence of feedstock (cementand sand) are widely used for outdoorwalls in areas where there is no raw material for lightweight aggregates.

Cellular concrete has a relativelylow compressive strength, thereforepanels made of such concrete are usedpredominantly for curtain walls.Forming and heat imaging technologyboots significantly influenced the constructivesolutions for aerated concrete panels.To level up forVodka ready-made panels from aerated concretewere newly designed as composite, in the formglued two-module single-row panelscutting. Such panels comwere spiked in factories from small fragcops ("boards"), then glued together atenlarged assemblyon polymer adhesives.

Single layer panels evencurtain walls containedconstructive arming, protecting them from fragiledestruction and development of cracks during transporttitration and installation. Reinforced panelsspatial welded rebar blocks panel-sized or individuallymi unified blocks.In reinforcingblock included additional elements, excludingopening cracks in the outer zone of the corners of the openings - oblique rods, additionalcross rods or L-shapedfine mesh grids (rice. 3 ). The reinforcement was protected from corrosion bypreliminary galvanized galvanizing andwhether by using anti-corrosion pastes (cement-bitumen, cement-polystyrenenoah, silicate-latex, etc.).

Rice. 3. Scheme of reinforcement of a single-layer lightweight concrete panel of the outer wall: 1 - lintel frame; 2- lifting rod; 3 - reinforcement cage; 4 - L-shaped mesh in the facade layer

The concept of "single-layer panel" is rather arbitrary. In fact, in addition to the main structural layer of lightweight or aerated concrete, the panels made of autoclaved aerated concrete had an outer facade and an inner protective and finishing layer. Fasad protective finishing layerwas taken from colored porous solutions with density 1200-1400 kg / m 3 , crushed stone materials, small ceramic or glass tiles, PVCor polyvinyl acetate paints. Technology of forming products from aerated concrete isthere was an opportunityapplication to the endspanels of protective and finishing mortarlayer. These surfaces were protected by a hydrophobicpainting and coating with waterproofingmastics.

Double-layer concrete panelshave a bearing and insulation layers. The carrier layer was carried outfrom heavy or constructive lightconcrete, insulating - from constructive heatlow-density lightweight concrete orporous structure. Denser carrierthe layer had a thickness of at least100 mm and locatedfrom the inside. Other waythe layering was irrational in the staticand heat engineering, as it causedcomplication of the support structurefloors, the risk of condensation at the junctions of the outer wall with the innerwith walls and ceilings, dampness andstratification of exterior walls due to build-upcondensing vapors and ice in its thickness, especially along the plane of the junction of the layers. Dfor a facade protective and finishing layertwoply panels used the same materials, whatand in single-layer lightweight concrete. The two-layer panels were formed face-down to provideshaft the greatest adhesion strength of the protectorsbut finishing, insulating and carryinglayers. The strong adhesion of the main layers of the panel ensured that they work together underload and uniform transmission of vertical load in horizontalthe joints of the panels.

Temperature-the humidity regime of two-layer walls was more favorable than in single-layer ones. The presence of a dense inner layer of low vapor permeability limited the amount of condensate in the thickness of the panel, and the vapor permeability of the outer layer promoted intensive removal of condensate and excess moisture.

The structural reinforcement of the two-layer panels was similar to the reinforcement of onelayered butworking fittings of lintels and elementsconnections were located in the internal carrierlayer.In cases where the layers of the foresight panelwere poured from dense concrete of a solid structurewith intergranular porosity up to3% , constructtive fittings were installed without protectionny coatings.

Rice. 4. Connections of concrete layers in three-layer panels:
a - layout diagram of the details of flexible connections; b - the same, hard connections; one - suspension; 2 - spacer; 3 - brace; 4 - a rib made of concrete of the outer layers; 5 - easy concrete rib

Three-layer concrete panels had external and internalstructural layers of heavy or lightweight structural concrete and an insulating layer enclosed between them. For the insulating layer, the most effective materials with a density of no more than400 kg / m 3 in the form of blocks, plates or mats made of glass or mineral wool on a synthetic bond, foam glass, fiberboard, polystyrene or phenolic foam. In the pilotorder for insulation panellei, filling foams were used, according tolimerizing in the internal cavitypanels.Negative annual humidity balance of the walls during operation ensurewas usuallythe introduction of a special layer of paroisollation (foil, roofing material, etc.) betweeninner and insulating layer. Concretepanel layersunited by flexible or rigid ties that ensured their assembly unity(rice. 4 ).

The most advanced bend designwhich links consist of separatemetal rods that ensure the connectivity of the concrete layerswith the independence of their static work.Flexible ties do not prevent thermal deformations of the outer concrete layer of the walland completely exclude the occurrence of themespertural efforts in the inner layer. Ele cops of flexible ties were made from persistentto atmospheric corrosionlow alloysteels or from conventional construction steel withdurable anti-corrosion coatings. In three-layer panels with flexible ties, the outer concrete layer performed onlythe same as from the insulation, it was transmitted throughflexible connections to the inner concrete layer.The outer layer was designed with a thickness not less 50 mm... T the thickness of the concrete layer inalong the butt edges of the panel and along the contouroutside openings tried to increasefor the device of waterproof profiling of joints and edges of openings. Internal thicknessth concrete layer of three-layer panels with bendby which connections in load-bearing and self-supporting structuresnah was appointed at least80 mm , and in curtain walls -65 mm ... The panels were insulated mosteffective materials - polystyrene foamscrap, mineral wool and glass wool platestami. Steel elements intendedto connect the panel with other structuresbuildings were located in its inner layer.

