And Kuprin early spring morning. Dictations for control. Meeting with a viper
Place punctuation marks. List two sentences that require ONE comma. Write down the numbers of these sentences.
1) For my part, I only changed the names of some of the characters in this story and gave the oral story a written form.
2) Only the dragonfly feels good in such heat and, as if nothing had happened, it dances tirelessly in the fragrant pine needles.
3) With its ridges and potholes with forests and copses, the taiga has dozens of microclimates.
4) Everything shines and basks and joyfully reaches for the sun.
Explanation (see also Rule below).
Let's put punctuation marks.
1) For my part, I only changed the names of some of the characters in this story and gave the oral story a written form. (simple with homogeneous)
2) Only the dragonfly feels good in such heat, and as if nothing had happened, it dances tirelessly in the fragrant pine needles. (SSP)
3) With its ridges and potholes, with forests and copses, the taiga has dozens of microclimates. (pairwise homogeneous)
4) Everything shines, and basks, and joyfully reaches for the sun. (2 commas are placed according to scheme A, and B, and C, where ABC are homogeneous predicates)
5) In ancient times, the question of life and death often depended on a random combination of circumstances or the balance of power between people and animals.
Answer: 2, 3.
Answer: 23|32
Source: Unified State Examination - 2015. Early wave
Rule: Task 16. Punctuation marks in BSC and in sentences with homogeneous members
PUNCTUATION MARKS IN COMPLEX SENTENCES AND IN SENTENCES WITH HOMOGENEOUS MEMBERS
This task tests knowledge of two punctograms:
1. Commas in a simple sentence with homogeneous members.
2. Commas in a complex sentence, the parts of which are connected by coordinating conjunctions, in particular, the conjunction I.
Target: Find TWO sentences that require ONE comma in each. Not two, not three (but this happens!) commas, but one. In this case, you need to indicate the numbers of those sentences where the missing comma was PUT, since there are cases when the sentence already has a comma, for example, in an adverbial phrase. We don't count it.
You should not look for commas in various phrases, introductory words and in the IPP: according to the specification in this task, only the three indicated punctograms are checked. If the sentence requires commas for other rules, they will already be placed
The correct answer will be two numbers, from 1 to 5, in any sequence, without commas or spaces, for example: 15, 12, 34.
Legend:
OC - homogeneous members.
SSP is a compound sentence.
The algorithm for completing the task should be like this:
1. Determine the number of bases.
2. If the sentence is simple, then we find ALL rows in it homogeneous members and turn to the rule.
3. If there are two basics, then this is a complex sentence, and each part is considered separately (see point 2).
Do not forget that homogeneous subjects and predicates create NOT a complex, but a simple complicated sentence.
15.1 PUNCTION MARKS FOR HOMOGENEOUS MEMBERS
Homogeneous members of a sentence are those members that answer the same question and relate to the same member of the sentence. Homogeneous members of a sentence (both main and secondary) are always connected by a coordinating connection, with or without a conjunction.
For example: In “The Childhood Years of Bagrov the Grandson,” S. Aksakov describes with truly poetic inspiration both summer and winter pictures of Russian nature.
In this sentence there is one row of meanings, these are two homogeneous definitions.
One sentence can have several rows of homogeneous members. Yes, in a sentence Soon a heavy downpour hit and covered with the noise of rain streams and gusts of wind, and the groans of the pine forest two rows: two predicates, hit and covered; two additions, gusts and groans.
note: Each row of OCs has its own punctuation rules.
Let's look at various sentence patterns with OP and formulate the rules for placing commas.
15.1.1. A series of homogeneous members connected ONLY by intonation, without conjunctions.
General scheme: OOO .
Rule: if two or more words are connected only by intonation, a comma is placed between them.
Example: yellow, green, red apples.
15.1.2 Two homogeneous members are connected by the union AND, YES (in the meaning of AND), EITHER, OR
General scheme: O and/yes/either/or O .
Rule: if two words are connected by a single conjunction I/DA, no comma is placed between them.
Example 1: The still life depicts yellow and red apples.
Example 2: Everywhere she was greeted cheerfully and friendly.
Example 3: Only you and I will stay in this house.
Example 4: I will cook rice with vegetables or pilaf.
15.1.3 The last OC is joined by the union I.
General scheme: O, O and O.
Rule: If the last homogeneous member is joined by a conjunction and, then a comma is not placed in front of it.
Example: The still life depicts yellow, green and red apples.
15.1.4. There are more than two homogeneous members and a union AND repeated at least twice
Rule: For various combinations of union (clause 15.1.2) and non-union (clause 15.1.1) combinations of homogeneous members of a sentence, the rule is observed: if there are more than two homogeneous members and the union AND is repeated at least twice, then a comma is placed between all homogeneous terms
General scheme: Oh, and Oh, and Oh.
General scheme: and O, and O, and O.
Example 1: The still life depicts yellow, and green, and red apples.
Example 2: The still life depicts and yellow, and green, and red apples.
More complex examples:
Example 3: From the house, from the trees, and from the dovecote, and from the gallery- Long shadows ran far away from everything.
Two unions and, four och. Comma between och.
Example 4: It was sad in the spring air, and in the darkening sky, and in the carriage. Three unions and, three och. Comma between och.
Example 5: Houses and trees and sidewalks were covered with snow. Two unions and, three och. Comma between och.
Please note that there is no comma after the last och, because this is not between the och, but after it.
It is this scheme that is often perceived as erroneous and non-existent; keep this in mind when completing the task.
note: This rule only works if the conjunction AND is repeated in one row, and not in the entire sentence.
Let's look at examples.
Example 1: In the evenings they gathered around the table children and adults and read it aloud. How many rows? Two: children and adults; gathered and read. The conjunction is not repeated in each row, it is used once. Therefore, commas are NOT placed according to rule 15.1.2.
Example 2: In the evening Vadim went to his room and sat down reread letter and write a response. Two rows: left and sat down; I sat down (why? for what purpose?) to re-read and write.
15.1.5 Homogeneous members are connected by the union A, BUT, YES (= but)
Scheme: O, a/no/da O
Rule: If there is a conjunction A, BUT, YES (= but), commas are added.
Example 1: The student writes quickly but sloppily.
Example 2: The baby no longer whimpered, but cried bitterly.
Example 3: Small spool but precious .
15.1.6 With homogeneous members, conjunctions are repeated NO NO; NOT THIS, NOT THAT; THAT, THAT; OR EITHER; OR OR
Scheme: O, or O, or O
Rule: when repeating other conjunctions (except I) twice, neither, nor; not this, not that; this, that; or either; or, or a comma is always used:
Example 1: And the old man walked around the room and either hummed psalms in a low voice or impressively lectured his daughter.
Please note that the sentence also contains homogeneous circumstances and additions, but we do not highlight them for a clearer picture.
There is no comma after the predicate “paced”! But if instead of the union AND THEN, AND THEN there was simply AND, there would be three whole commas (according to rule 15.1.4)
15.1.7. With homogeneous members there are double unions.
Rule: In double conjunctions, a comma is placed before the second part. These are unions of both... and; not only but; not so much... but; how much... so much; although and... but; if not... then; not that... but; not that... but; not only not, but rather... than others.
Examples: I have an errand How from the judge So equals And from all our friends.
Green was Not only a magnificent landscape painter and master of plot, But It was still And a very subtle psychologist.
Mother not really angry, But I was still unhappy.
There are fogs in London if not every day , That every other day for sure.
He was not so much disappointed , How many surprised by the current situation.
Please note that each part of a double conjunction is BEFORE OC, which is very important to take into account when completing task 7 (type “error on homogeneous members”), we have already encountered these conjunctions.
15.1.8. Often homogeneous members are connected in pairs
General scheme: Scheme: O and O, O and O
Rule: When combining minor members of a sentence in pairs, a comma is placed between the pairs (the conjunction AND acts locally, only within groups):
Example1: Alleys planted with lilacs and lindens, elms and poplars led to a wooden stage.
Example 2: The songs were different: about joy and sorrow, the day that has passed and the day to come.
Example 3: Geography books and tourist guides, friends and casual acquaintances told us that Ropotamo is one of the most beautiful and wild corners of Bulgaria.
15.1.9. They are not homogeneous, therefore they are not separated by commas:
A number of repetitions that have an intensifying connotation are not homogeneous members.
And it snowed and snowed.
Simple complicated predicates are also not homogeneous
That's what he said, I'll go check it out.
Phraseologisms with repeating conjunctions are not homogeneous members
Neither this nor that, neither fish nor meat; neither light nor dawn; neither day nor night
If the offer contains heterogeneous definitions, which stand before the word being explained and characterize one object from different sides, it is impossible to insert a conjunction between them and.
A sleepy golden bumblebee suddenly rose from the depths of the flower.
15.2. PUNCTION MARKS IN COMPLEX SENTENCES
Complex sentences are complex sentences in which simple sentences are equal in meaning and are connected by coordinating conjunctions. The parts of a complex sentence are independent of each other and form one semantic whole.
Example: Three times he wintered in Mirny, and each time returning home seemed to him the limit of human happiness.
Depending on the type of coordinating conjunction that connects the parts of the sentence, all complex sentences (CCS) are divided into three main categories:
1) SSP with connecting conjunctions (and; yes in the meaning and; neither..., nor; also; also; not only..., but also; both..., and);
2) BSC with dividing conjunctions (that..., that; not that..., not that; or; either; either..., or);
3) SSP with adversative conjunctions (a, but, yes in the meaning but, however, but, but then, only, the same).
15.2.1 The basic rule for placing a comma in the BSC.
A comma between parts of a complex sentence is placed according to the basic rule, that is, ALWAYS, with the exception of special conditions, which limit the application of this rule. These conditions are discussed in the second part of the rule. In any case, to determine whether a sentence is complex, you need to find its grammatical basis. What to consider when doing this:
a) Not always every simple sentence can have both a subject and a predicate. So, the frequency of sentences with one impersonal part, with a predicate in vague personal proposal. For example: He had a lot of work ahead of him, and he knew it.
Scheme: [is coming], and [he knew].
The doorbell rang and no one moved.
Scheme: [they called], and [no one moved].
b) The subject can be expressed by pronouns, both personal and other categories: I suddenly heard a painfully familiar voice, and it brought me back to life.
Scheme: [I heard], and [it returned]. Don't lose a pronoun as a subject if it duplicates the subject from the first part! These are two sentences, each with its own basis, for example: The artist was well acquainted with all the guests, and he was a little surprised to see a face unfamiliar to him.
Scheme: [The artist was familiar], and [he was surprised]. Let's compare with a similar construction in a simple sentence: The artist was well acquainted with all the guests and was a little surprised to see a face unfamiliar to him.[O Skaz and O Skaz].
c) Since a complex sentence consists of two simple ones, it is quite likely that each of them can have homogeneous members in its composition. Commas are placed both according to the rule of homogeneous members and according to the rule of complex sentences. For example: Leaves crimson, gold They fell quietly to the ground, and the wind circled them in the air and threw them up. Sentence pattern: [Leaves fell], and [wind O Skaz and O Skaz].
15.2.2 Special conditions for placing signs in a complex sentence
In a school course of the Russian language, the only condition under which a comma is not placed between parts of a complex sentence is the presence common minor member.
The most difficult thing for students is to understand whether there is common minor clause, which will give the right not to put a comma between parts, or there is none. General means that it relates simultaneously to both the first part and the second. If there is a common member, a comma is not placed between the parts of the BSC. If it exists, then in the second part there cannot be a similar minor member, there is only one, it is at the very beginning of the sentence. Let's consider simple cases:
Example 1: A year later, my daughter went to school and my mother was able to go to work..
Both simple sentences can equally qualify for the time adverbial “in a year.” What's happened in a year? My daughter went to school. Mom was able to go to work.
Moving the common member to the end of the sentence changes the meaning: My daughter went to school, and my mother was able to go to work a year later. And now this minor member is no longer general, but relates only to the second simple sentence. That is why it is so important for us, firstly, the place of the common member, just the beginning of a sentence , and secondly, the general meaning of the sentence.
Example 2:By evening the wind died down and it started to freeze. What happened By the evening? The wind died down. It started to freeze.
Now more complex example 1: On the outskirts of the city the snow had already begun to melt, and it was already quite a spring picture here. There are two circumstances in the sentence, each simple has its own. That's why comma added. There is no common minor member. Thus, the presence of a second minor member of the same type (place, time, purpose) in the second sentence gives the right to insert a comma.
Example 2: By nightfall, my mother’s temperature rose even more, and we did not sleep all night. There is no reason to attribute the adverbial “to the night” to the second part of a complex sentence, therefore a comma is placed.
It should be noted that there are other cases in which a comma is not placed between parts of a complex sentence. These include the presence of a common introductory word, a common subordinate clause, as well as two sentences that are indefinitely personal, impersonal, identical in structure, and exclamatory. But these cases were not included in the Unified State Examination tasks, and they are not presented in manuals and are not studied in the school course.
A.I. Kuprin
In the bowels of the earth
An early spring morning is cool and dewy. Not a cloud in the sky. Only in the east, where the sun is now emerging in a fiery glow, do the gray pre-dawn clouds still crowd, turning pale and melting with every minute. The entire vast expanse of the steppe seems to be sprinkled with fine golden dust. In the thick lush grass, diamonds of coarse dew tremble here and there, shimmering and flashing with multi-colored lights. The steppe is cheerfully full of flowers: gorse turns bright yellow, bells turn modestly blue, fragrant chamomile grows white in whole thickets, wild carnations burn with crimson spots. In the morning coolness there is a bitter, healthy smell of wormwood, mixed with the delicate, almond-like aroma of dodder. Everything shines and basks and joyfully reaches for the sun. Only here and there in deep and narrow ravines, between steep cliffs overgrown with sparse bushes, wet bluish shadows still lie, reminding of the bygone night. High in the air, invisible to the eye, the larks flutter and ring. The restless grasshoppers have long since raised their hasty, dry chatter. The steppe has woken up and come to life, and it seems as if it is breathing with deep, even and powerful sighs.
Abruptly disrupting the beauty of this steppe morning, the usual six o'clock whistle at the Gololobov mine blows, it blows for an infinitely long time, hoarsely, with annoyance, as if complaining and angry. This sound is heard now louder, now weaker; sometimes it almost freezes, as if breaking off, choking, going underground, and suddenly breaks out again with new, unexpected force.
On the vast green horizon of the steppe, only this one mine with its black fences and an ugly tower sticking out above them reminds of man and human labor. Long red pipes, smoked on top, spew out clouds of black, dirty smoke without stopping for a second. Even from afar one can hear the frequent ringing of hammers striking iron and the lingering rattle of chains, and these alarming metallic sounds take on some kind of stern, inexorable character in the silence of a clear, smiling morning.
Now the second shift should go underground. Hundreds of two people crowd in the mine yard between stacks of large pieces of shiny coal. Completely black, coal-soaked faces, unwashed for weeks, rags of all kinds of colors and types, supports, bast shoes, boots, old rubber galoshes and just bare feet - all this was mixed in a motley, fussy, noisy mass. An exquisitely ugly aimless swearing, interspersed with hoarse laughter and a suffocating, convulsive, drunken cough, hangs in the air.