In three-layer concrete panels, along withflexible, rigid ties between the layers were also used - in the form of transverse reinforcedber, molded from heavy or lightconcrete. Tight ties ensured jointstatic work of concrete layers, forcorrosion protection shield for connecting fittings,ease of implementation. The presence of rigid connections made it possible to useheaters of any type.The disadvantage of this design was the presence of through heatwired inclusions formedribs. This could lead to the formation of condensation on the inner surface of the wall. For this reason, the heat capacity of the inner concrete layer increased. According to the results of calculating the temperature panels, the thickness of the insulation was assigned within80-120 mm, and the thickness of the connecting ribs - no more than40 mm... By increasing the heat capacity of the inner layer, the distributiontemperatureson thethe inner surface of the wall became more uniform, a decrease in temperature in the zone of the ribs below the dew point was excluded.

The structural reinforcement of three-layer panels with rigid ties was carried out in twolayered - spatialreinforcement blocks (similar to blocks of one- and two-layer panels) were reinforcedadditional swarmesh with a cell200 × 200 mm reinforcingfacade concrete layer.

Three-layer constructions had a number of significant advantages over one- and two-layer ones. The high resistance to water penetration made it possible to change the strength of the wall in a wide range by increasing the grade of concrete, reinforcing or increasing the cross-section of the bearing layer and its heat-shielding qualities by using heaters of various efficiency. The structure of three-layer concrete panels was designed to be universal - suitable for a wide range of different static functions with the ability to work in different climatic conditions.

The stability of the load-bearing outer walls ensures the spatial interaction of the outer walls with the ceilings and adjacent inner walls.In order to clearly representall the complexity of the spatial static operation of these diverse industrial prefabricated systems, developed for the future (for buildings up to100 floors) it is necessary to consider the construction of joints and connections between them.

Vertical joints perceive the forces of shear, tension and compression when bending the wall in its plane (from the impact of uneven deformations of the base) and temperature and humidity deformations.

Horizontal joints provide the transfer of compressive forces from a vertical load, this difficult task has led to the variety of their designs. There are four main types of horizontal joints: contact, platform, combined and monolithic (rice. 406). In the contact joint, the force is transmitted through the layers of the mortar directly from the panel to the panel, in the platform joint - through the end of the floor panel resting on the wall, in the combined - through the wall panel and the end of the floor, in the monolithic - through the concrete for embedding the joint.

An additional variety in the joint design is introduced by a special drainage profiling with an anti-rain ridge, durable, and when installing buildings above5 floors in winter, the increase in the strength of these materials at low temperatures is provided by special chemical antifreeze additives or heating.

Rice. 5. Horizontal joints of the outer walls: a - contact; b - platform; в - combined profiled; g - flat; d - monolithic; e - platform with non-bearing external walls; 1 - outer wall panel; 2 - floor panel; 3 - supporting "finger" of the floor panel; 4 - cement mortar; 5 - embedment concrete; 6 - elastic pad; 7 - interior wall panel

In the horizontal joints of non-bearing outer walls, a floor-by-floor transfer of the load from their mass to the edges of the floor panels or to the support platforms at the ends of the panels is provided. interior walls... The possibility of transferring the vertical load from the floor to the underlying wall panel is eliminated by elastic filling of the gap under the floor.

The contact horizontal joint with the support of the floor slabs on the wall panel with “fingers” (special supporting protrusions of the floor panels) has the maximum bearing capacity. It is used for the most loaded walls of various designs.

Profiled platform horizontal joint is used in three-layer walls with flexible connections. Profiled combined joint with a ridge - in single-layer lightweight concrete walls with a thickness350 mmand less, as well as in two-layer and three-layer walls with rigid connections between layers. In this case, the vertical load is transmitted through the ridge and the overlap.

Rice. 6. Vertical joints of wall panels .
a - concrete keyless with flat butt ends of panels; b, d - the same, with profiled ends; d, k - concrete keyway; l, m - reinforced concrete keyway; 1- transverse reinforcement of keys: 2 - longitudinal reinforcement

A flat combined joint with floor support along the entire length of the joint and the transfer of vertical load both from panel to panel (in the outer joint zone) and through the floor (in the inner zone) is used for lightweight single-layer panels with a thickness of more350 mm, for panels of any thickness made of aerated concrete and for two-layer panels. The monolithic joint, which is most widespread abroad, was used in the USSR exclusively in earthquake-resistant construction.

The shear forces along the horizontal joints of the bearing walls are perceived by the flat joints made of cement mortar compressed by the vertical load. The forces of friction and adhesion of the mortar to the concrete of the panels in such joints usually exceed the shear forces from the effects of wind, eccentric application of vertical loads and changes in the outside air temperature. With more intense horizontal force effects, for example, seismic, the resistance of horizontal joints to shear forces is increased by the device of special reinforced keyed connections.

According to the geometric shape and the nature of the static work, keyless and keyed vertical joints are distinguished (rice. 6). In keyless joints, the vertical ends of the panels have a sectional shape constant in height, in keyed joints, alternating protrusions and recesses are provided at the butting ends, due to which, after monolithing, a keyed connection is formed. In turn, keyway connections are subdivided into concrete and reinforced concrete. In concrete keyed joints, shear resistance is provided only by the concrete (mortar) embedding, without taking into account the shear work of steel ties in the joint. In reinforced concrete keyed joints, shear resistance is ensured by the joint work of concrete, transverse and longitudinal reinforcement of the keys. The transverse reinforcement of the joint is regular, interconnected reinforcement outlets from the joined panels, the longitudinal reinforcement is continuous through reinforcement at the joint. The key reinforcement also absorbs tensile forces in the joint.

The most common solution for vertical joints is a concrete keyed joint, which has greater rigidity and better insulating qualities than a veneered one, at the same time, it does not require significant additional costs.

Rice. 7. Connections of panels of external walls with internal ones: a - welded; 6 - loop; c - self-fixation; g - reinforced concrete keyway; 1 - outer wall panel; 2 - the same, internal; 3 - loop reinforcement outlet; 4 - reinforcing butt strip; 5 - embedded part; 6 - key cutout; 7 - bracket; 8 - loop release with welded-in steel scarf; 9 - steel self-fixing element; 10 - key; 11 - straight reinforcement outlet; 12 - continuous vertical reinforcement

Among the solutions considered, vertical reinforced concrete keyway joints are the strongest and most rigid, they work in tension and shear, but they require large labor costs to perform (especially in winter) and complicated forms of board structures. This connection is least of all amenable to industrialization, it is, by its technological essence, handicraft, therefore, in the USSR, monolithic keyway connections are used only if such a solution is necessary for strength requirements (for example, in earthquake-resistant high-rise buildings).

Tensile forces in keyless joints and in joints with concrete keys are absorbed by steel ties. The possibility of perceiving variables in magnitude and sign of efforts is ensured by the use of soft steel grades with a large yield area for bonds in accordance with GOST 380-71.

According to the principle of connection, all the variety of structural solutions of steel ties in vertical joints is reduced to the following main types (rice. 7): welded, cast-in "loop-staple" ties, bolted and self-locking locks.

Welded ties are performed by reinforcing outlets from panels or by welding overlays to them and to embedded parts of panels. This structure of connections is universal, it can be used for buildings of different storeys, in ordinary and difficult soil conditions, in earthquake-resistant construction. Welded ties are the main design solutions for tensile joints in the internal structures of buildings. In external walls, where labor-intensive work is required to protect welded connections from as atmospheric corrosion, other types of connections are often used. Ties of the "loop-staple" type are formed by installing steel staples in the hinge reinforcement outlets of the panels. The strength and deformability of such ties are in direct proportion to the strength of the concrete being monolithic, which prevents unbending and pulling of the ends of the staples from the hinges. Loop-staple ties are less laborious than welded ones, but they are inferior to the latter in strength. Therefore, the main area of ​​application of monolithic loop ties is buildings with a small step of transverse walls with a height of no more than12 floors. Two or three such connections are arranged along the height of the floor.

Bolted ties are similar in metal consumption to welded ones, less labor-intensive, but more deformable in the absence of tension.

A self-fixing latching connection is formed when a rigid cantilever embedded part is mounted by a nozzle in the form of a horizontal open ring ("lock") in one panels onto a vertical steel bar fixed to a rigid cantilever embedded part in another panel. The lock connection has the required assembly rigidity, which allows the panels to be installed without temporary fasteners. Being both assembly and working, the lock connection allows you to speed up installation - due to its rigidity, it is allowed to arrange a self-fixing connection only in one level along the height of the floor. Self-fixing bolted and looped ties are used only in normal construction conditions.

The structural support of the insulating properties of panel walls is achieved by choosing the materials of the panels, their facade protective and finishing layers and the corresponding design of the joints.

The design of the joint should exclude the formation of condensate on its inner side.surface, the possibility of through leaks onjoints and restrict their air permeabilitybridge by the limits allowed by SNiP.

The thermal insulation capacity of the joints is ensured by an appropriate selection wall materials (rice. eight) and additional insulation of all vertical and horizontal joints of the outer walls, the places of their abutment to balconies, cornices, parapets, plinths and loggias with inserts made of materials of low thermal conductivity. The sinuses and wells formed after the installation of the liners are filled with concrete to reduce the air permeability of the joints. Particular attention is paid to the thermal insulation of the protruding vertical corner joints of the outer walls, where heat loss is maximum. For this purpose, they use insulating liners, an internal bevel device, or the supply of additional heat to the joint from the zero or freely set one hundredyak heating. In buildings with a poperiver load-bearing walls outside insulationcorners promotes the device is thickenedny end bearing external walls.

Protection of panel walls against leakageis the choice of constants considered above.structure and wall material in accordance with the climathematical influences and choiceaccthe system corresponding to these influences duringadditional protection of joints. System dependentwater protection is distinguished by closed,drained, open or combined joints ( rice. 9 ).

Rice. 9. Insulation of ordinary joints of external wall panels: a - closed joint; b - drained; c, d - options open that junction; 1 - protective coating; 2 - sealing ma stick; 3 - elastic pad; 4 - glued tape of waterproofing material; 5 - insulating liner; 6 - concrete monolithing; 7 - drainage apron; 8 - drainage ribbon; 9 - decompression channel

Closed joints havesealed with synthetic suitskami the outer zone (mouth). Mastics are appliedon the sealing cord gaskets (gernit, poroizol) installed on glue. On thethe presence of elastic pads gives the sealants apossibility of free deformations. Thanks togood adhesion to concrete and high tensile strength (elongation without breaking by100% and more), the sealing mastics compensate for the temperature and humidity deformations of the panels without opening the joints (the value of the maximum linear temperaturesbut-moisture deformation for a single modulepanels2.2 mm , for two-module -4.5 mm ), thereby ensuring their water andair insulation. As sealants isuse film (polysulfite, silicone) or bulk non-hardening (polyisobutylene, etc.) mastics that preservetheir basic properties at temperatures up to— 40 ° C ... The durability of the sealing materms does not exceed20-30 years, i.e. susociallylower durability of building structures. Therefore, when designing jointsprovide for the possibility of changing the sealticks and protecting them from direct impactsun rays - one of the main reasons for theiraging. For this purpose, the sealantplaced in the depth of the mouth, covered with polymer-cement compositions or reflective paint.