But little by little the crowd dwindles, pouring into the narrow wooden door, above which is nailed a white board with the inscription: “Lamp.” The lamp room is packed with workers. Ten people, sitting at a long table, continuously fill glass bulbs with oil, dressed on top in safety wire cases. When the bulbs are completely ready, the lamp maker inserts a piece of lead into the ears connecting the top of the case with the bottom and flattens it with one press of massive tongs. In this way, it is achieved that the miner cannot open the light bulbs until he comes back out of the ground, and even if the glass breaks by accident, the wire mesh makes the fire completely safe. These precautions are necessary because in the depths of coal mines a special flammable gas accumulates, which instantly explodes from fire; there have been cases where hundreds of people died from careless handling of fire in mines.
Having received the light bulb, the miner goes into another room, where the senior timekeeper notes his name on the daily sheet, and two assistants carefully examine his pockets, clothes and shoes to see if he is carrying cigarettes, matches or flint.
Having made sure that there are no prohibited items, or simply not finding them, the timekeeper briefly nods his head and abruptly says: “Come on in.”
Then through the next door the miner emerges into a wide, long covered gallery located above the “main shaft”.
The gallery is in a bustling bustle of shifts. In a square hole leading into the depths of the mine, two iron platforms walk on a chain thrown high above the roof through a block. While one of them rises, the other descends a hundred fathoms. The platform seems to miraculously jump out of the ground, loaded with trolleys of wet coal, freshly torn from the bowels of the earth. In an instant, the workers pull the trolleys off the platform, place them on the rails and run to the mine yard. The empty platform immediately fills with people. An electric bell is given to the engine room, the platform shudders and suddenly disappears from view with a terrible roar and falls underground. A minute passes, then another, during which nothing is heard except the puffing of the machine and the clanging of the running chain, and another platform - but not with coal, but chock full of wet, black people shivering from the cold - flies out of the ground, as if thrown upward by some mysterious, invisible and terrible force. And this change of people and coal continues quickly, accurately, monotonously, like the movement of a huge machine.
Vaska Lomakin, or, as the miners, who generally love biting nicknames, called him, Vaska Kirpaty1, stands above the opening of the main shaft, constantly spewing people and coal from its depths, and, with his mouth slightly half-open, looks intently down. Vaska is a twelve-year-old boy with a face completely black from coal dust, on which they look naively and trustingly Blue eyes, and with a funny upturned nose. He, too, must now go down into the mine, but the people of his party have not yet gathered, and he is waiting for them.
Vaska came from a distant village only six months ago. The ugly revelry and unbridled life of a miner had not yet touched his pure soul. He doesn’t smoke, doesn’t drink, and doesn’t swear, like his fellow workers, who all get blackout drunk on Sundays, play cards for money, and never let cigarettes out of their mouths. In addition to “Kirpatiy,” he also has the nickname “Mamkin,” given to him because, when entering the service, when the foreman asked: “Whose will you be, you little pig?”, he naively answered: “And Mama!” caused an explosion of thunderous laughter and a frenzied stream of admiring swearing from the entire shift.
Vaska still can’t get used to coal work and miner’s morals and customs. The magnitude and complexity of the mining business suppresses his mind, poor in impressions, and, although he does not realize this, the mine seems to him to be some kind of supernatural world, the abode of gloomy, monstrous forces. The most mysterious creature in this world is undoubtedly the driver.
Here he sits in his greasy leather jacket, with a cigar in his mouth and gold glasses on his nose, bearded and frowning. Vaska can clearly see it through the glass partition separating the engine part. What kind of person is this? Yes, that's it: is he still a man? So he, without moving from his place and without letting go of the cigar from his mouth, touched some button, and instantly a huge machine, still motionless and calm, came in, the chains rattled, the platform flew down with a roar, the entire wooden structure of the mine shook. Amazing!.. And he sits as if nothing had happened and smokes. Then he pressed another lump, pulled some kind of steel stick, and in a second everything stopped, became quiet, became quiet... “Maybe he knows this word?” - Vaska thinks, not without fear, looking at him.
The other is a mysterious man, and, moreover, invested with extraordinary power, senior foreman Pavel Nikiforovich. He is the complete master in the dark, damp and terrible underground kingdom, where among the deep darkness and silence the red dots of distant lanterns flash. On his orders, new galleries are being built and slaughtering is being done.
Pavel Nikiforovich is very handsome, but taciturn and gloomy, as if communication with underground forces left a special, mysterious stamp on him. His physical strength became a legend among the miners, and even such “lucky” lads as Bukhalo and Vanka the Greek, who set the tone for the wild direction of minds, speak of the senior foreman with a tinge of respect.
DEAR FRIEND!
This book will tell you about an amazing specialty - the art of creating fabrics, or weaving. Weaving, like construction, is the most ancient human profession. Fabrics surround us everywhere: at work and at home, during hours of rest and work. Fabrics are used in chemistry and energy, mechanical engineering and metallurgy, medicine and astronautics. Yes, imagine, in astronautics too. The interior lining of space stations, astronaut clothing, and many other parts of space technology are made from fabrics. You can’t produce car tires without autocord, you can’t make bicycles without bicycle cord, electrical wiring needs insulating tapes and fabrics. In the coal industry, non-ferrous metallurgy and a number of other industries, filter materials and conveyor belts are widely used. Container fabrics are needed in a variety of areas of the national economy; technical cloth is used in the pulp and paper industry.
In terms of the complexity of technological processes, the kinematics of weaving equipment, the degree of automation and mechanization of labor, the weaving production of textile enterprises is at a fairly high modern level. And in terms of complexity, weaving machines are second only to printing machines!
At the same time, weaving is the most humane specialty that serves to satisfy people's needs for clothing. Modern man needs a variety of clothes depending on the type of activity, time of year, fashion, etc. Every day, tens of thousands of weavers stand at the looms of the country's textile enterprises. Their hands create fabrics. These people can be and are deservedly proud of their specialty - the ancient profession of weavers.
PREFACE
Everyone necessarily causes benefit when used in its place.
K. Prutkov
How to find your place in life? The whole difficulty, according to sociologists, lies in the fact that the more choice given to a person by society, the more difficult it is to decide which path to follow. Francis Bacon also said that “he who hobbles along the straight road will outstrip the runner who has lost his way.”
“There are no untalented people, there are people who do not do their own thing” - this folk wisdom expresses the basic law of professional guidance.
Vocational guidance states that each person has his own calling, his own main “string” of life. If he is given the opportunity to live and work while playing this string, his return to society will be maximum.
We rarely think about what is most necessary for a person. In the age of television and radio, space and rockets, there is simply no time to think about it. If in one of the houses modern city suddenly they turn it off for a few hours electricity, people’s usual rhythm of life will immediately change dramatically. At the same time, some 100, 150 years ago, people freely managed without electricity and related amenities. But man has always needed clothing, shelter and food.
Much has been written about lasers, rockets, and the structure of matter, but there are still very few books about such simple, everyday things as fabrics.
We talk and argue about beauty: this is beautiful, wonderful, but this, on the contrary, is ugly, unaesthetic. What is beauty?
Why do we freeze at the wonder of the colors of Indian summer or at the sight of snow sparkling in the sun, and in an art gallery we stand for a long time in front of paintings by great masters?
Nature! She is beautiful in all her manifestations. But no less beautiful is what is created by human hands. These are machines and devices, houses and turbines and, of course, fabrics.
So what is beauty? We often call beautiful what corresponds to the norms and ideals of our time. Each era has its own ideals and fashion. But there is imperishable, enduring beauty, to which humanity will definitely return. People will never cease to be delighted by the proportions of the Parthenon, the harmony and unity with nature of the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, and the paintings of Raphael and Rembrandt.
Beauty cannot be measured by size ratio. Behind the purely external beauty of a face in a painting by a famous master, we are looking for spiritual beauty. Valery Bryusov wrote:
There are subtle powerful connections between the contour and the smell of a flower.
The beauty of the music of Mozart and Chopin, the poetry of Pushkin and Shakespeare, the paintings of Velazquez and Rembrandt, the stone creations of Rastrelli and Kazakov, the beauty of fabrics...
When learning the basics of music or foreign language, suddenly there comes a moment when previously unfamiliar signs - notes turn into a wonderful Mozart melody or Latin letters - into Shakespeare's sonnets. The same amazing miracle awaits those who decide to study the ancient and eternally young specialty - weaving.
From this book, the reader will learn about how and when a person learned to make fabrics, how weaving was improved and what technical level it reached. He learns about the people who glorified this profession over the centuries, about their great deeds and tragic destinies, and, finally, about those who create fabrics with their labor.
1. FABRICS - WHAT ARE THEY?
HOW IS TISSUE PRODUCED?
Have you ever seen a loom? No? And look. The father of Russian aviation N.E. Zhukovsky, seeing a loom for the first time (keep in mind - a machine from the beginning of the 20th century), exclaimed: “Such a machine cannot work!” And when the machine was put into operation, Zhukovsky was delighted with the complexity and clarity of the work of its various components. Modern computer-controlled weaving equipment would probably surprise him even more.
But let's return to the machine. Thousands of threads run along it, threaded into various moving parts. These threads are intertwined with transverse threads, which are laid by some devices so quickly that you won’t even notice them. The comb moving back and forth along the threads threaded into it attracts attention. And finally, the fabric, formed in some incomprehensible way, emerges from this comb and is wound onto some kind of shaft.
This first impression of the loom leaves a complete confusion in the head: many parts moving at high speed in different directions and for some purpose... But the goal is one: to form fabric from threads. Let's take a closer look at the machine.
Thousands of threads running along the loom are wound on a large spool. This coil is called a beam. As the fabric is produced, the beam slowly turns to a certain angle, unwinding a certain length of threads. All the threads wound on the beam are called warp. They are so named because they are actually the basis of the tissue produced.
Now it is advisable to pay attention to the frames located across the base with gadevs attached to them - thin metal plates with holes. The frames rise and fall. And since the warp threads are threaded through the holes of the heddles, they rise and fall along with the frames.
These frames are called healds. If you have read Leskov’s story “Hare Remise” (i.e. hare jump, jump), then it will not be difficult to remember this name. So, some of the threads, along with some frames, rose, and some fell. A gap has formed between them, or as it is commonly called in weaving, a pharynx. A transverse thread is inserted into the shed, intertwined with the longitudinal threads of the warp. This thread running across the warp threads is called weft.
The weft is laid in various ways, but the most common currently is shuttle, i.e. using a shuttle.
This word comes from a canoe, a boat that travels from shore to shore. In this case, the “shores” are the edges of the fabric formed on the machine.
The laid weft thread(s) is intertwined with the warp threads and brought to a certain place (nailed) by a special mechanism of the loom - a baton, which makes a reciprocating movement. The surf is carried out directly by a metal comb - a reed, between the teeth of which the warp threads pass. The resulting fabric is wound on a special shaft, called a commercial one.
Now take a look at Fig. 1. It shows a diagram of a simple shuttle loom. The formation of fabric on a loom occurs as follows. The 2 warp threads unwinding from the beam 1 go around the rock 3, pass through the lamel device 4, the eyes 5 of the heddles and between the teeth of the reed 7. The healds serve to separate the warp threads into parts, which allows them to be intertwined with the weft threads. The movement of the warp in the vertical plane serves to form the shed on the loom. One part of the warp threads rises from the middle level, the other goes down. The space between the raised and lowered warp threads, as you already know, is called shed 6. Into it weft inserter 8 (shuttle, micro-shuttle, rapiers, pneumatic rapiers, air, water)
doy) the weft thread is laid. The shed is formed by a shed-forming mechanism that moves the healds up and down according to a specific weave pattern. There are three types of shed-forming mechanisms of a weaving machine: eccentric, carriage and jacquard.
Eccentric shedding mechanisms are used to produce tissues with a small amount of(no more than 8) differently interwoven threads (i.e. repeat weave). Carriage shed-forming mechanisms make it possible to produce fabrics whose repeat has as many differently intertwined warp threads as there are healds on a loom. The design of the loom allows you to install 24, sometimes 30 - 32 healds on it, which does not make it possible to produce patterned fabrics with large repeats of patterns. Fabrics whose repeat weave on the warp contains more than 24 - 32 differently interwoven threads and sometimes reaches several thousand threads are called large-patterned, or jacquard. They are produced using a special shedding mechanism - a jacquard machine. These fabrics can be used to reproduce geometric, floral and thematic designs.
After laying the thread, the weft shed is closed and the weft thread inserted into it is nailed to the edge 9 of the fabric with a reed 7 (the same metal comb into the teeth of which the warp threads pass). Then a new shed is formed, in which, according to the weave pattern, the healds and the warp threads inserted in them change position, as a result of which the weft thread nailed to the edge of the fabric is fixed at the edge. The resulting fabric is wound onto a commodity shaft 10. As you can see, some new terms have appeared. A rock is a knot of a loom, the general purpose of which is to give the warp the necessary direction, in other words, to direct the warp threads that are wound from the beam into the heald. What is a fabric edge? Before answering this question, let us remember what a forest edge is. Do you remember? Edge, i.e. edge. It seems that now there is no need to explain the term “tissue edge”.
Fabric formation is the process of weaving two systems of threads (warp and weft) with the combined action of weaving machine mechanisms that perform technological operations: tension and release of a certain part of the warp length, shedding, laying the weft into the shed, beating the weft thread to the edge of the fabric, winding fabrics onto the commodity shaft. Fibers in
This is discussed in more detail in Section 6.
threads and yarn have twist and, having elasticity, tend to free themselves from it. This is where His Majesty Friction comes into play. Much is known about the benefits and harms of friction. In weaving, friction also plays an important role: it prevents the threads from straightening out and the fabric from falling apart into individual threads. As a result of the action of each other, the warp and weft threads bend, taking on a wave-like shape in the fabric. In places where one thread bends near another, friction forces are created. The magnitude of friction forces depends on the type, thickness and tension of the threads.
WHAT IS TISSUE STRUCTURE?
So we briefly got acquainted with how fabric can be produced. But the fabrics are all different: thin and thick, with and without patterns, protecting from the cold and from the sun. You never know how many different fabrics there are! How are they different? And the fabrics differ in structure and properties.
So what is the structure of tissue? Is it too loud? does this sound like tissue structure? After all, this is not a house, but just a fabric. No, not loud! A person who wants to create fabric must know how it will be constructed. The structure of the fabric is the relative position of the warp and weft threads and their connection with each other. The structure of the fabric depends on a number of factors: the type and thickness of the warp and weft threads, the number of warp and weft threads per unit length of the fabric, the type of weave of the threads in the fabric.
If the thickness of the warp or weft threads changes, their bending in the fabric will also change. For example, if the warp threads in the fabric are thinner than the weft threads, then the bending of the warp threads will increase, and the bending of the weft threads will decrease. This will lead to a change in the structure of the tissue, and therefore to a change in its physical and mechanical properties.
In addition, the structure of the fabric is influenced by the type of thread (type of fiber, method of manufacturing and processing of thread and yarn). In the weaving industry, different types of yarn, twisted threads, and chemical threads are used for warping and wefting. different ways manufacturing. Threads of all these types have different structures and, with the same thickness, have different physical and mechanical properties, which in turn affect the structure and properties of the fabric.
The number of threads per unit length of fabric is called fabric density. It is determined in two directions - warp and weft. Fabric density characterizes the frequency of threads in the fabric. The farther away they are
threads from each other, the less density and the fabric is thinner. In accordance with the size of the gaps between the warp threads and between the weft threads, fabrics can be divided by density into rare ones, when the gaps are larger than the diameter of the threads; dense, when the spaces between the threads are smaller than their diameter; medium density, when the spaces between the threads are almost equal to the diameter of the threads. There are fabrics that are balanced in density, i.e. having the same density in the warp and weft, and unbalanced ones, in which the density in the warp and weft is not the same.