The configuration of the mouth of the joints is designedso that the installation of sealantsdid not meet any difficulties and change and occurwould be outside from hinged cradles, without bunknormal use of the house.For this, a lump is provided at the mouthgap pensioners (concrete tides thatexclude the possibility of tight closurepanels at the mouth).Drained jointssimilar to closed, but supplemented with constructtive devices that allow poetryit is important to drain the water outside, accidentally nikshuyu in the joint.

The system of water protection of external panel walls is provided by a decompression cavity in the vertical joint (local widening of the joint gap in the form of a vertical cylindrical channel), small holes and drainage aprons made of aluminum alloys, foil-insol, acid- and frost-resistant rubber. Aprons are located at the intersection of vertical and horizontal joints. In horizontal joints, an additional drainage measure is their special profiling with an anti-rain ridge.

Open joints have an open mouth, into which water can enter, but its penetration into the depth of the fence is excluded due to special design devices. In horizontal joints, the main design measures for drainage are the device of anti-rain ridges up to 120 mm and drainage aprons; in vertical joints - water deflectors made of aluminum, neoprene or rubber tape. A decompression cavity is placed behind the screen, and drainage grooves that are inclined outward are sometimes arranged on the butt edges of the panels. Open joints are used for three-layer walls with flexible connections in any climatic conditions. In this case, the increase in heat loss at the joint is minimal: the insulating layer of the structure is located outside the mouth. At the joints of three-layer panels with rigid bonds and in single-layer panels, there is more heat loss through the open mouth. Therefore, open joints in walls made of such panels are used in lightweight concrete panels with a density of up to 1200 kg / m 3 in areas with an estimated winter temperature not lower than -17 ° C, made of lightweight concrete with a density up to 950 kg / m 3 - not less -22 ° C, three-layer panels with rigid ties - not lower -27 ° C.

Combined joints combine protection elements according to the principle of a closed and an open joint. The main area of ​​application is the first floors of houses with open joints on the remaining floors.

Air and water tightness of vertical joints is additionally ensured by gluing them from the inside with a water and air insulating tape made of bio-resistant asbestos-based roofing material, nairite or frost-resistant rubber. For reliable adhesive tape on the inner side of vertical joints of all types, an expanded cavity is provided, and in all cases where the structural system of the building allows it, a strict sequence of production operations is provided: installation of external walls, pasting of a joint, installation of internal walls, installation of ceilings, installation with the level of the mounted overlap of insulating liners and monolithing of vertical joints. To prevent thermal deformations of the panels from causing a rupture of the insulating tape, a fold is arranged in it - an expansion joint along the axis of the joint. As an additional measure of water and air tightness of the vertical joint, in some cases, the panels are overlapped or in a quarter.

Additional constructive measures for protecting joints can be strips and overlays, special profiling of the facade surface of the panels, but their use in most cases is limited for architectural, economic or technological reasons.

The aesthetic qualities of the outer layer of the panels were supposed to contribute to the creation of the visual effect of overcoming the tectonic monotony of the regular cutting of an industrial panel structure.

Even a cursory acquaintance with the structure of the external fencing of new industrial buildings allows us to understand that this is reallynew type of residential building , which provides for completely new approaches not only in design and construction, but also inexploitation. Although this period does not require special costs with strict adherence to regulatory requirements - however, these structures must be operated under the supervision of state technical supervision authorities.

Monolithic and precast-monolithic concrete exterior walls used in monolithic and prefabricated monolithic houses of various building systems.

One-, two- and three-layer structures have been developed. Due to their manufacturability, single-layer structures are widely used. Single-layer walls are formed from lightweight concrete with a density not exceeding 1600 kg / m 3 on various natural and artificial porous aggregates (expanded clay, aggloporite, etc.). Depending on the efficiency of the aggregate, the required bearing capacity and the climatic conditions of construction, the thickness of single-layer walls is 30-50 cm.

As a rule, in addition to the main structural and heat-insulating concrete layer, the composition of a single-layer monolithic wall includes an outer protective and finishing layer and an inner finishing layer of mortar. Being tested in experimental construction, the constructive solution of single-layer walls with a thickness 40 cm molded from dense lightweight concrete without a facade layer.

Laminated walls are sometimes designed monolithic, but more often (for technological reasons) prefabricated monolithic (Fig. 10). Two-layer walls contain a load-bearing concrete monolithic layer and insulation. The supporting layer is made of heavy or structural lightweight concrete with a thickness of at least 12 cm. Precast monolithic two-layer walls are used in two design options: with the location of the insulating layer from the outside or from the inside of the supporting monolithic concrete layer. When the insulation layer is located on the outside, it is designed in the form of prefabricated decorative and heat-insulating elements - textured panels or slabs of heat-insulating concrete. At the same time, prefabricated decorative and heat-insulating elements perform the functions of external formwork. Decorative and heat-insulating elements must have reinforcing outlets for anchoring to the monolithic load-bearing layer. In cases where the installation of prefabricated elements is carried out after the formation of the carrier layer, they provide embedded parts or outlets for hanging onto the carrier layer.

In two-layer walls with insulation from the inside, the latter is made of rigid slabs or blocks (autoclaved foam concrete, foam glass, etc.), laid out on a solution in the form of self-supporting walls on the ceiling.

The option of two-layer walls with insulation from the inside is technologically the most convenient, but in terms of heat engineering it is acceptable only in countries with a mild climate and positive values ​​of the design outside air temperatures in winter.