One of the main parameters of the fabric structure is the type of weave of threads in the fabric, i.e. the type of their relative position relative to each other. The area where the thread of one system overlaps the thread of another system is called overlap. If, when weaving on the right side of the fabric, the warp thread overlaps the weft thread, the overlap is called warp; if the weft thread overlaps the warp thread, it is called weft. The sequence of arrangement of overlaps through a certain number of threads, after which this sequence of arrangement of overlaps is repeated (i.e., the number of differently interwoven threads), is called weave repeat. A distinction is made between weave repeat along the warp - the number of warp threads, after which the order of overlaps in the weft direction is repeated, and weave repeat along the weft - the number of weft threads, after which the order of overlaps is repeated in the warp direction. The weave is also characterized by a shift - a number showing how many threads are removed from the overlap of one thread from the previous one. A distinction is made between vertical shift - between adjacent warp threads and horizontal shift - between adjacent weft threads. Thus, by using different arrangements of threads in the fabric, a large number of different weaves can be created. Their combination determines the structure of the tissue.
BASIC PROPERTIES OF THE FABRIC
Fabrics, like other creations of human hands, have many properties. And if dress fabric requires a combination of some properties, then tarpaulin requires completely different properties. What properties are these?
Let's get acquainted with the main ones.
The most important property, especially for technical fabrics, is strength. It is defined like this. A sample of fabric, usually measuring 200 x 50 mm, is secured in the clamps of a special tensile testing machine. One of the clamps is stationary, the other is movable. The motor is then turned on and the movable clamp begins to move at a constant low speed, pulling on the sample and ultimately breaking it. In this case, the load at which the sample ruptured is recorded. It is called breaking load. In addition, the length to which the fabric sample was stretched before breaking is determined, i.e. the so-called breaking elongation is determined. These two indicators can tell you a lot. For example, about the possibility of using fabric under repeated loads. The elastic properties of a fabric are evidenced by the value of its elongation at break: the greater this value, the more elastic the fabric, the less it will wrinkle when worn.
Fabrics for household use - dress, suit, linen, etc. - are constantly subjected to abrasion from various objects, the human body, etc. Therefore, there is such an indicator - abrasion resistance, i.e. the ability of the fabric to withstand abrasive influences. This indicator is determined using a special device in which a tissue sample is subjected to friction against various rough surfaces. With a certain number of abrasive strokes of the device carriage (cycles), signs of its destruction are observed on the surface of the fabric. The number of abrasion cycles can be used to judge the fabric's resistance to abrasion.
The folds and wrinkles that form on the fabric when crumpled not only spoil appearance clothes made from it, but also accelerate wear, since stronger abrasion and, consequently, destruction of the fabric occurs along the folds and folds. Therefore, there is such an indicator as the resistance of fabric to creasing.
Depending on their purpose, fabrics have different tenacity. The smaller it is, the smoother the surface of the fabric. For example, lining fabrics should have little tenacity.
As a result of washing and ironing, the fabric shrinks in size. This property of fabric is called shrinkage. It should be borne in mind that large shrinkage during wear can deteriorate the appearance of the fabric. Therefore, fabrics intended for clothing should have little shrinkage.
Fabrics, as you know, can allow air, water, and steam to pass through. Depending on the purpose, the amount of air, water and steam passed through the fabric should be different. One of these fabric properties - breathability - characterizes the ability of the fabric to allow air to pass through. It is clear that light summer fabrics should be more breathable, and fabrics for winter outerwear should be less breathable.
A valuable property of household fabrics is vapor permeability, i.e. the ability of fabric to transmit water vapor. Based on vapor permeability, one can judge the possibility of removing vapors from the surface of the human body (linen fabrics).
But for filter fabrics, an important property is water permeability, i.e. ability to pass water. For raincoat, shoe, and tent fabrics (tarpaulins), one of the main properties is water resistance, i.e. fabric's resistance to water penetration from one side to the other.
Interesting properties of the fabric are thermal conductivity and heat resistance. Thermal conductivity is the ability of a fabric to transmit heat. If the fabric is intended to protect against cold, then its thermal conductivity should be minimal. Heat resistance indicates the maximum temperature at which a fabric can perform its intended purpose without changing other properties. This property is necessary for technical fabrics that “work” at high temperatures, for example, for firefighters’ clothing.
Thus, tissues with different purposes require different properties. For technical fabrics, high strength properties are mainly required, for casual fabrics - hygienic properties, resistance to creasing, etc.
TYPES OF FABRICS
The variety of fabrics, their colors and quality influence the formation of fashion trends and the range of clothing. Every year, more than 600 new cotton, wool, linen and silk fabrics, fabrics made from chemical fibers and their mixtures, as well as mixtures with natural fibers: wool, cotton, linen and silk are created in our country. Is there a difference between fabrics made from different fibers? Of course have! The difference in the properties of the fibers determines the purpose of the fabrics. Let's look at the range of fabrics made from different fibers.
Cotton fabrics have the largest share in the total range of fabrics produced. It is 70%. The cotton industry is the largest of the textile industries. The 275 combines and factories in this industry employ approximately 40% of all workers in the country's textile industry. The range of cotton fabrics is very diverse. It contains more than 1000 articles, which are grouped according to purpose.
Linen fabrics are intended for the manufacture of underwear and bed linen. These are calicoes, muslins, linens, cambrics. The largest part of shirt and dress fabrics are dress (summer, demi-season and winter), calico, satin and razor. Clothing and costume fabrics are used to make suits, trousers, special and sportswear, coats, etc. Furniture and decorative fabrics are used for upholstery and other decorative purposes.
The range of linen fabrics contains about 500 items. Among them are linen (linen and semi-linen), suit and dress (linen, semi-linen and linen), and trim.
In the assortment of woolen fabrics, numbering more than 1000 articles, in addition to pure wool, wool blend fabrics are widely represented. Woolen fabrics are combed (worsted), fine-woven and coarse-woven, depending on the thickness and method of making the yarn. According to their purpose, they are divided into dress, suit and coat.
The range of silk fabrics contains over 1000 items of dress, shirt, suit, decorative and other fabrics. Fabrics made from natural silk threads are represented by crepe, semi-crepe and linen fabrics.
Fabrics made from chemical threads are divided into crepe and semi-crepe fabrics (crepe satin, crepe marroquin, panama), satin fabrics (voile, linen, pique, twill lining), shaped jacquard fabrics, raincoats, blouses and dresses. In addition, fabrics are produced using yarn from mixtures of chemical fibers and their mixtures with natural fibers.
Pile fabrics are produced in the wool (carpets) and silk (velvet, plush, faux fur) industries.
For technical purposes, special purpose fabrics are used: cotton - frame, for conveyor belts and drive belts, filter, gauze, packaging; linen - canvas, container and sleeve; wool - for filter gaskets, drive belts; from chemical threads - - for sieves, cord, filter and upholstery.
Chemical threads are widely used in silk weaving production: viscose, acetate, triacetate, polyamide, polyester, etc.
What are these threads?
In 1655, Robert Hooke, the same one after whom the law that laid the foundation for the science of strength of materials is named, came to the conclusion that “... it seems possible to find ways
artificially obtain a sticky mass, similar to how it is formed by the silkworm, or even better. If such a mass is found, then, apparently, an easier task will be to find a way to draw this mass into thin threads. I will not point out the benefits of this invention - it is completely obvious...”
More than 200 years passed before this brilliant guess was confirmed. Only in 1884, the French chemist Chardonnay, who was a student of the famous Louis Pasteur, managed to obtain artificial chemical fibers, patent the process of their production and begin industrial production. We are talking about the most widespread in the world, the least labor-intensive and well-known chemical fiber - viscose. Then acetate and triacetate and other cellulose-based threads were obtained.
In the 20th century, new fibers and threads were obtained: polyamide (nylon), polyester (lavsan), polyacrylonitrile (nitrone) and many others. IN last years widespread received lavsan threads with varying degrees of elongation, nylon threads with different cross-sectional profiles of elementary threads, combined threads consisting of threads various types, for example acetate-nylon.
WHAT PRECIDES TISSUE PRODUCTION?
In recent decades, buildings have been erected all over the world that do not require brick, cement, reinforced concrete, metal, or wood. These are so-called pneumatic structures. The walls and roofing of such buildings are made of airtight fabrics. Inflatable columns or arches are produced using compressed air and support rubberized fabric buildings, providing them with the necessary strength and stability. But you can build such buildings without columns. It is enough just to inflate the shell and ensure the tightness of the structure. In such a hangar, warehouse, gym or a temporary cinema hall, a slight excess pressure is maintained - a few thousandths of an atmosphere higher than the outside one. It is only necessary to seal the entrance and exit. For this purpose, vestibules are arranged. Inflatable pavilions are erected in a few hours and can be used for many years. They exhibit exhibitions, play tennis and badminton, store equipment and materials, and even house some temporary production facilities.
But returning to what was said earlier, we repeat: the main purpose of fabrics is for making clothes.
Outerwear and underwear, men's and women's, for the little ones and for those who are bigger, work and holiday, for tourists and astronauts, for winterers in the Arctic and shepherds in the semi-desert, modern and in retro style - a huge variety of shapes and styles, types fabrics and colors... Clothes at all times performed several functions: they protected from cold and heat, from possible environmental influences, if we are talking about work clothes, and, finally, they decorated their owner.
What precedes tissue production?
Now that you have become acquainted, albeit in the most general form, with how fabrics are produced and what their structure depends on, you can talk about how fabrics are designed. Yes, yes, they are designing it! There is a science in weaving - fabric design.
Before we talk about fabric design, let's get acquainted with the technological processes that precede and are carried out after weaving. You already know that to make fabric you need raw materials: cotton, linen, wool, silk, chemical fibers. These raw materials in the form of yarn and threads are supplied to the weaving factory from spinning plants or chemical plants. To prepare a warp from these threads, you must first wind a certain number of them of a given length onto a beam parallel to each other. This process is called warping and is carried out on special warping machines. But this is still not enough for the warp threads to be processed into fabric on a loom. It is necessary to increase their endurance and resistance to abrasion under repeated loads on the loom. For this purpose, the warp threads are impregnated with a specially prepared adhesive composition - sizing. At the same time, they are covered with a film that protects the fibers from destruction during friction. The process of gluing threads with sizing is called sizing and is carried out on sizing machines. The warps thus prepared are sent to the quick section, where the warp threads are inserted into the holes of the healds and the teeth of the reed. This is done on special agile machines.
All of the above operations serve the sole purpose of preparing the weaving process. Therefore, they are called preparatory, and the equipment is called preparatory.
After the fabric is produced on the loom, it is finished. The purpose of finishing is to improve the appearance and quality of the fabric. When finishing, many fabrics are given new
properties: wrinkle resistance, heat resistance, water resistance, etc. Fabrics are finished using special finishing equipment, where fabrics are mainly subjected to chemical treatment.
Fabric designers are called dessinators. This word comes from the French dessinateur - draughtsman. A modern dessinator must know a lot: types and properties of raw materials (i.e. threads), weaving and preparation equipment, weaving technology, methods of finishing fabric and, of course, fashion trends. In order for the fabric to be produced in the weaving workshop, the dessinator draws up a filling pattern and a technical calculation of the fabric, i.e. a complete program according to which the fabric should be produced. All these calculations must take into account what properties the fabric will have, what its appearance will be, how much it will cost and how efficiently the weaving equipment will be used to produce the fabric. As you can see, this task is not easy.
FABRICS AND THEIR NAMES
Fabrics have their own names, just like people have first and last names. By a person's last name, one can sometimes determine his origin, and sometimes the specialty of his ancestors. For example, the ancestors of the Russian Kuznetsov and the Ukrainian Koval were engaged in one useful activity - they were blacksmiths. Often a person's last name indicates the area where he comes from. In the same way, you can find out the pedigree of fabrics. And sometimes, it would seem, behind the original Russian name there is hidden a consonant foreign word. Let's not look far for examples. Chintz! Until quite recently our Moscow was called calico. Chintz is a widely used lightweight cotton fabric. So, our native chintz is of Indian origin. The name comes from the Sanskrit word meaning "variegated". This fabric came to Russia only in early XVI II century under Peter 1 No more than half a century has passed and Russian calicoes have gained fame not only in Russia, but also abroad.
Here is another name for a well-known cotton fabric - moleskine. People also call it devil's skin. The name speaks for itself. Moleskine is used to make raincoats, dressing gowns, suits, sports and special clothing, i.e. They use the wear resistance, strength and appearance of a fabric that has a smooth, glossy surface. The name of this fabric, as well as its origin, is English. Moleskine was first produced in England. WITH English name tissue is translated as “mole skin”. Despite the wonderful
turning moleskin into devil's leather, the need for these types of fabrics does not decrease.
Everyone probably knows the story. It has thick pile on both sides, providing high heat-shielding properties. Therefore, the fabric is used when sewing winter clothes for women and children, tracksuits, and warm underwear. In addition, the yarn is used to make blankets and lining for coats. Baika means "woolen fabric" in Dutch.
Satin fabrics are also widespread. IN Central Asia They make beautiful national clothes from them. IN Central Russia they are used as a lining for outerwear, for making blankets, and women's toiletries. Satin fabrics are mainly made from natural silk, sometimes from viscose and acetate threads. The word "atlas" Arabic means "smooth". The atlas has been known in Russia for a long time - since the 15th century. For centuries it has been used to dress the very rich.
Batiste is named after its author Baptiste Cambrai from Flanders, who made this fabric back in the 13th century. At first cambric was produced only from high-quality linen yarn; later they began to use cotton yarn for its production.
The word “velvet,” like the fabric of this name, came to us from the Arabs. True, velvet first made a “stop” in the south of Europe, in Italy and France. Velvet is a pure silk or semi-silk fabric with a short pile on the front side that is continuous or etched in a pattern. In Russia, velvet production began in late XVI century under Tsar Fyodor Ioanovich by Italian craftsmen. Under Peter I, the first factory in Russia for the production of velvet, satin and other silk fabrics was organized. Elegant women's dresses are made from velvet; it is also used for finishing clothes and hats.
Poplin is a well-known silk, semi-silk or cotton fabric with a small transverse rib. Dresses, blouses, and men's shirts are made from it. Poplin's homeland is the French city of Avignon, which for a long time was the possession of the popes.
Specially handmade carpets have been called tapestries for almost five centuries in honor of the dyer Jules Gobelin, who founded a workshop for making carpets in Paris at the beginning of the 16th century. On these carpets, with multi-colored woolen threads, weavers hand-reproduced compositions on historical, mythological and everyday themes, landscapes, architectural ensembles, portraits. The work was very painstaking and unproductive. Experienced master produced about 1 square meter of tapestry per year. It is clear how expensive these carpets were! They can be found in museums, for example in the State Hermitage. In the textile museum of the Moscow Textile Institute named after A.N. Kosygin has a collection of French tapestries from the 17th - 19th centuries. Thematic carpets framed by a wide border have long played an important role in interior decoration. Experienced weavers spent several years making just the border. To produce tapestries, natural wool was used, which was dyed with various natural dyes. Cardboards for tapestries were made by famous artists.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the production of hand-made tapestries ceased due to the great complexity of production and high cost. Modern decorative fabrics are produced on multi-shuttle looms equipped with jacquard machines. However, they cannot completely replace real hand-made tapestries.