Three-layer monolithic walls are designed with flexible or rigid connections between concrete layers.

Bracing structures and insulation materials are similar to those used in three-layer concrete panels. The thickness of the inner concrete layer is taken at least 12 cm, outdoor - 6 cm.

Three-layer prefabricated monolithic walls have an internal concrete monolithic bearing element and a prefabricated protective and decorative external one. A protective and decorative element is a two-layer panel with an insulating layer on the inside, or separate textured concrete slabs, in which slabs of effective insulation are attached to special editions.

Just as in precast monolithic two-layer walls, protective and decorative elements of three-layer walls can serve as external formwork when concreting the bearing layer or hung on the latter after its erection and stripping.

The strength and durability of concrete walls is ensured by the designation of concrete grades in terms of strength and frost resistance in accordance with the requirements of static calculations and taking into account climatic influences, but not lower than the minimum grades for concrete wall panels.

The insulating qualities of monolithic concrete walls, due to the absence of joints, sometimes turn out to be higher than that of precast walls.

Compositional and decorative qualities monolithic walls associated with the ability to more freely choose the shape of the wall surface (flat, convex or concave). The types of finishing of facade surfaces in monolithic and precast-monolithic housing construction generally do not differ from those used in panel housing construction.

Large block houses usually they are designed frameless, based on two structural schemes: with longitudinal walls for 5-storey buildings and with transverse ones for multi-storey buildings. Sometimes (on separate sections of the building volume), a combined structural system of large-block buildings with an internal frame is used. Accordingly, large-block walls are made load-bearing or self-supporting with a cut along the height of the floor by 2, 3 or 4 row of blocks (12). The choice of the type of cut depends on the material and the static function of the walls. So, for example, a two-block cut is used only for self-supporting walls made of autoclaved aerated concrete.

Rice. 12. Large-block walls. Schemes of cuts of the outer wall into blocks: the main types of blocks and their vertical joints: a - four-row; 6 - three-row; в - two-row (three-block); d - two-row (two-block) cutting of the outer wall; e - sections of wall blocks; g - an ordinary joint of wall blocks; and - the same, angular; k - the joint of the paneled and window-sill blocks; 1 - wall; 2 - jumper; 3 - window sill blocks; 4 - one-layer lightweight concrete block of solid section; 5 - the same, hollow; 6 - brick with lightweight concrete filling; 7 - the same. solid section; 8 - sealing mastic; 9 - caulk; 10 - lightweight concrete; 11 - reinforced concrete lintel; 12 - insulating liner; 13 - section of a lightweight concrete bulkhead block; 14 - the same, brick

Materials for large blocks are lightweight concrete with a density of up to 1600 kg / m 3 on various porous aggregates, autoclaved aerated concrete with a density up to 800 kg / m 3 , brick solid or lightweight masonry, natural stone (limestone, tuff, etc.) with a density of up to 1800 kg / m 3 ... Autoclaved aerated concrete blocks are used for self-supporting walls with two-row cutting. Large brick blocks are used extremely rarely for walls with two-four-row cutting. An additional structural element of the lintel block of such a wall is a lightweight concrete lintel with an L-shaped section. Large blocks of natural stone are produced with two-four-row cutting and are used in areas where the raw material for them is a local material.

Most often, in load-bearing and self-supporting walls, large-block structures made of lightweight concrete are used, made according to a two-row cut. Three-four-row cuts are used in walls made of silicate and ceramic blocks and in natural stone.

For any of the cuts, the principle of bandaging the seams and laying the blocks on the mortar is observed. In accordance with the location, there are blocks of walls, lintels, window sills, basements, cornice, parapet, ordinary and corner blocks. Jumper blocks have quarters on the inner side: at the top for supporting the floors, at the bottom for setting the filling of the opening. Quarters along the vertical side edges are provided for the installation of filling the openings in the wall blocks. On the outside, the blocks have a protective and finishing layer.

In lightweight concrete and brick blocks- decorative concrete on white or colored cement with crumb aggregate decorative stone; in aerated concrete blocks - porous mortar, crushed stone materials or painting - polyvinyl chloride or polyvinyl acetate.

In lightweight concrete blocks, sometimes several rows of slot-like voids are provided parallel to the facade, and in brick or stone blocks - effective masonry with insulation with lightweight concrete or slab insulation. These measures help to reduce the mass of blocks while increasing their thermal insulation capacity.

The strength of large-block walls is achieved by the strength of concrete blocks and mortar, bandaging the masonry of blocks and their adhesion to the mortar, floor strapping with lintel blocks connected by steel ties.

The stability of large-block external walls is ensured by their spatial interaction with the ceilings and internal transverse walls, combined with the external walls by special steel ties.

Rice. 13. Connections of external large-block walls with internal walls: a - in low and medium-rise buildings; b - c multi-storey buildings; 1 - block of the outer wall; 2 - block of the inner wall; 3 - reinforcing cage; 4 - cement mortar; 5 - steel key from a corner or channel; 6 - steel embedded part of the block

In medium-rise buildings, the connections of intersecting walls are designed from T-shaped or T-shaped welded meshes, from strip or round reinforcing bars laid in a solution of horizontal seams, in high-rise buildings, welded rigid ties are used on embedded parts in blocks (rice. 414 ).

The insulating capacity of a large-block wall is ensured over the body of blocks with a thickness corresponding to the thermal engineering calculation (with the thermal conductivity coefficients of the block materials0.21-0.58 W / m ° C ) and waterproof protective a finishing outer layer, at the joints of the blocks - filling, compensating for the weakening of insulation in the places where the wall is cut into blocks.

Possibility of through penetration of cold outside air or moisture through the walls at the joints between the blocks, they exclude already in the outer zone of the joint - the mouth, sealing it with synthetic mastics according to the principle of a closed joint of concrete panel walls. The inner zone of flat horizontal joints is filled with cement mortar, through which force effects are transmitted, and the inner zone of vertical joints is filled with structural and heat-insulating lightweight concrete. It insulates the joint

performs static functions and serves as a backup protection against infiltration and leaks during the period of repair or aging of the mouth sealing. In cases where, according to the heat engineering requirements, the effectiveness of lightweight concrete filling is insufficient, an additional insulating liner from a mineral wool or expanded polystyrene plate is introduced into the joint cavity.

Two forms of vertical joints of blocks are used: with an internal cavity open to the room, or with a closed one. The first one is used at the joints of wall blocks, the second - at the joints of wall blocks with window sills. In joints with an open internal cavity, additional insulation can be used - gluing the joint with a tape of waterproofing material.

The decorative qualities of large-block walls are given by the color and texture of the protective finishing layer, selected in accordance with the compositional solution of the building. As a decorative means, painting of facades with perchlorovinyl, polyvinyl acetate and other weather-resistant paints applied on a protective finishing layer is also widely used. A single-color painting of the entire surface of the walls is used, or a two-color one, emphasizing the design of the structural section of the wall.

Technical typology brick buildings after industrialization also completely changes. V tab. 36 the walls of the second group of capital, which had a much greater power in practice, are equal to the thickness of the wall in 2-2,5 industrial bricks.

With industrialization, the production of bricks increases sharply, but the volumes of its production cannot provide the increased volumes housing construction... Therefore, along with industrial solid wall masonry, the standards provide for lightweight types of masonry.

Consider the construction of brick walls used in the construction of industrial housing.

Handmade stone walls ... The material for stone walls is brick or stones of the correct shape, made of natural or artificial (fired clay, concrete) materials, and mortar (lime, lime-cement or cement), on which the stones laid in horizontal rows with mutual dressing of seams.

Brick (clay and silicate, solid and hollow) has a mass of up to 4-4.3 kg, stones (ceramic hollow with a density up to 1400 kg / m 3 , lightweight hollow concrete with a density up to 1200 kg / m 3 , from autoclaved and non-autoclaved aerated concrete with a density up to 800 kg / m 3 , from natural light stone materials with a density of up to 1800 kg / m 3 ) have a height up to 20 cm and mass up to 30 Kg (rice. 14).

The strength of the wall structure is ensured by the strength of the stone and mortar and the laying of stones with mutual ligation of vertical seams. At the same time, the ligation of the masonry seams is provided not only in the plane of the wall, but also in the plane of the transverse walls adjacent to it. The most common type of masonry is six-row, where five spoon rows laid in succession with dressing in the plane of the wall are tied (in the plane and out of the plane of the wall) with a sixth row of pins. Only with high requirements for the strength of the wall, a more laborious two-row masonry is used with the dressing of all vertical seams in each row (the so-called chain masonry).

The bearing capacity of stone walls, depending on the materials used and in accordance with the requirements of the project, can vary over a very wide range. An additional increase in the bearing capacity of the masonry gives its reinforcement with horizontal welded mesh stacked through 2-5 rows. This technique is used to a limited extent only in special cases, for example, for heavily loaded narrow walls in the lower floors. tall buildings... Its vertical reinforcement, supplemented by vertical reinforced concrete monolithic inclusions (complex masonry) and floor monolithic belts, significantly increases the resistance of the masonry to bending.

These measures are associated with an increase in the cost of steel for the construction of the wall and labor for its construction, therefore, they are resorted to in special cases, for example, in earthquake-resistant construction with high design seismicity.

The stability of the stone external walls is ensured by their spatial interaction with the internal supporting structures - walls and ceilings. To ensure spatial interaction, the outer walls are rigidly connected to the inner walls by bandaging the masonry, and with the floors made of reinforced concrete floorings - by inserting the latter into the wall for at least 100 mm, leaning against the wall through a layer of strong mortar and joining the walls with the ceilings with steel anchors. When constructing ceilings along beams, the latter are inserted into the wall on 250 mm and tied with anchors to the masonry every 6 m (rice. 15). In multi-storey buildings, in addition, floor reinforcement belts are provided, located in the mortar joint under the ceiling or above it (with high above-window lintels).

The spacing of the transverse internal walls - stiffness diaphragms that ensure the stability of the longitudinal facade walls, depends on the quality of the masonry and the structure of the floors. So, in low-rise buildings with wooden floors he makes 12 m, and in prefabricated houses reinforced concrete floors reaches 30-40 m... Zero is the strength of a freshly laid mortar or mortar in the thawing stage of masonry (when erecting walls by freezing winter masonry).

The durability of the stone walls ensures the frost resistance of the materials used for the outer part of the masonry. For walls of buildings under construction in climatic region I or in areas of the Pacific and Arctic oceans that are not included in climatic region I, frost resistance marks of wall materials are taken one step higher. They also increase the frost resistance grades of wall materials for buildings with a height of more than 9 floors.

Most of the stone walling materials meet these requirements, and they can be used in buildings of various capital capacities. The exception is made of cellular concrete wall structures. To increase their frost resistance, the facade surface of aerated concrete blocks is covered with a protective finishing layer of frost-resistant porous mortar, or the walls are laid with brick outer cladding thick in 1/2 bricks. The connection of the cladding with the masonry is provided with steel brackets or ligation with butt rows brickwork every three rows of stones along the height of the wall.