The reader may get the impression that all fabrics were “invented” a long time ago and their names go back centuries. However, it is not. There is probably no person who has not heard of the fabric bearing the name of the ancient Italian city of Bologna. Many people liked the lightweight nylon fabric with a waterproof coating. But she is relatively young - she is about 30 years old. Even now, when bologna raincoats are no longer fashionable, young people happily wear jackets and windbreakers made from this lightweight fabric.
Let us give the names of other fabrics and explain their origin.
Brocatel is a heavy brocade fabric using gold and silver threads, the woven pattern of which imitates embroidery (from the French word brocher - to weave with gold).
Velvet - from the English word velvet - velvet.
Damask fabrics, or dama, are thick silk fabrics brought from Syria. The name comes from the name of the city of Damascus
Kamka is a silk fabric of Chinese origin. Brought from China to India. Described by Afanasy Nikitin in the famous “Walking across Three Seas.”
Castor is a cloth fabric with a low and thick combed s. one side is piled (from the Greek “beaver”).
Cashmere is a smooth woolen fabric that was originally made in Kashmir (India).
Madapolam is a cotton linen fabric of Indian origin (named after the city of Madapolam).
Mackintosh is a rubberized fabric named after its author, the Englishman Mackintosh.
Calico is a thin cotton fabric of Arabic origin.
Muslin is a thin cotton fabric (named after the city of Mosul in Iraq).
Brocade is a dense silk patterned fabric using gold and silver threads of Persian (Iranian) origin.
Pique - silk and cotton fabrics with a raised and convex pattern in the form of transverse or longitudinal scars or diamonds. The name of the fabric comes from the French pigue - quilted, stitched, stitched.
Raventukh - thinned linen fabric. The name is Dutch; it used to be the name for dense hemp fabric.
Rep is a thick cotton or silk fabric of Dutch origin with longitudinal or transverse ribs.
Satin is a thin, dense cotton fabric of Chinese origin.
Taffeta is a thin, smooth silk fabric that originates from Persia (Iran).
Tweed is a thick wool fabric of Scottish origin.
Teak is the Dutch name for thick striped linen fabric.
Tricot is a woolen fabric that originates from France.
Faydeshin is a thick silk fabric (from the French faille de Chine - Chinese faille).
Chesucha is a lightweight silk fabric of Chinese origin.
Shawl is the Persian name for women's woolen scarves.
This list of fabric names can be continued endlessly. However, it should be noted that fabrics are still given names. This is done by their authors - destinators who design new fabrics. Among jacquard dress fabrics, for example, Cosmos, Spring, Pearl, and Rimma fabrics are widely recognized. Maybe in a few years today’s readers of this book will name their first fabrics?
2. LEARN FROM NATURE (FIRST FABRICS)
When throwing pebbles into the water, look at the circles they form; otherwise such throwing will be empty fun.
K. Prutkov
A very long time ago, many thousands of years ago, just as now, clothing was necessary for man. After all, a person does not have such a warm skin as animals. At first, he used the skins of killed animals to protect himself from the cold. But the skins were good in cold weather and uncomfortable in warm weather. In addition, the skin on which the wool grew deteriorated over time, warped in the cold and rotted in the heat.
In a word, clothing was necessary for man, even primitive man! And again nature came to the aid of man. Well, to be precise, it was not nature that “came”, but man learned a lot from it, in particular weaving. Take a closer look at the web: it is flexible and durable, it does not break either from gusts of wind or from the convulsive efforts to escape from a fly caught in it. Why such strength? Yes, because the longitudinal threads of the web are intertwined with transverse ones. So, using pieces of bark, fish skin, leaves, reeds, bird feathers and intertwining such longitudinally located materials with transversely located ones, man learned to produce woven materials. They were used for clothing, as mats, bedspreads, etc. It is weaving that should be considered the prototype of weaving.
WHAT IS FABRIC MADE FROM?
One of the first plants that began to dress people was nettle. Yes, don’t be surprised, the same nettle that is considered a weed and whose young leaves go into cabbage soup in the spring. It was used to make coarse fabric, burlap, durable fishing gear, ropes, ropes...
In addition to the main types of natural fibers (cotton, flax, wool and silk), people have learned to obtain fiber from plants such as hemp (coarse hemp fiber is obtained from its stems), ramie (a shrub similar to nettles), abaca (textile banana, from from which Manila hemp is obtained), agave (from the leaves of which sisal fiber is obtained), etc.
Even under the primitive communal system, along with nettles, people began to use flax for making fabrics. There is no need to grow nettles and care for them; wild ones are enough in abundance, but flax needs to be sown, and the soil must be specially prepared before that. But linen fabrics cannot be compared with nettle fabrics. That's why nettle was replaced by flax.
In the third millennium BC, flax plantations appeared in Asia Minor, Egypt, and the southern regions of Europe. Already in that distant time, the ancient Egyptians bred four varieties of flax. Despite the primitiveness of the technology, they made the finest threads from flax. It is interesting that the owners of the largest linen workshops were the pharaoh and his priests. Trade in expensive linen fabrics with other states took place only through them. Somewhat later, the Egyptians began to grow flax and the Greeks made fabrics from it. They were woven by slaves in special rooms in rich houses and palaces. IN Ancient Greece weaving was considered an art of the highest kind. In Homer's famous epic, he is dealt with by Odysseus' wife Penelope. The gods were also involved in weaving.
Ovid’s “Metamorphoses” tells the legend of Arachne, a simple weaver girl who dared to compete with the goddess Athena herself, the guardian of cities and the patroness of crafts and sciences, with her art of weaving.
... "Arachne was famous throughout Lydia for her art. Nymphs often gathered from the slopes of Tmol and from the banks of the gold-bearing Pactolus to admire her work. Arachne wove fabrics as transparent as air from threads like fog. She was proud that she had no equal in the world in the art of weaving. One day Arachne exclaimed:
- Let Pallas Athena herself come to compete with me! She won't defeat me, I'm not afraid of that.
And so, under the guise of a gray-haired, hunched old woman leaning on a staff, the goddess Athena appeared before Arachne and said to her:
- Old age brings with it more than one evil, Arachne: years bring experience with them. Take my advice: strive to surpass only mortals with your art. Don't challenge the goddess to a contest. Humbly ask her to forgive you for your arrogant words. The goddess forgives those who pray.
Arachne let go of the thin yarn, her eyes flashed with anger, and she boldly answered:
- You are unreasonable, old woman. Old age has robbed you of your mind. Read such instructions to your daughters-in-law and daughters, but leave me alone. I can give myself advice. What I said, so be it. Why isn’t Athena coming, why doesn’t she want to compete with me?
“I'm here, Arachne! - exclaimed the goddess, taking on her real image.
The nymphs and Lydian women bowed low before the beloved daughter of Zeus and praised her. Only Arachne was silent. Just as the sky lights up with scarlet light in the early morning when the pink-fingered Dawn-Eos flies into the sky on sparkling wings, so Athena’s face blushed with the color of anger. Arachne stands her ground, she still wants to compete with Athena. She does not feel that she is in danger of imminent death.
The competition has begun. Athena wove the majestic Athenian Acropolis on her bedspread and depicted her dispute with Poseidon for power over Attica. Twelve gods and among them her father, Zeus, resolved this dispute. Poseidon raised his trident, struck the rock with it, and a salty spring gushed out of the barren rock. And Athena, wearing a helmet, with a shield and an aegis, shook her spear and plunged it deep into the ground. A sacred olive grew from the ground. The gods awarded victory to Athena, recognizing her gift to Attica as more valuable. In the corners of the bedspread the goddess depicted how the gods punish people for disobedience, and around it she wove a wreath of olive leaves. Arachne depicted on her veil scenes from the life of the gods, in which the gods are weak, obsessed with human passions. All around Arachne wove a wreath of flowers entwined with ivy. The work of Arachne was the height of perfection; it was not inferior in beauty to the work of Athena, but in her images one could see disrespect for the gods, even contempt. Athena was terribly angry, she tore up Arachne's work and hit her with the shuttle. Unhappy Arachne could not bear the shame; she twisted the rope, made a noose and hanged herself. Athena freed Arachne from the loop and told her:
-Live, rebellious one. But you will hang forever and weave forever, and this punishment will last in your offspring.
Athena sprinkled Arachne with the juice of the magic herb, and immediately her body shrank, her thick hair fell from her head, and she turned into a spider. Since then, the Arachne spider has been hanging in her web and weaving it forever.”
There is no point in commenting on this legend; it is quite eloquent. I would like to add that weaving was given great importance in the ancient world. This work was very difficult. The ancient Greek poetess Sappho (7th century BC) wrote: “Dear mother! I’m tired of the machine and I don’t have the strength to weave...”
But another common fiber is cotton. This is the fluff that covers cotton seeds. It looks like wool, but its properties are very different from it. Cotton has been used by humans for a long time. At least judging by the excavations
Kam, in India it was processed into fabric as early as 1000 BC. Cotton has been called white gold since time immemorial. This figurative expression reflects the value of cotton fiber, its remarkable properties, and its most important role not only in textiles, but also in other industries. The father of history, Herodotus, said that one Egyptian pharaoh gave a noble guest fabrics “embroidered with gold and cotton.”
You already know that the first clothes for man were animal skins. It took time for people to notice that the skin of animals was deteriorating, but the wool remained soft, fluffy and warm. It became the main source of raw materials. During excavations of tombs from the Bronze Age (1500 BC), items of clothing made of wool were found.
The technology for producing yarn from wool is more complex than the technology for producing yarn from cotton. First, the wool is cut, then washed to remove debris and dust, combed and spun into yarn. So, for centuries, people used a hand spindle to twist individual short fibers. During archaeological excavations, hand spindles were found in different places. various shapes and sizes, but for one purpose - to make yarn. They served people for many centuries, until Leonardo da Vinci invented a spinning wheel in the 15th century, in which the spindle rotated not by hand, but by a belt drive from a wheel. The creation of a self-spinning wheel is a major step towards the mechanization of spinning. Now the spinner serves 600 - 800 or more spindles with a rotation speed of 12,000 min-1, but the principle of torsion remains the same as 500 years ago, as described in the invention of Leonardo da Vinci!
But let's return to wool processing.
When shearing, the wool from sheep is removed in a continuous “coat” called fleece. The ancient Greek myth about the golden fleece, on which the salvation and prosperity of the family that became its owner depended, tells about the extraordinary adventures of Jason - one of the descendants of the god of the winds, about the monstrous battles that Jason and his Argonaut friends had to fight until they took possession the golden fleece - the fleece of a ram that once saved the life of one of Jason’s relatives and then was sacrificed to Zeus.
Wool fiber is slightly finer than human hair. Its thickness is 20 - 25 micrometers, and it consists of layers. The scales of the top layer, similar to roof tiles, act as armor from rain, sun, wind, and various impacts. The shine of the fibers depends on the shape and location of the scales. Under the layer of scales there is a fibrous layer, and in the center there is a
cash filled with air. The wool fiber is crimped. The thinner it is and the more crimped it is, the softer and fluffier the fabric. The strength of wool fiber exceeds the strength of steel wire of the same cross-section. Wool absorbs moisture, like a pump, it first absorbs sweat and then pumps the moisture into the air. Wool fiber is a poor conductor of heat and therefore protection of the human body from the cold is guaranteed.
Sericulture, i.e. breeding silkworms and obtaining thin silk threads from them for further production of fabrics arose in ancient times in China (in the 3rd millennium BC), later in India and the Middle East.
A silk cocoon is the pupa of a silkworm caterpillar. The art of creating fabrics from the threads of this cocoon has turned China into the richest country ancient world. For many centuries, the Chinese kept the method of producing silk in the strictest confidence and were the only producers of silk fabrics in the world. Silk began to be imported into Europe back in the 5th century - during the Roman Empire. In the 4th century, silk production methods were mastered in Greece. Then they spread to the countries of Southern Europe. Silk production especially flourished in the Italian cities of Bologna, Genoa, and Venice. Strength, elasticity, the ability to dye well in various colors - all these properties attracted consumers of silk fabrics. Very expensive luxurious fabrics were made from silk, accessible only to rich people.
In ancient times, fabrics were incredibly expensive. The secrets of their production were kept in the strictest confidence. Woolen fabrics were produced in Assyria and Babylonia. Here, dyeing fabrics in bright colors was mastered: red, brown, blue and yellow. In Ancient Greece, wool and linen fabrics were produced that had elasticity and drape. The width of the hand-woven fabrics reached two meters. Dying in blue, yellow, brown and purple was known.
In ancient Rome, wool and linen fabrics were also made. This is what the Roman philosopher Lucretius Carus writes in his book “On the Nature of Things” about the excitement surrounding the fashion for fabric: “Before fabric was invented, people wove clothes<...>Nowadays, purple and gold fill life with worries and aggravate it with struggle. For this, I believe, we ourselves are entirely to blame.”
The designation of social status by the color of clothing is one of the oldest symbols. The clothing of the highest secular and church ranks, as a rule, was made of red and blue fabrics
colors. People on the lower rungs of the social ladder typically wore undyed clothing, or clothing in yellow, brown, and black colors. Special laws Ancient Rome Only persons of imperial rank were allowed to wear clothes dyed purple. Senators could only wear a toga with a narrow purple border at the bottom.
In Confucian China, officials of various ranks were very clearly distinguished by the color of their clothing and its individual details.
Thin Assyrian fabrics made from bobmycin (threads of wild silkworms) began to be replaced by silk ones imported from China and India in the 1st century. The fashion for silk fabrics was so great that in the 3rd century a pound of silk fabric (by weight) was worth a pound of gold. It should be emphasized that while weaving reached its peak in southern Europe, northern Africa, Central Asia and the Middle East, it was just beginning to develop in northern Europe. Here is what the Roman historian Tacitus writes about the Germans in the 1st century AD: “...Their clothing is a cloak. Remaining naked, the Germans spend most of the day near the fire. The richer people differ in their clothing as follows: they wear the skins of precious animals on their shoulders, the fluffier ones on the banks of the Rhine, and the finer ones throughout the rest of the country. Women dress in the same way as men, except that they often cover themselves with outer garments of linen, decorated with purple, and that the upper part of their clothing, where the sleeves begin, shows their shoulders and arms, their chest is also exposed ..."
Yes, the development of weaving took place in different countries not the same. This development was significantly influenced by socio-economic formations.
ANCIENT METHODS OF FABRIC MANUFACTURING.
THE EMERGENCE OF WEAVING INDUSTRIES
How were the first fabrics made? Excavations of ancient sites of primitive man, as well as the first cities in various regions of the world, show that a frame was mainly used, on which longitudinal threads were stretched - the base. These threads were intertwined with transverse threads - weft. For example, living on the banks of the Nile in the 4th millennium BC. The ancient Bakairi tribe learned to make textiles using a vertical weaving frame. These were two pillars dug into the ground. From one to another they stretched threads - the warp.
The weft was wound on a stick and, with its help, was threaded through the warp. The result was a fabric similar to a mat.
A weaving frame of this type also existed in Ancient Mexico (Fig. 2). The technique of this primitive textile making was widespread in various parts of the globe: Asia, Africa, America and, of course, Europe. Among the Australian aborigines it still exists today. With a large number of warp threads, the work of laying the weft took a very long time. The main disadvantage of the vertical frame was the need to pull the weft thread from the bottom up, which led to the need to produce very narrow fabrics. To obtain a wide fabric, several narrow strips had to be sewn together.
Subsequently, judging by archaeological excavations, the primitive weaving technique progressed. On the territory of modern Switzerland, the remains of a weaving loom dating back to the period of pile construction were found (Fig. 3). Between two vertical pillars in the upper part there was a crossbar, to which a base was attached, tensioned with clay weights. Here the ducks were passed from left to right and back. The width of the fabric was determined only by the length of the weaver's arms and the ability of him to move along the frame. This device has already made it possible to increase the width of the fabrics produced. With a fabric width of 50 - 80 centimeters, it was impossible to obtain the length required for clothing (for example, 4-5 meters) on this machine.
And man again faced the problem of improving the loom. He came to the conclusion that it was necessary to create a certain supply of warp threads on the top crossbar so that these threads could be easily unwound as the fabric was produced and lowered down, tensioned using weights. This is how a device arose, from which centuries later, already in the Middle Ages, the beam of the loom that has come down to us was created in Europe, i.e. a large reel with flanges, on which several thousand threads of great length (3-8 thousand meters) were wound. The presence of such a device made it necessary, in turn, to remove the waste fabric during the work process, i.e. creation of a device for winding the resulting fabric. For this purpose, the lower crossbeam began to be used, which later (at about the same time when the beam appeared) turned into a commodity shaft of the weaving loom.
We have already mentioned the extreme difficulty of inserting weft between the warp threads (especially if there are a large number of them). The difficulty was the need to pick up half of all the warp threads with your fingers. One of the most
more simple ways, making it easier to separate the even warp threads from the odd ones (to form the so-called shed when laying the weft threads into it), began to stretch the warp threads on the frame in two rows - back and front. This method was used more than 5 thousand years ago by the ancient Bakairi tribe. It is also now used in the handicraft production of Ukrainian carpets - kilims and matting. A device for forming the pharynx was also a special comb, in the teeth of which holes were drilled. All the even warp threads were passed through the holes in the teeth of the comb, and all the odd ones were passed between the teeth. The comb was suspended from the upper beam of the machine like a swing. To bring the even threads closer, the weaver pulled (“pulled”) the comb towards himself; to bring the odd warp threads closer, the comb was moved back from the middle position. In this case, a clear alternation of sheds was achieved, into which the weft threads were laid. This device has been preserved in the matting industry to this day.
Much later, already during the period of the rural community, they switched to the production of denser fabrics from thin threads. These threads could not withstand the sharp blows of the comb and broke. In addition, difficulties arose in the manufacture of combs for a large number of densely spaced threads. Time required a solution to the technical problem of producing dense tissue, and this problem was solved. A heald apparatus was invented, or rather its prototype in the form of thread strips. Subsequently, this device was improved.
From the swinging comb came another important loom device, necessary for beating the laid weft thread to the edge of the fabric. Initially, surfing was carried out with a flat board, which the weaver held by the handle. Then the surf began to be produced with a comb attached to a swinging baton. The batan, in turn, was attached (for better swing) to the upper beam of the loom.
After all these innovations were introduced into the weaving loom, the turn came to the process of weft weaving. The weft thread was wound on a stick (sometimes on a spindle), which, when laid, touched the warp threads, which led to a slowdown in the weaving process. To make it easier to lay the wefts, the stick began to be made thinner, then it turned into a needle, one end of which was sharp for better sliding between the warp threads, the other thicker for winding the weft thread (Fig. 4). Later they began to make a needle with two sharp ends, which had special holes for alternately laying weft threads. This design, in which the future shuttle is guessed, significantly accelerated the pace of the weaver’s work. Such primitive shuttles are still found today, for example, among the Battak tribe on the island of Sumatra (Indonesia).
So, the main elements of hand weaving - a frame, a commodity shaft, a heald apparatus, a baton with a reed and a primitive shuttle - were created by man in pre-class society.
With the emergence and development of the slave system, weaving techniques continued to improve. The most ancient country with developed textile production was Egypt. In the XIV-XII centuries BC. Egyptian linen fabrics were already known and exported on a large scale to Syria and Mesopotamia. In the Old Kingdom, linen fabrics were one of the types of rent that the peasant paid to his master, the temple, and the king.
Around 2000 BC, i.e. During the Middle Kingdom, weaving separated from agricultural work and became a craft performed in special weaving workshops by professional weavers. The largest workshops were concentrated in churches. In the New Kingdom, on the basis of these workshops, manufactories appeared, where slaves each worked on their own plot, i.e. specialization in the most important types of work arose. Another interesting fact is that 4000 years ago in Ancient Egypt a monopoly on foreign trade in textiles was introduced. Only the king and priests - the owners of the largest manufactories - could sell fabrics abroad. Owners of private workshops and merchants had the right to trade linen fabrics only within the state.
In addition to Egypt, Colchis, a country located on part of the territory of modern Georgia and Azerbaijan, was famous for its linen production in ancient times. She exported fabrics to various countries East, as well as to the Roman Empire.
The birthplace of silk production is China. Later, silk fabrics began to be produced in India, and then in Babylon; from there, in turn, this art was borrowed by the Romans. The production of woolen fabrics was also highly developed in China (from the 3rd century BC).
Since ancient times, the center of production of cotton fabrics has been India, where the finest cotton fabrics - calicoes - were produced.
In ancient times, the centers of textile production were Greece and Rome. In Greece, wool was produced, and from the 4th century BC. linen fabrics. Until the 7th-6th centuries BC. it was in the nature of a home craft. In the rich houses and palaces of the Greek nobility there were special rooms where, under the supervision of the mistress of the house, slaves were engaged in the manufacture of fabrics. At the same time, weaving was considered the highest of crafts and the Greeks attributed its invention to the goddess Pallas Athena. Homer wrote to Odyssey that... the fabrics were so dense that even thin oil could not penetrate into them.
In ancient Rome, linen and woolen fabrics were also produced in large quantities for domestic needs and for export in large workshops where slaves worked.
At that time, far from us, weaving technology continued to develop. In Ancient Egypt, the weaving machine was significantly improved (Fig. 5). A front goods roll appeared on the frame, onto which the fabric was wound as it was made; spare warp threads were thrown onto the rear beam, and weights were suspended from their ends to create tension on the threads. Manually lifting the healds was replaced by a pedal mechanism, freeing the weaver's hands to perform other operations. The weaver could now remain in one place rather than move along the loom frame. The weft thread was nailed with a comb, the teeth of which were made from split reed.
In Ancient Greece, multi-shaft looms appeared for the production of patterned fabrics (Fig. 6).
In Ancient Rome, the most advanced device for laying weft thread was invented (Fig. 7). The weft thread was wound onto a shank, which, to protect the weft from premature unwinding and entangling in the warp, was placed in a special box with a pointed shape at the ends (for ease of laying in the warp shed). The shank was very light and was made of reeds. One end wound on. the weft shank was passed through the side hole of the box. When throwing the weft, the lantern rotated in the box, unwinding part of the thread of a certain length. Thus, the Roman weavers of that time created a shuttle, which, without significant changes, has been preserved in hand weaving to this day.
Concluding a brief overview of the development of weaving technology at the first stage, the following must be said. The ancient weaving of simple fabrics (canvases) was technically inferior to the ancient oriental. Only in the field of patterned weaving did the Greeks create a more advanced type of loom with several
what pedals. The Roman loom was much more primitive than the ancient Egyptian one. Rome's only contribution to weaving technology was the creation of a rational shuttle design. Complex, skillful weaving operations required the personal skill of the artisan and were incompatible with the unskilled labor of a slave, so the slave system contributed little to the development of weaving techniques.
3. FROM HAND WEAVING TO MECHANICAL
CRAFT PERIOD
The history of technology development is inseparable from the history of human development. And this is understandable. Technology is created by people. The breakdown of the social system is always reflected in the development of technology and, above all, in the development of its main industries: military, construction and, of course, textiles.
In the 4th-5th centuries AD. A feudal society arose on the ruins of the ancient world. The once vibrant cultural and economic life of the Roman Empire was replaced by a widespread decline in social activity. The technology of the early Middle Ages had a significantly lower level compared to the level achieved by antiquity.
Almost all the clothing worn by residents in the states of the early Middle Ages was made directly in these states. Sales work existed mainly in large monastic farms. For example, in the 9th century, cloth made in the monastery of the city of Constanta (Romania) was known far beyond the borders of this city. Another monastery - Reitenbach (Germany) - was famous for its linen fabrics. These fabrics were exported to Rome already from the second half of the 11th century. At this time, a slow but steady rise in the level of development of weaving technology began; after a long decline, almost forgotten methods of making fabrics began to be revived and then developed.
The Netherlands became the center for the production of woolen fabrics, in particular various cloths, in the 15th century. Linen fabrics were produced in Germany (Westphalia, Augsburg, Swabia, Thuringia, etc.). Cotton fabrics, previously imported from Asia Minor, began to be produced in Germany and Italy in the 15th century.
Even in the Middle Ages, many conquests in China were launched out of a desire to possess precious silk fabrics. They were the main trophies of the hordes of Genghis Khan and Batu. Silk production was not known for a long time to feudal Europe, which did not have its own raw material base. Silkworm culture was introduced into Byzantium in the 6th century, from where it spread to Sicily and Southern Italy. In the 13th-14th centuries, Bologna, Lucca, Genoa, and Venice became centers for the production of silk fabrics in Italy. At the end of the 13th century, silk production appeared in France.
The appearance of a new material from the East - cotton (XII century), and then the cultivation of silkworms in Southern Europe made it possible to produce a variety of fabrics. Their quality became increasingly higher as production developed. Italy and the Netherlands were leaders in fabric production, and France in the 14th and 15th centuries. Varied natural conditions and less fragmentation compared to other European states favored the development of weaving in France. At this time, in Europe, the production of cloth of various varieties, which had great elasticity and elasticity, increased significantly. The discovery of a number of new dyes has expanded the possibility of obtaining fabrics of new colors and shades. In addition to cloth, other woolen and half-woolen fabrics were also produced, and smooth and finely patterned fabrics were also produced. The Netherlands were famous for the production of linens, especially thin and transparent ones. In Italy, velvets, thick silk and brocade fabrics were made, among which fabrics with a pattern reproducing the pattern of peacock feathers were especially valued.
In the 11th-12th centuries, groups of artisans appeared in the cities of Western Europe, uniting into workshops - guilds. There were guilds of gunsmiths and coopers, potters and carpenters. Weavers also formed guilds. There were, for example, guilds of clothiers, linen makers, etc. The workshops were a closed, privileged organization that was engaged not only in the production, but also in the marketing of goods. There was practically no division of labor. All operations for the production of a product from beginning to end depended only on the skill of the artisan.
Very high demands were placed on the quality and quality of fabrics. When the great Dutch artist Rembrandt was approached by the syndics - the elders of the clothiers' guild - with a request to paint a group portrait, their condition was as follows: “You must show our honesty. Our integrity, which has never been questioned, -
That’s the only good thing about the five of us. We check, sort and stamp every piece of fabric that comes off the looms in our city, and we never - for you it’s a small thing, but for us it’s everything! - they didn’t let a single yard of cloth with a flaw go on sale. We don't expect you to write us as beautiful, smart or aristocratic. Honest and conscientious - that’s how we were when fulfilling our duties, that’s how we will remain until death, and that’s how we want to look when the picture hangs in the clothiers’ guild.”
Centuries passed, and hand weaving practically did not change its technique. For several millennia, people have made textiles using a vertical weaving frame.
And so the Renaissance, or Renaissance (from the French Renaissance, from the Italian Rinascimento), is an era that became a transition in the history of Western and Central Europe from medieval culture to the culture of modern times. The Renaissance saw a flourishing of not only literature and art, but also science and technology.
Leonardo da Vinci is a great master of the Renaissance. It is difficult to even list all those areas of human activity in which he would not have made outstanding discoveries. They were offered designs for a tank, a helicopter, and a metal-cutting machine. He also paid attention to textile production. You already know that he developed a self-spinning machine, in which the spindle receives movement from a drive, which significantly increased the spinning speed. Leonardo da Vinci proposed a horizontal arrangement of the weaving frame, which was much more convenient, and at the same time the productivity of weavers increased sharply.
With the development of craft production in medieval Europe, the weaving frame was somewhat modernized. This is how the simultaneous raising and lowering of several threads began to be used, i.e., a multi-shaft system appeared, and the baton mechanism of the loom was improved.
In Fig. Figure 8 shows a German loom from the 14th century. The use of four healds proves the possibility of producing patterned fabrics on this machine. The English loom (Fig. 9) undoubtedly produced very wide fabrics. The machine could only be serviced by two weavers, since inserting the shuttle in both directions through the shed could not be done by one person. The fact is that the width of the fabric was determined by the length of the weaver's arms. The loom has two pairs of healds: this means that patterned fabrics were produced on it.
It should be said that most of the expensive silk fabrics produced in Italy were patterned. In the presence of
simple designs COULD be adapted to produce patterned fabrics using ordinary weaving looms by increasing the number of healds and pedals. However, it is impossible to install more than 30 healds on a loom, so the so-called pin looms appeared in Italy in the 14th century. On these machines, each group of warp threads, which according to the design should have been raised with one weft insertion, was passed through special eyes - faces connected to the frame ropes. The latter passed through the holes of the frame board and were tied in groups to one cord, thrown over a block in the upper beam of the machine and ending with a lead pin. The formation of a gape on such a machine was achieved by pulling back the corresponding pin each time with the hands of a worker - a puller. The famous Venetian and Genoese silk and velvet fabrics with designs made with gold and silver threads were produced on precisely these pin looms.
A feature of the production of velvet fabrics was the use of two bases: ground and pile (which was approximately 6 times longer than the ground). During the weaving process, the pile base was first raised in top part pharynx; a special rod was inserted into it; then a second shed was formed, into which a shuttle with weft thread was inserted, etc. Subsequently, the rods were removed from the fabric, and the loop from the pile base was cut with a knife - this is how pile was obtained on the surface of the fabric.
Of course, some improvements in weaving technology were introduced, however... Over the 1500 years of the new era, weaving technology has moved very close to the level of Ancient Rome and Ancient Greece. What is the reason? And the reason is the artificial restraint of progress! Attempts at any mechanization met with stubborn resistance and hostility from the guild organizations. For example, Walter Kesenger, who came to a Cologne workshop at the beginning of the 15th century with a proposal to introduce some kind of “wheels” to mechanize manual work, was refused on the grounds that if the new invention was put into practice, then “. . . many who lived by this craft will perish.” Therefore, it was decided that there was no need to build or install wheels, either now or ever afterwards.” The fear of artisans to lose their earnings due to the competition of any mechanism is the basis of technical conservatism in the Middle Ages.
MANUFACTURING PERIOD
This period, which lasted a little over two centuries (from the middle of the 16th century to the last third of the 18th century), is characterized by the emergence and development of a new capitalist mode of production.
The era of great geographical discoveries of the 15th - 16th centuries and the subsequent brutal struggle for colonial rule between France, England, Spain, Portugal and Ni-
the Derlands ended in the 17th - 18th centuries with the victory of England. By the 60s of the 18th century, England concentrated in its hands not only all international trade, but also significant territories of colonial markets (India, Canada, vast areas North America, as well as the Central American colonies captured from France).