Rice. 16. Lightweight masonry for multi-layer exterior walls: I - with horizontal; II - with vertical stiffness diaphragms; a - brick-concrete masonry; b - with insulating deposits seams made of lightweight or aerated concrete; c - backfilled with slag or ceramic gravel; d - with plate insulation and cart stuffy layer; d - the same. with a reinforced inner bearing layer; e - well masonry with insulating backfill and horizontal reinforced diaphragms made of cement mortar

The heat-shielding capacity of the outer walls during the design is assigned in accordance with hygienic requirements and taking into account the need to save fuel resources. The thickness of the wall is taken according to the largest of the values ​​obtained as a result of calculating the economically feasible resistance to heat transfer and static calculation. Materials and structures of stone walls have a variety of thermal properties. The thermal conductivity coefficient of solid masonry varies within 0.7 W / (m ° C) for tuff masonry up to 0.35 W / (m ° C) for masonry from ceramic hollow stones. This makes it possible, by choosing the most heat-efficient material, to significantly reduce the cross-section of a single-layer wall, its massiveness, cost and laboriousness of construction. Therefore, the solid masonry of the outer walls is made mainly of hollow ceramic, lightweight concrete stones or bricks.

You should choose a type of masonry in which the gaps in most stones are located perpendicular to the heat flow, which increases the thermal performance of the wall.

In the absence of light stone materials, masonry is used from solid bricks or stones. However, due to the fact that the thermal conductivity of such materials is high, the estimated thickness of the solid masonry walls for most climatic regions is two, two and a half bricks, while the bearing capacity of the walls in the upper 4-5 floors cannot be fully used.

To save stone and labor costs while maintaining the required heat-shielding ability, they use lightweight multi-layer walls... There are a number of varieties of multilayer stone wall designs. In residential buildings, three-layer structures of lightweight masonry are most widely used. They contain longitudinal walls with a thickness of 1/2 bricks and between them an inner insulating layer.

Sometimes, according to the strength requirements, the inner layer of the masonry, to which the load from the floors is transferred, is made with a thickness of 1 brick ( rice. sixteen). Differences in masonry designs lie in the ways of ensuring joint static work of the outer layers of the masonry, as well as in the insulation material and the participation of this material in the static work of the wall. Links between layers are designed to be flexible or rigid. Flexible ties are made in the form of steel brackets. With flexible connections, the brick layers of the wall separately perceive the loads falling on them.

Rigid connections are made in the form of transverse diaphragms connecting the outer layers. By the location of the transverse diaphragms, wall structures with horizontal and vertical ties are distinguished. In walls with horizontal diaphragms, the latter are performed every five rows, in walls with vertical diaphragms (well masonry), the step of the diaphragms is 0,65 or 1.17 m... At the level of slabs and lintels, one or two horizontal rows of solid masonry create a transverse connection of the longitudinal outer walls of lightweight masonry of any type.

Ties at the corners and intersections of lightweight walls with internal ones are reinforced with reinforcing bars, which are laid in a mortar of horizontal seams at three levels along the height of the floor. To insulate lightweight masonry, heaters are used from semi-rigid mineral wool slabs on a synthetic or bitumen bond, cement fiberboard, foam glass, liners made of lightweight or aerated concrete, monolithic lightweight concrete with a density of up to 1400 kg / m 3 or mineral backfill with a density of up to1000kg / m 3 .

Heat engineering and economic softwareindicators, the most appropriate designtions of walls with slab insulation. However, theirbearing capacity is limited3-5 floors mi (depending on the design building).

The heat-shielding ability of lightweight masonry walls largely depends on the air ductthe absence of their outer layer. Masonry of thislayer should be carried out carefully, fillingmortar all vertical and horizontalseams with subsequent jointing.

To further increase the heat loadthe shield ability of such walls in their consthandles often include airinterlayers on the outside of the insulation.The thickness of the air gap is fixedcorks from the material of insulation boards.However, accounting for air gaps in heattechnical calculation of such a wall is allowedonly when performing external plastering. Use as insulation mocast lightweight concrete significantly increasesshakes the load-bearing capacity of a layered wall,which allows it to be used in buildings with high that before 9 floors. At the same time, in the firstdy of operation heat-shielding qualities thatsome walls may be below the calculateddue to the increased moisture content. BesidesMoreover, the use of such masonry is unacceptablewhen performing work in winter conditionsfreezing method. In connection with these og injuries the use of brick-concrete masonry is most advisable in a warm cli mate.

Rice. 18. Laying of external walls with cladding: a, b made of bricks together with facing bricks; c - from ceramic stones together with facing bricks; g - from kir picha together with facial ceramic stones; d - made of bricks with embedded facing ceramic plates; e - from bricks and ceramic stones; g - the same, with facing with leaning ceramic tiles on the solution; and - made of bricks with facing with flat slabs (stone, concrete), with laid rows of the same slabs

When performing an insulating layer of mineral backfill should be providedmeasures to limit their precipitation. Within the walls withhorizontal diaphragms made of bondedrows of masonry, the latter serve as sediment limiters, in the walls of the well masonry forprecipitation restrictions are introduced everysix rows additional horizontaldiaphragms from a layer of masonry mortar, arwelded mesh. Decorative properties masonrymade of brick and natural stone extremelyjuices. For the front row of masonry, face brick and face ceramic cam are usednor (cladded walls) laid in front ofstrapping with stones or bricks of the main layer.