The transition from the craft period of production to the manufacturing period, in contrast to the transition from manufacturing to large-scale capitalist industry, was not accompanied by a technical revolution.
Yes, progress in technology developed extremely slowly back then, but it did develop nonetheless! This was greatly facilitated by advances in the field of mechanics and mathematics, which laid the foundation for the use of scientifically based technological processes.
The founder of modern mechanics is Galileo (1564 - 1642), who established and formulated the basic laws of statics and dynamics solids(laws of free fall of bodies, uniform motion, principle of inertia, etc.). Of Galileo's followers, the greatest contributions to the mechanics of the 17th century were made by Huygens (1629 - 1695) and Newton (1643 - 1727).
One of the first mechanics of the manufacturing period was the mathematician and philosopher Descartes (1596 - 1650), and humanity owes the doctrine of fluids, i.e. hydraulics, without which practically no high-speed machine can do nowadays, to Pascal (1623 - 1662) and Toricelli (1608 - 1647). The contribution of the physicists Boyle (1627 - 1691) and Mariotte (1620 - 1684) to the development of the fundamentals of the physics of gaseous bodies can hardly be overestimated. Papin (1647 - 1714) developed the first elements of the theory of the steam engine.
In the XVI - XVII centuries The flywheel (flywheel) has become widespread, leveling out the uneven running of the machine by accumulating the energy received from the engines transmitting it to the actuator. Belt and rope transmissions of motion appeared. Thus, during the manufacturing period, the foundations of the future technical revolution were laid.
However, in general, no significant changes can be noted in the weaving technique of the 16th - 17th centuries. An exception, perhaps, is the technology for manufacturing silk patterned fabrics. Here, improvements are made to the design of the pin loom to reduce labor costs and ultimately improve the productivity of the loom. The French inventors Dongon, Bouchon, Falcon and Vaucanson consistently improved
improved the primitive skittle system of selecting and lifting part of the main threads according to the weave pattern of the fabric. However, all improvements required radical changes in the technology and organization of silk weaving production, and workshop rules and traditions prevented the spread of these improvements. Nevertheless, the development of weaving continued.
The English wool industry, having the same technical base, significantly increased production volumes by fulfilling government orders for the army and navy, as well as expanding foreign trade. Suffice it to say that by the end of the 18th century, the export of woolen fabrics from England was estimated at 4 million pounds sterling. At the same time, the wool industry of Italy and the Netherlands experienced an acute shortage of raw materials, and the volume of production of woolen fabrics in these countries was declining.
Linen production continued to develop in Germany, Ireland and Scotland. Italy and France remained the centers of silk production. Until the 18th century, cotton production played only a supporting role in the textile industry. Medieval Europe was familiar with cotton fabrics imported from Asia Minor. At the end of the 17th century, the import of Indian cotton fabrics into Europe - cheap and colorful - began and began to grow rapidly. They immediately began to seriously compete with wool and linen fabrics. Guild organizations of European weavers spoke out against the “uninvited guest.” Laws appeared prohibiting the import and wearing of Indian cotton fabrics. In 1680, in London, wool workers destroyed the house of the East India Company, which traded in cotton fabrics. In England, due to the rapid spread of cheap cotton fabrics, a struggle began to maintain the position of national wool production: a press campaign was carried out, prohibiting laws were issued, and those who wore Indian cotton fabrics were boycotted. However, the young English cotton industry not only overcame these artificially created barriers, but was also the first to switch to machine production.
Partly smuggled, partly made in England itself.
4. TECHNICAL REVOLUTION OF THE 18TH CENTURY
The last third of the 18th century was a turning point in the history of technology development. Humanity has never known such rapid development of technology. For many centuries, people used hand tools; the production of finished products depended entirely on the skill of the artisan, on his strength and dexterity. There were practically no cars. But starting from the 70s of the 18th century, in place of the old manufacturing production using manual labor, a factory industry based on machine technology began to emerge. A whole series of great inventions followed, prompted by the pressing needs of society. Rhythm public life accelerated to an incredible degree. The invention of the steam locomotive greatly contributed to the development of domestic and foreign trade, and this in turn necessitated a sharp increase in the production of goods.
But is it possible to increase the production of goods in old manufactories with manual labor? Of course not! What to do? Make cars! What is a car? The first, very precise description of the machine was given by K. Marx: “Every developed machine device consists of three significantly different parts: a machine-engine, a transmission mechanism, and finally a machine-tool, or a working machine.” A working machine is “a mechanism that, having received the appropriate movement, performs with its tools the same operations that the worker previously performed with similar tools. Whether the driving force comes from a person or, in turn, from a machine, “this does not change anything in the essence of the matter.” As a matter of fact - no! What about performance? The answer is clear. Therefore, a working machine needs a motor - a drive.
To power the machines, more powerful and advanced engines were needed than those that existed during the manufacturing period and which were designed mainly for hand tools and apparatus. From old engines highest value had a water wheel. On its basis, mill mechanisms arose in large manufactories - the predecessors of future machine units. Of course, this engine could not become the energy basis of the new factory industry. Why? Well, firstly, because there are not rivers and waterfalls everywhere, and secondly, in winter, as you know,
We would call it an “executive mechanism”.
the water freezes, and one more, extremely important, circumstance is the low engine power. In other words, the power of a water wheel could not, for example, power several machines, and it is unprofitable to build such a bulky engine for each machine. That is why, as soon as the first factories with machinery appeared in England, the problem immediately arose of creating a new engine that would meet the new requirements. Such an engine, brought to life in the 70-80s of the 18th century by the needs of industry, was a steam engine, driving several working machines at once.
The idea of using the mechanical properties of steam to produce useful work has occupied people for many centuries. Even the ancient Greek mechanic Heron (I century BC) designed a device in which a hollow ball rotated from jets of steam coming out of tubes. The great Leonardo da Vinci in the 15th century developed a design for a cannon that fired cannonballs emitted under steam pressure. In a word, there were many attempts to use steam, but we owe the invention of the steam engine to the great English mechanic James Watt, who not only invented a steam engine in 1765, but also in 1784 a mechanism without which its use in industry would have been impossible. Every schoolchild now knows this mechanism. And then, just 200 years ago, it was a truly revolutionary invention.
We are talking about a crank mechanism that converts translational motion into rotational motion. Since the mid-80s, steam engines began to be introduced in English cotton factories. Thanks to the introduction of the steam engine, the energy base for the emergence of weaving factories was finally created. But this was still not enough! To manufacture large numbers of looms (and steam engines, of course, too), huge quantities of metal were needed. This stimulated the rise and further development of metallurgy.
The starting point of the revolution in metallurgical technology of the 18th century was the transition, first in blast furnace and then in iron production, to a new type of fuel - coal. This could only be realized after the invention of a method for coking coal in the 30s of the 18th century. The method of coking coal (not immediately, but after several decades) caused a real revolution in metallurgical production: the complete replacement of expensive and scarce wood fuel with a new, cheaper and more common mineral fuel.
The reader may wince and think: “Aren’t there many revolutions in the 18th century? Somehow the author begins to resemble the Krylov prince, who “... and added countless fables to the tales...” No, friends, the 18th century was truly a century of technical revolutions in the history of civilization. Years, decades will pass. In the 20th century, in which we live, much of what seemed like a miracle in the 18th century will become reality, but still the leap in technology that occurred in late XVIII century, incomparable with anything? So, let's return to metallurgy.
The use of coke caused the need for modernization blast furnaces: it was necessary to sharply increase the blowing force. From physics you know that when burning coke consumes a lot of oxygen. If we leave the design of blast furnaces the same, then their productivity when using coke was 2-3 times lower than when using wood fuel. In the 50s, the mechanic Smeaton invented a new type of cylindrical bellows based on the pump-piston operating principle with a performance that was an order of magnitude higher than the previous level. A steam engine was used to power the bellows. Using coke, blast furnaces in England began to produce huge amounts of cast iron for that time.
Needless to say, the growth is impressive. The iron industry also did not stand still. In 1784, Court and Onions invented (independently of each other) a method for producing malleable iron by smelting cast iron over a coke fire and then rolling the metal on special rollers. This method in metallurgy is called puddling. To characterize the significance of the method, it is enough to say that the worker’s labor productivity has increased 15 times! (Previously, this operation was carried out manually with hammers.) And finally, in the 50s, Gensman invented a method for producing crucible steel.
The transition to machine technology, the emergence of a new powerful engine, as well as a revolution in the metallurgy of cast iron and iron led to the emergence of a new factory industry - mechanical engineering.
Mechanical engineering, paradoxically, could not develop freely and was greatly hampered as long as the machine itself was still produced by hand. If the first looms in the 70s of the 18th century were made mainly of wood, then they were relatively easy to make in a manufactory or even in a handicraft workshop. And rolling rollers, metal lathes, hydraulic hammers, drilling machines, consisting of axles, gears, shafts, etc., must be made of metal. And the wooden looms themselves could not work long and productively. It was also necessary to make them from metal. The now required precision in the manufacture of parts of a strictly geometric shape and the need to satisfy the rapidly growing and becoming massive demand for machines turned out to be incompatible with the craft technology for the production of various parts and components of machines. It was therefore required that the parts and components also be produced by machines!
This problem was solved in England at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century with the invention of the most important wood and metalworking machines. Decisive for the revolution in mechanical engineering is the transformation of manual lathe into a mechanical one by introducing a so-called support that carries the cutter and directs it to the object being processed. This invention was made in 1797 by Modelay. The new technical principle introduced by Maudslay was then transferred, albeit in a modified form, to other metalworking machines: slotting, planing, drilling, milling. The names of the English mechanical inventors Roberts and Whitworth and the American Whitney, now known throughout the world, were few people knew at that time. But they were the founders of mechanical engineering!
Along with the main types of metalworking machines, English engineering factories early XIX centuries began to be equipped with a whole system of precision measuring instruments. For what? To solve one of the main problems of mechanical engineering - the accuracy of parts processing! And finally, a new, unprecedented principle appeared - the production of standard interchangeable parts. American machine builders first used this remarkable innovation in military factories, where mass production of standard parts was established.
Previously, this operation was performed manually.
The new, rapidly developing textile industry faced another problem - how to quickly and in large quantities deliver raw materials to factories, and factory products to markets. Horse transport on land and a sailing fleet at sea could not solve the problem. A revolution in transport was brewing. The driving force behind this “transport revolution” was, of course, Watt’s steam engine, which created ample opportunities for the emergence of powerful machinery for land and sea communications.
The history of the invention and first “steps” of the steam locomotive and steamship begins at the beginning of the 19th century, with attempts to create a steamship. The first attempts were made back in the 17th century, but only at the end of the 18th century, after the massive introduction of Watt's steam engines into industrial production, did they receive a practical basis. Many designs were proposed, but only the American Robert Fulton managed to create a steamboat in 1807. His Claremont was the first steamship in the world to begin regular sailing. It is interesting that Fulton began his inventive activity in France.
Being an ardent admirer of Napoleon and supporting his fight against England, Fulton proposed to Napoleon the idea of creating a French navy (steam) for a victorious war against the “mistress of the seas” England with her powerful but sailing fleet. However, Fulton's idea did not meet with Napoleon's support. The great strategist and politician could not appreciate the great idea of the inventor and the political success that it promised him. This prompted Fulton to leave for America, where he completed his work brilliantly.
In Europe, the first steamboat was built by the English mechanic Bell in 1811. The beginning of oceanic navigation was marked in 1818 by the first voyage of the English steamship Savannah from Liverpool to New York.
The conquest of water transport by the steam engine made it possible to solve two main problems facing the English, and after it other countries, textile industry: the rapid transportation of huge loads of industrial raw materials over long distances and the distribution of factory products in all parts of the world.
No less important was the creation of mechanical land transport. The Englishman Trevithick designed the first steam locomotive in 1804, but it was not until 1825 that the first railway was built between Stockton and Darlington. This was preceded by a lot of inventive and scientific work by many, many people. A practically usable type of steam locomotive was created thanks to the work of Georg and Robert
Stephensons in 1814 - 1825. In 1829, the most important manufacturing center of England, Manchester, and the main port that supplied Manchester cotton factories with cotton, Liverpool, were connected by railroad. The construction of railways was entirely at the service of the needs of industry. Following England, railways began to be built in other countries. The first steam locomotives appeared in France in 1828, in America in 1830, in Russia in 1833. The construction of railways continues to this day.
Quite recently, the Baikal-Amur Mainline was built and began to be developed in our country. Branches from it will go to the most remote points of Eastern and Western Siberia. They will connect industrial centers with the raw materials storehouses of these regions. Now modern multi-car locomotives are already racing along the railways, but we will never forget the pioneers of machine-powered land transport - steam locomotives of the early 19th century.
5. MECHANIZATION OF HAND WEAVING
IMPROVEMENT OF THE HANDLOOM
So we've looked at a short history technical revolution of the second half of the 18th century. How did weaving develop at this time?
The beginning of technical transformations in weaving was the invention in 1733 by the Englishman John Kay of the so-called shuttle-plane. Kay's goal was to make it possible for wide looms to be operated by one person. After all, before this invention, the weft thread was pulled between the warp threads by hand, and when producing wide fabrics, the process was beyond the power of one person, i.e. Two weavers worked on one wide loom. In addition, manually throwing the shuttle quickly tired the weaver's hands, slowed down the weaving process and, consequently, caused low labor productivity. The essence of Kay's invention was as follows. Four rollers were attached to an ordinary shuttle, with the help of which it was supposed to roll along the track of a narrow board attached to the drum mechanism of the machine. On the sides of the machine there were two shuttle boxes (Fig. 10), each of which contained drives connected by cords to a common handle. Starting work, the weaver pulled the left cord and activated the left drive, which struck the toe of the shuttle with its hammer (drive), causing it to fly through the warp throat into the right shuttle box. After the impact, the left driver, under the action of the spring, moved back to its original position. Then the weaver, having nailed the weft thread to the edge of the fabric, pressed the pedal, which formed a new shed, after which the weaver activated the right drive, which told the shuttle to move in the opposite direction.
Kay's fly shuttle almost doubled labor productivity. By the beginning of the 60s of the 18th century, it took a dominant position in all types of weaving.
In 1786, the mechanical loom was invented. Its author is Edmund Cartwright, Doctor of Divinity at Oxford University. This was preceded by a number of attempts to mechanize the weaving process by various mechanics. The power loom designed by Cartwright is shown in Fig. 11. It can be seen that Cartwright introduced direct filling of the base from the reels. This machine provides for the processing of warp threads with sizing (a special adhesive composition that gives the threads smoothness and strength). The produced fabric passed between the cylinders and accumulated in a special box. On the main camshaft of the machine there were cams that drove the drives for laying the weft in the shed and the healds for forming the shed. The shuttle flew through the throat under the action of a driver, which received movement from the corresponding cam. To convert the rotational movement of the main shaft into the translational movement of the shuttle along this shaft, Cartwright introduced two additional shafts, perpendicular to the first and each having a cam. With each revolution of the main shaft, its cam (alternately right and left) acted on the cam of the transverse shaft, which in turn activated the driver, which returned after hitting the shuttle to its original position under the action of a spring. In addition, there were special cams that raised the healds. A connecting rod was attached to the main shaft, which imparted an oscillatory movement to the batan, due to which, with each blow, the reed automatically moved the weft thread to the edge of the fabric.