Seams on the facade between the obverse stonethey are carefully embroidered. There are differentfigurative techniques of decorative masonry fagarden row, including without dressing seams ( rice. 17 ). For masonry cornices, belt cov and other architectural details, a profile facepiece is used peach and stone.

When compositionally necessary, changecolor or texture of the plane of the facadewall cladding is usedslabs. Among them are croupceramic embedded unglazedthick-walled hollow-core slabs andlarge glazed small-sizedtiles. The latter are attached to the wall onmortar and used for facing flatwall or its individual elements, such as plinths (rice. eighteen ). Embedded slabs have a height of 3-4 row of masonry, their mouthpoured in the process of building a wall. Gorizontal seam to the width of the upper edgethe shelves of the embedded plates perform non-flooringfree solution to compensate for verticaldeformations of the masonry sediment. Facing with leaning tiles is not carried outless than six months after the walls were erected.For better adhesion to the mortar on whichthe cladding is done, the masonry of the wall isblown wasted.

In some cases, in accordance with ara cladding solution is usedbrick walls with decorative slabsconcrete or natural stone. With a height of concrete slabs up to300 mm cladding will be carried outin the process of laying, bandaging itlaid horizontal rows without ton slabs.

Details of the stone walls. Stone plinthswalls are made of solid corpulent kirpich of solid masonry (rice. eighteen). On distance 15-20 cm from the top of the blind area ukget along horizontal waterproofinga layer that protects the above-ground part of the wall from ground moisture. Waterproofingthe layer is made of two layers of roofing material on mastic or from cement mortar. According toDue to the compositional solution, sometimesuse a brick basement claddingnatural stone slabs or leaning ceramic tiles.

When making a plinth of concrete foundation blocks or plinth panelsthe latter are placed indented inward fromfacade surface (the so-calledstake with undercut). Moreover, in the overhangingabove the plinth outside wall facade stonesthe bottom row of masonry replaces reinforced concreteny bars. Concrete block plinthusually veneered with reclining ceramicstiles, and the basement panels haveprotective and finishing layer made at the factory from decorative concrete or cladding floor tiles.

Window and door openings in stonewalls are performed with the device of quarters withoutside vertical and topher faces. Quarters protect from infiliaTradition joint of masonry with joinery blockfilling the opening.

Rice. 19. Details of stone walls: a, b - precast reinforced concrete jumper; c - the same, with the embedded steel corner; g - the same, private; d - stone car bottom; e - reinforced concrete cornice; g - parapet; 1 - bar jumper; 2 - beam lintel; 3 - shaped brick; 4 - steel corner; 5 - reinforcing bar; 6 - cement mortar; 7 - cornice reinforced concrete slab; 8 - anchor beam; 9 - parapet stone

Quarter size in kir poultry masonry 65x120 or 88x120, in stone - 100x100 mm ... In the walls made of natural blocksquarters are not suitable for natural stone.The openings are usually covered by prefabsmi reinforced concrete lintels, susceptibletaking the vertical load from the overlying masonry, and in the bearing walls - and fromoverlaps. Precast Jelly Industryzobetona produces standard bar andbeam lintels (Fig. 19, a, b).

Squared lintels have a cross-section120x75 and 120x150, and beam - 120x220 and 120x300 mm. Lintels are usually designed with a combined from several elements - inself-supporting walls only from bar, withdisplacement of the facade bar by one rowdown to form a quarter, in bearing outbar and one or two beams, takeload from floors. Ironton bridges may not be detected atfacade when using the front profileth bricks. In some casesy can be applied traditional constructure of ordinary lintels made of reinforcedcement mortar masonry.

The crowning part of the outer walls is cutit is in the form of a cornice with external drainagewater from a roof or parapet with an internal drainage system . Cornice in stone walls is often laid outthey are made of brick or stone, but the sizeremoval of such cornices according to the conditionsis limited to half the wall thickness, andsequential brick overlap for imageoverhang should be in eacha number of no more than ‘/ th of a stone. If necessary, a cornice device with a large overhang is made of precast reinforced concrete slabs,anchored into the masonry.

The parapet is a part of the walltowering over the roof, made incontinuous masonry. The thickness of the wall in the pa zonethe rapet is taken reduced to1 cam nya. The rise of the parapet above the roof surface must be at least300 mm . The upper plane of the masonry parapet protectionprotect from moisture with a galvanized drainsteel or concrete parapet stone.

Walls made of brick and stone panels are designed as carriers and self-supporting, preproperty of single-row cutting. Bearing structures brick walls leys are horizontally and vertically tical cutting.

The panels are made of clayor sand-lime brick, hollow brickor ceramic stones, natural sawn a rock. Expanded polystyrene is used as plate heaters,mineral and glass wool slabs on syntheticsligament, cement fibrolite, etc.Depending on the natural and climaticconditions and selected materials constructiontions use one-, two- or three-layer panels.

Single layer panels are designed from keframe stones in thickness1, 1/2 or 2 stone without protective and finishing facade layer.

Double layer panels have an inner bearing layer with a thickness of at least1/2 bricks, a layer of slab insulation and facade armiescoated protective finishing layer with a thickness not less 50 mm .

Three-layer panels have internal andouter layer Thickness1/4 or 1/2 bricks and a layer of insulation. The outer layer canbe made from facing brick or fromordinary brick and facade protective-otdedecorative concrete layer thick 20-25 mm ... On the inside, panels of any design are covered with a finishingwith a layer of mortar thickness15- 20 mm .

The panels are designedreinforcement in the form of spatiallyth frame with which the liftinghinges and embedded parts for connections withother designs.

Connections of stone panels with internalstructures, strength and insulatingjoint properties are provided by the samethe same as in the walls made of concrete panels.