Thus, Cartwright managed to mechanize all the main operations of hand weaving: throwing the shuttle through the shed; raising of healds and formation of a shed; surfing the weft thread to the edge of the fabric with a reed; winding the warp threads; eating the waste fabric.
Cartwright's invention of the power loom was the final necessary link in the 18th century's technical revolution in weaving. It caused a radical restructuring of the technology and organization of production, the emergence of a whole series of machines and machines that made it possible to sharply increase labor productivity in the textile industry. Despite the fact that Cartwright did not fundamentally create new system weaving and its mechanical machine retained all the main features of a handloom, having received only a mechanical drive from an engine; the significance of this invention was extremely great. It created all the conditions for the displacement of the manufacturing (manual) method of production by large-scale factory industry.
The victory of mechanical weaving over hand weaving led to the death of millions of hand weavers on the European and Asian continents. K. Marx wrote: “When a machine gradually takes possession of a certain sphere of production, it produces chronic poverty in the strata of workers competing with it. When the transition occurs quickly, its effect is massive and acute. The World History does not know a more terrifying spectacle than the gradual death of English cotton weavers, which dragged on for decades and finally ended in 1838. Many of them starved to death, many eked out an existence with their families on 2/2d a day.” K. Marx also cited the words of the Governor-General of the East Indies, who stated in 1834-1835: “This disaster can hardly find a parallel in the history of trade. The plains of India are white with the bones of cotton weavers.” This tragedy was preceded by years and decades of struggle by hand weavers against machines and their inventors.
Neither the inventor of the airplane shuttle Kay, nor the author of the mechanical loom Cartwright escaped the wrath of hand weavers.
In 1747, in Bury, Kay's hometown, there was a weavers' riot, accompanied by the destruction of the inventor's house. Kay barely managed to escape to Manchester, from where he left for France, leaving his homeland forever. 100 years after the great invention, in 1833, the residents of Bury erected a full-length monument to him with a shuttle in his hand. A similar story happened with Cartwright. In 1791, he built a factory with a capacity of 400 mechanical looms driven by several powerful steam engines. A month after the factory opened, the surrounding hand weavers, worried about unexpected competition that threatened to undermine their well-being, set the factory on fire. Individual outbreaks of worker discontent in the 18th century were random and sometimes senseless.
The creation of factories not only made manual labor unnecessary, but also meant for the young working class the beginning of all the horrors of the factory system with its frantic intensity of work in order to increase productivity by any means. The manufacturing period did not know such sophisticated methods of exploitation as capitalism brought with it. Already in 1779, a wave of workers’ protests against machines swept through a number of areas of England. If earlier speeches against some inventors or the destruction of an enterprise
Although they were isolated, with the advent of factories they first became widespread. This was the first reaction of the English proletariat to a new means of exploitation, born along with the factory system - machine technology. The workers believed that the reason for the sharp deterioration in their financial situation was unemployment, poverty, etc. , are machines. In Lancashire, where machinery was especially common, the movement of demolition workers became violent in 1779. In a number of factories, workers organized themselves into armed groups and, despite the law adopted by the English government in 1769 introducing the death penalty for the destruction of factory buildings, they began to destroy machines. This movement is known as the Luddite movement. Its name comes from the name of their leader, the legendary worker Ned Ludd, who was supposedly the first to destroy his machine. The Luddites destroyed not only their factories and workshops, but also all others they encountered on their way. Other workers joined them. The size of the movement increased catastrophically, so the British government mobilized all means to suppress it. The movement was suppressed. Despite the naivety of the goals and their obvious fallacy, it was the first organized action of the young proletariat.
Cartwright's power loom, for all its merits in its original form, was not yet so advanced as to pose a serious threat to hand weaving. Taking into account the eternal principle “the best is the enemy of the good,” work began on improving the Cartwright machine. Among others, it is worth noting the mechanical loom of William Horrocks, which differed from Cartwright's loom mainly by raising the healds from the eccentrics (1803). In 1813, there were already about 2,400 power looms operating in England, mainly Horrocks systems. The defeat of the Luddite movement increased the desire for further mechanization of the loom.
A turning point in the history of mechanical weaving is the appearance in 1822 of the loom of engineer Roberts, a famous inventor in various fields of mechanics. He created that rational form of the loom, which fully complies with the laws of mechanics. This machine practically completed a technical revolution in weaving and created the conditions for the complete victory of machine weaving over hand weaving.
What did Roberts add to the design of the Cartwright-Horrocks machine? This is primarily a set of fabric on a commodity shaft with
using a gear mounted on the shaft axis and operating from the gear of a ratchet wheel, driven by a pawl connected to the baton. An exact correspondence was established between the movement of the beam with the base and the commodity shaft using a worm gear. In addition, the Roberts machine could produce fabrics of more complex weaves thanks to a new shedding mechanism. The basic elements of the Roberts mechanical loom are still used in loom designs. One of the most important improvements in the mechanical loom of the first half of the 19th century century was the introduction of automatic stop in the case of weft or warp thread.
The desire to automate the operation of a weaving machine forced inventors to look for and find ways to continuously power the machine with weft and automatically change the weft without stopping the weaving machine. In the 30s years XIX century, the productivity of mechanical weaving looms powered by a steam engine reached 120 - 130 weft inserts per minute. Now the main task of the development of weaving technology has become the continuity of operation of looms. The main obstacle here was the frequent (every 5-8 minutes) change of shuttle bobbins and the mandatory stop of the weaving machine.
6. FORWARD TO AUTOMATION!
I want to reach everything
To the very essence.
B. Pasternak
PRODUCTIVITY AND MORE PRODUCTIVITY!
The disadvantage of the mechanical loom was that it often had to be stopped while finishing the bobbin in the shuttle. This, naturally, took a lot of time from the weaver to maintain the loom and significantly reduced its productivity.
That is why the attention of inventors was drawn to the development of such a device that would provide uninterrupted power to the weft machine for a long time. This device was also supposed to create the prerequisites for the weaver for multi-loom service. Many attempts have been made to achieve continuous operation of the loom by using a mechanism that automatically changes the weft package without stopping the loom.
The first step towards solving the problem was the appearance of multi-shuttle mechanical looms in the 30-40s of the 19th century. There were two types of machines. The first type is with lifting shuttle boxes, when the shuttle boxes were placed on both sides of the machine (or only on one side, and there was only one shuttle box on the other). Shuttle boxes with shuttles could move from top to bottom and bottom to top, and at the moment of formation of the pharynx the corresponding shuttle
No more than four.
the box was installed at the level of the batan slide. The second type of multi-shuttle machines are revolving ones, where the shuttle boxes were located in sectors of the drum and moved as it rotated. Such revolving machines, or rather their multi-shuttle mechanisms, were very similar to the drum of a Colt revolver - the favorite and faithful weapon of American cowboys. The disadvantage of revolving looms was the large size of the drum.
When and where an attempt was made to equip a mechanical loom with a mechanism for automatically changing the weft package is not precisely established, but it is known that in 1834 John Reed and Thomas Johnson proposed a mechanism for changing the shuttle when the weft thread was broken or defective without the intervention of the weaver and without stopping the loom . The mechanism was driven by a special probe mounted on a shuttle. A few years later, in 1840, Charles Parker invented a device by which a shuttle with a spent (empty) spool was automatically replaced with a new one with a full spool. Later, in 1850, Williams Newton also patented a similar mechanism. In 1857, Patrick McForlane received a patent for a device consisting of a box with a spool. This box was inserted into the shuttle and ejected automatically from it when the spool was completed. In 1888, Jacob Zucker patented in England a device for automatically changing shuttles, powered by a weft fork. However, when using the device, each time the shuttle was changed, the fabric structure was disrupted - the weft density of the fabric decreased. This marriage is called under-cut.
Thus, the inquisitive thoughts of the inventors did not stand still. The mechanical loom has been “surviving” for the last few years. However, the widespread introduction of automatic looms into industry began only after 1894, when D.H. Northrop invented and patented a mechanism for automatically changing bobbins in the United States. The USA became the birthplace of automatic looms. In pursuit of the highest labor productivity, the Dreper company for the first time clearly defined and quickly solved the problem of automating mechanical weaving looms. At the same time, we proceeded from the simple and correct position that in no textile production is such a large number of workers required to service machines as in weaving. As a result of the group's work
designers under the leadership of D.Kh. Northrop created an automatic weaving loom, which differed from a mechanical one not only in the automatic change of bobbins, but also in a number of other mechanisms that sharply increased the speed of the machines and productivity in weaving production. These mechanisms included: a warp feed mechanism, a warp observer that stops the machine when the main threads break, a weft spool, a typesetting mechanism, etc. Already in 1895, automatic weaving looms from the Drepper company worked stably with a main shaft rotation speed of 150 min-1. This means that 150 burrows were laid in one minute. One weaver serviced 12 looms, and weaving productivity increased 50 times.
The main goal of automatic weaving is to reduce to a minimum or completely eliminate stoppages of the weaving machine for various reasons (breakage of warp and weft threads, disorder of mechanisms and components of the machine, etc.) and, therefore, to minimize the weaver’s workload. Installing a well-functioning mechanism for automatically changing bobbins (or shuttles) on a mechanical weaving loom for uninterrupted power supply of the weft to the machine, although it eliminates the main reason for machine stops when finishing the bobbin in the shuttle, however, cannot fully ensure the operation of the machine without a lot of time spent by the weaver on its maintenance. Time spent on maintenance is caused by many reasons. And the main one is monitoring the breakage of the main threads. If the weaver does not eliminate the break in the main thread in time, then in its place there will be a void in the fabric, and therefore a defect, called a defect. So, the appearance of this defect significantly hampered the transition of weavers to multi-loom service, it held it back until a basic observer was invented and installed on the loom, stopping the loom when the main threads (one or more) were broken. Later, a light alarm was connected to the main observer, warning the weaver about the breakage of the main threads. Comfortable? Certainly! Enough? No! The fact is that in order to maintain uniform tension of the main threads on mechanical looms, the weaver from time to time had to manually adjust (change) it using a hand brake. On the one hand, this distracted the weaver's attention, on the other, it took a lot of time and required effort. Therefore, a main regulator mechanism was created that automatically releases a certain amount of warp for each cycle of machine operation. So the weaver was freed from this burden.
We talked only about the main reasons that slow down the transition from mechanical weaving to multi-loom automatic weaving. But there are a lot of them. Here we have centralized lubrication of machines instead of manual ones, and the use of a mechanism for winding fabric (the so-called commodity regulator) and a number of others that allow the weaver to save precious seconds. Seconds?! Yes, imagine that saving a few seconds when performing one frequently repeated operation can significantly increase the useful time of the machine, which in turn increases labor productivity in weaving.
What is the useful time coefficient of a machine or, as they say, CPV? This is the ratio of the time the machine is running to the time it would have been running if it had not stopped. For example, a weaver's work shift is 8 hours. During this time, the weaving machine worked for 5.2 hours (and the machine was idle for 2.8 hours for various reasons: eliminating broken warp and weft threads, setting up the machine, etc.). This means that the CPV of the machine in this case is 5.2:8 = 0.65. Is it a lot or a little? For modern conditions - very little. And at the dawn of automatic shuttle weaving, this was an unattainable figure. Therefore, all the efforts of the inventors were directed towards one thing - to increase the CPV of the machine by automating it and creating conditions for the weaver to service as many looms as possible.
However, let's go back to 1895. Thanks to the installation on the loom of a mechanism for automatically feeding the loom with weft, the main regulator, the main observer and other mechanisms, the weaver's workload was significantly reduced. His main work was the elimination of breaks in the warp and weft threads. Therefore, the number of stops of the weaving machine for these reasons per unit time mainly determines the number of automatic weaving machines that can be assigned to one weaver. Reducing to a minimum the stoppages of weaving machines due to thread breaks makes it possible to greatly increase the number of looms served by one weaver.
Here we should immediately make a reservation. There are many additional factors that influence the maximum number of looms served by one weaver or the rate of maintenance. First of all, this is the type of raw material processed and the complexity of the fabrics produced on the machine. It is clear that the thinner the warp and weft threads are and the
The more complex the structure of the fabric, the more attention on the part of the weaver will be required to maintain the loom and, therefore, the fewer looms the weaver will be able to service. For example, if when producing calico from medium-thick cotton yarn, the maintenance rate reaches 100-120 looms, then when producing complex jacquard fabric from thin silk threads, the maintenance rate does not exceed 4-6 looms.
The widespread introduction of automatic looms brought about a huge increase in productivity in weaving. At the beginning of the 20th century, on one automatic loom, in 8 hours it was possible to produce as much fabric as 10 hand weavers produced in a 12-14 hour working day. If we consider that the standard of service for a weaver at that time was 20-50 looms, it becomes obvious that the productivity of a weaver on automatic shuttle looms increased by 200-500 times compared to the productivity of a hand weaver!
WHY DOES A WEAVING LOOM HAVE A SHUTTLE?
Over the decades that have passed since the development of the first automatic looms, the trends towards increasing service standards have remained the same. Of course, now these issues are being resolved at a higher technical level. But if we trace how the main stages of improving automatic shuttle weaving took place, then the first thing that the creators of high-speed weaving machines have to face is the need to use high-quality materials for the manufacture of an automatic weaving machine (the best grades of steel, various high-strength alloys, extra-hard cast irons). The increase in the speed of the weaving machine (and by the 30s of our century the speeds reached 200-210 insertions of weft threads per minute) required a more wear-resistant design of parts and components of the machine, their high-quality execution and the possibility of interchangeability of parts. More and more machine mechanisms began to operate using electricity, friction clutches appeared in the drive, ball and roller bearings began to be used, and machine frames were strengthened. The weaving machine was driven by an individual electric motor.
So, the goal of improvement, modernization is to increase the speed and productivity of the weaving machine. To what limit can the speed of a shuttle loom be increased?
You probably remember that transverse threads, i.e. weft, places a special device in the warp shed - a shuttle, which makes its way from “shore” to “shore”, or from one edge of the fabric to the other. This shuttle is a big hard worker. In one minute it makes from 200 to 250 or more “flights” (i.e. one flight in 0.2-0.3 seconds). In order for the shuttle to run (no, rather fly) a distance of 1 to 2 meters, it needs considerable speed - up to 10 meters per second. To impart such a speed to the shuttle, appropriate kinetic energy is required. You know how to calculate its value from physics. But the problem is that most of this energy is spent on braking the shuttle. For what? And then to give him speed again, but in the opposite direction. And for this it is necessary that the initial speed of the shuttle be equal to zero. This causes a lot of trouble. For example, wear of the shuttles themselves, increased vibration of the machine, noise in the weaving shop and, finally, the impossibility of sharply increasing the speed of the weaving machine, and therefore its productivity.
What is a shuttle? In general terms, this is a part of a loom that serves to lay the weft thread from one edge of the fabric to the other. In the shuttle, a special hollow cylinder (spool) with a thread of a certain length wound on it is fixed on a special rod. At one time, the invention of the shuttle dramatically increased the productivity of the weaving machine. But why does the shuttle weigh several times more than the supply of thread it carries? Is it correct? Or maybe do the opposite - so that the supply of thread by weight is greater than the shuttle? And not just more, but several times, by an order of magnitude or by 2 - 3 orders of magnitude! And a machine with such a shuttle was created. A weaving machine where the mass of the microshuttle is 25 grams, and the mass of the bobbin from which the weft thread clamped by the jaws of the microshuttle is wound up is up to 7 kilograms or more. This invention made it possible to dramatically increase the flight speed of the micro-shuttle (up to 40 meters per second) and the filling width of the machine, and as a result, the machine could produce five 1-meter-wide sheets simultaneously on the machine.
The weft thread can now be laid in various ways: with water and air, with special grippers - rapiers and pneumatic rapiers. There are also circular weaving machines, where several micro-shuttles are simultaneously involved in the formation of fabric. Shuttleless weaving continues to evolve. The main goal is productivity plus the quality of the fabric produced. In pneumatic and hydraulic weaving machines, the weft thread is laid, respectively, by a stream of air or water emerging from a nozzle or nozzle through a guide channel - a confuser. On pneumatic rapier weaving looms, two hollow tubes - rapiers - are inserted into the shed from both sides; excess pressure is created in the right rapier, and a vacuum is created in the left. As a result, an air flow is formed that carries the weft thread inside the rapiers. After laying the weft thread, the rapiers come out of the shed, and the weft thread is nailed to the edge of the fabric with a reed. On rapier looms, the weft thread is laid with special grippers - rapiers, mounted on rigid rods or flexible belts on both sides of the loom. Multi-shed weaving machines have appeared, where the warp threads form several wavy sheds moving across the warp, in each of which micro-shuttles moving at a constant speed, laying weft threads. The productivity of multi-shed weaving machines reaches 140 square meters of fabric per hour. Fantastic? And yet this is already a reality.
What is modern weaving? These are not only high-speed shuttleless looms. A certain microclimate is automatically maintained here, i.e. air temperature and humidity. Why is this necessary? The fact is that if the air humidity is insufficient, the threads dry out quickly and lose their resistance to repeated loads. But each type of thread reacts to microclimate differently: for example, cotton yarn becomes weaker as humidity decreases, while viscose yarn, on the contrary, becomes stronger. Consequently, each type of thread requires its own optimal microclimate.
Weaving looms of modern production are connected to automatic system control system (ACS), which allows monitoring their condition. Now our country is completing preparations for the complete automation of weaving production. Each machine will be equipped with a set of devices for automatic control of technological parameters and a microprocessor; sets of machines will be connected to a computer that monitors and regulates the weaving process.
The 20th century is ending. Now there is not a single industry that does not use the achievements of fundamental sciences: physics, mathematics, chemistry, etc. And weaving is no exception. Radioactive isotopes are used here: for process control, removal of static electricity charges and radiation treatment of tissues (in order to increase their wear resistance). All modern weaving machines are equipped with light signaling of the reasons for stopping the machine. But there are several of them! If the weft thread breaks - the yellow light comes on, the warp thread - blue, any mechanism goes wrong - the red light comes on. There is a rapid introduction of electronics into quality. These are almost all control sensors that are equipped with weaving machines and, finally, with computers, which reign in modern weaving production.
Making forecasts is a dangerous business. Mark Twain once remarked that throughout history, humanity has been playing a funny game called “Pull the nose of the prophet.” And yet, let's take a risk... And the risk will not be particularly great, since the trends in the development of weaving equipment are generally clear. And yet... Let us remember how the textile world was recently surprised by the appearance of shuttleless weaving machines - weaving with a jet of water, air, rapier, micro-shuttle. What about multi-section machines? But they are not the limit in weaving technology. The first models of new weaving machines with a pneumatic method of shed formation are already appearing. The use of rotating parts in these machines instead of linear moving ones makes it possible to achieve a productivity of 3000 cuts per minute, which is almost 5 times higher than the productivity of multi-section machines.
Technical progress at the end of the second millennium of the new era... Man and progress... They have a complex relationship. Doubts, ups and downs, downs and ups and more doubts. The path of development of technology (and technology) has never been smooth. But man stubbornly continues to comprehend and study the unknown. His strength lies only in knowledge, as Francis Bacon said.
Let us wait for new great inventions in technology and new theories in the technology of such an ancient specialty as weaving! Or maybe not only wait, but also participate in their implementation?
7. DEVELOPMENT OF WEAVING CRAFT IN RUSSIA
As soon as any merchant puts a rotten burden on him, cut off his head, so that others will be discouraged!
From the decrees of Peter I
The muscular arm of millions of working people will rise, and the yoke of despotism, fenced with soldiers' bayonets, will crumble to dust.
Petr Alekseev
Since ancient times, canvases and linens from linen and hemp yarn have been woven by hand in Rus'. Until the 15th century, peasants produced homespun linen fabrics for their needs: yarig, row, thickness, chastina, tonchina, motley, etc. With the formation of the Russian centralized state, trade and crafts began to develop, and connections were established with the East and West. In 1466, the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin went with Russian goods to India. Among other goods, he carried linen fabrics. In 1553, the British, in search of new routes to India, attempted to get there through the Arctic Ocean. Of the three ships, two died, and one fell into the White Sea and sailed to Arkhangelsk. Thus began Russian-English trade. Among Russian exports, the first place was occupied by linen fabrics, which were called “Russian silk”, the second place was taken by woolen fabrics. In Rus', the production of woolen fabrics (mainly cloth) was one of the main household activities.
From the chronicle of 1425 it is known that the population wore everyday clothes made of homespun cloth. Fine cloth was mostly imported from abroad and was often given out as a reward. Fabrics brought from abroad were used to meet the needs of the army, as well as the royal court. These fabrics were very expensive, so attempts were made to make
woolen fabrics in Russia. The first attempts date back to the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible. At this time, Russia was constantly fighting wars, which required a lot of money. To save gold, raw materials and grain exported abroad every year, they decided to try to organize the production of fabrics at home. During the war with Livonia, Ivan the Terrible ordered all captured German craftsmen to be sent to Moscow. The first silk weaving factory was built, where they began to produce brocade, damask, sashes, ribbons, etc. from Persian silk.
At the beginning of the 16th century, in Moscow, with the participation of immigrants from Constantinople, the production of brocade was established - fabric made from natural silk with gold and silver threads. Brocade was used for church clothes. At the same time, unsuccessful attempts were made to breed silkworms and obtain raw silk in the southern regions of Russia.
In 1630, the Russian government sent master Fambrand abroad to recruit workers and craftsmen who knew the “velvet business.” In 652, the first Russian velvet was produced in Moscow. From this time on, the development of weaving began in Russia. It was further developed under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. His Minister of Foreign Affairs (one of the talented and educated people of Russia at that time), Prince Ordin-Nashchokin, paid serious attention to the development of domestic industry and trade, urgently demanding a reduction in the export of money from the country for the purchase of expensive cloth, silk and patterned fabrics from foreigners. His innovations strengthened the Russian economy and expanded its foreign trade. Handicraft production of fabrics in Russia began to turn into commercial production.
In those days when there were no factories and factories in Rus', there was no regular trade; textiles and household goods were traded mainly in those places where foreign goods were delivered. One of these places was the Arkhangelsk port. Goods were brought for exchange from all over Rus': honey and furs, bread and fabrics. From here they were transported further along the rivers. In winter, frozen rivers served as roads.
The delivery of goods was timed to coincide with a certain time of year and the place where trade fairs were held. To deliver goods to the fairs, merchants united in large caravans, which were accompanied by armed guards. Fairs in Russia were important and existed until the end of the 19th century. Transactions on the sale of land, bread, sugar, textiles and other various goods were concluded here, and contracts for contracts were also concluded here. Only at the end of the 19th century, with the development of horse-drawn roads and railways, fairs in Russia lost their importance.
At the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, entire regions appeared in Russia where fabrics for the treasury were produced. At this time, according to historian N.N. Kostomarov, near Moscow, the palace settlement of Kadashevka was inhabited by Khamovniks producing linen. In the Yaroslavl district, in the villages of Breytovo and Cherkasov, Khamovniks lived and wove towels and tablecloths. By the way, the word “khamovnik”, i.e. weaver, comes from the Indian word "khaman", which means "table cloth". Well, Kadashevskaya Sloboda got its name from the word “kadash”, i.e. thin linen fabric. Moscow has still retained these names (St. Nicholas Church “in Khamovniki”, Kadashevskaya Embankment, Church of the Resurrection “in Kadashi”).
The state-owned Khamovny Dvor became the first linen enterprise built by decree of Peter I in 1696. In 1700, the yard was already producing canvas for the Russian navy. Peter I took active measures to create Russian manufactories. In 1706, he issued a decree on the construction of a linen factory, which began producing fabrics already in 1709. The production of linen cloth in the vicinity of the village of Ivanova also expanded.
In Rus', flax was sown to obtain not only fiber, but also high-quality linseed oil. The production of yarn and fabrics from flax spread quite quickly in Russia: in the south and Novgorod, in Ivanovo and Suzdal, in Pskov and Belarus. Peter did a lot for the development of linen production!
Russian manufactories worked not only for the treasury, but also for export abroad. Thin linen fabrics produced at the Bolshaya Yaroslavl manufactory (Fig. 14) competed with the best varieties Dutch linen fabrics. Under Peter I, a silk weaving factory was founded in 1714 under the leadership of master Mimotin, who independently studied silk weaving. This factory organized training for Russian weavers in the production of silk fabrics. Companions of Peter I Shafirov, Apraksin and Tolstoy received the right to develop the silk industry in Russia. In 1721, they transferred the silk business to eight large merchants. The first Russian manufacturers were merchants of the first class - guests of the Cloth Hundred Living Room. At the same time, they were large merchant wholesalers.
Rice. 14. Russian loom at the Bolshaya Yaroslavl Manufactory
The first cloth manufactory of the merchant Fyodor Serikov was founded in Moscow in 1698, and in 1705 Peter I first sewed himself a caftan from Russian cloth. A year earlier, he founded a state-owned cloth factory near Voronezh, and in 1705 a cloth factory in Moscow.
In 1722, the famous Ural industrialist Nikita Demidov sent Peter I as a gift a piece of linen woven from mountain flax fibers (asbestos), which was slightly thicker than linen, but did not burn in fire.
In the era of Peter I, when establishing factories, including weaving ones, the owner was given certain privileges, as well as the right to hire for high fee Russian and foreign masters. At that time (about 250 years ago) the peasants of entire villages and hamlets were assigned to factories. Peasants assigned to plants and factories did not pay taxes, but received a soldier's ration of 6.2 rubles per year (at prices of 1725). Serfs did not always receive monetary compensation; they were only given food and clothing. Civilian workers received wages money: in state-owned factories monthly, and in private factories on a piece-rate basis. In addition to money, workers received food. Workers' labor was paid higher in silk factories, lower in cotton factories, even lower in wool and cloth factories, and the lowest wages were received by workers in linen (linen) factories. In state-owned (state) factories, workers were paid better than in private ones. The difference between the earnings of a foreign master and a Russian worker was monstrous: 5400 and 120 - 160 rubles per year.
After the death of Peter I, the development of the textile industry was first suspended, and then began to freeze completely. Many in the government did not sympathize with the reforms of Peter I. Further, as is known, during the reign of Catherine I, Anna Joanovna, Elizaveta Petrovna and, of course, Catherine II, state-owned peasants, along with plants and factories, were transferred to favorites who did not show the slightest interest in the development of domestic industry . The transfer of a large number of state peasants to large landowners made it very difficult to hire workers for private weaving factories, since there were very few free people, and the landowners were not very willing to let their peasants go to work. The transfer of peasants with factories and factories further complicated and slowed down the development of domestic industry also because the landowners were not capable of running a factory business. Their managers were people incompetent in running a factory business and were mainly engaged in agriculture. This situation led state industry to decline; some former state-owned factories were liquidated, while others eked out a miserable existence, becoming unprofitable.
As for small private factories, due to the lack of labor and the insufficiently high quality of the fabrics produced and their high cost (due to the high cost of raw materials imported from abroad), they went bankrupt, unable to withstand the competition of the best foreign ones in terms of quality and variety of artistic design. fabrics. Naturally, it was more profitable for foreigners to sell finished fabrics to Russia than raw materials, especially since the customs duty on raw materials and finished fabrics was the same. Competition from foreign fabrics was especially felt in the silk and wool industries.
This continued until the abolition of serfdom in Russia, i.e. until 1861. The abolition of serfdom was the impetus for
the rise of capitalism in Russia. The “liberated” peasants, who had no means of subsistence, turned into cheap day laborers. Child labor was widely used, and the system of fines was taken to the extreme.
Shortly before this, in 1842, England lifted the ban on the sale and export abroad of textile machines, including weaving machines. A flow of cars and foreign specialists poured into Russia. The period of foreign dominance in the Russian textile industry began. In 1861 - 1880, the government carried out a number of measures aimed at revitalizing and expanding the domestic textile industry.
Wealthy peasants and merchants began to open distribution offices, i.e. distribute work to houses, where on handlooms weavers produced fabrics for various purposes according to the instructions received. The owners of distribution offices, who became rich, could already build weaving factories and purchase modern equipment for them. Handicraftsmen such as I.A. Baranov, the Sokolikov and Bratnin brothers, Krasnov, Filimonov and others produced mainly piece goods in their small factories: scarves, shawls, headbands.
In Russia in the second half of the 19th century, a narrow specialization of textile enterprises emerged. Thus, in Pavlovsky Posad the production of scarves predominated, in Bogorodsky - satins, ribbons, velvet, plush, in Shchelkovsky - expensive silk dress fabrics.
Now industrial production was concentrated in the hands of capitalists (formerly wealthy merchants) familiar with the structure industrial enterprises, with supply and demand in the market, and having the means to build large factories and invite highly qualified specialists. At the same time, there is an increase in activity among wealthy peasants who previously worked in state-owned or private weaving factories. They organize handicraft weaving workshops. As a result, fabric production in Russia begins to grow steadily. Textile regions are being formed: cotton production is concentrated in Ivanovo, Ramensky and Yegoryevsky districts, and silk production is concentrated in Moscow and the Moscow region, Kirzhachsky district.
You already know that Russian silk fabrics could not compete with foreign ones. In addition, it is necessary to take into account the admiration of foreign fabrics at the top of Russian society, as well as the weak purchasing power of the population. And, of course, in Russia there were no raw materials for the production of silk fabrics; they were imported from abroad. After the end of the war with Turkey, the demand for silk fabrics unexpectedly increased. At the same time, the duty on silk fabrics imported from abroad was increased. This led to a sharp rise in the domestic silk industry. New factories came into operation, producing velvet using the Lyon method, as well as shaped velvet and plush, moire and taffeta, satins and satins, lining and dress fabrics, diagonals and, finally, linen fabrics. There were factories that produced piece goods: shawls, scarves, shawls (grosgrain, satin, smooth and with a corner filled with a pattern, Turkish and gauze).
The Moscow Silk Manufactory Association united three factories owned by foreigners Simoneau, Goujon and Giraud. At the 1882 exhibition, the fabrics produced at these factories were awarded the highest award, the Golden Eagle. The range of silk fabrics produced was very diverse: velvet and plush, damask and moiré, satin and suire, armour and lining fabrics. The introduction of fabric dyeing with the application of sizing made it possible for large factories to somewhat reduce prices for mass-produced types of satin fabrics. This was also facilitated by the introduction of twisting machines and the use of twisted yarn in weft in satin fabrics. Consequently, factory fabrics became more beautiful and cheaper than handicraft fabrics. This led to the massive ruin of artisans and the centralization of the silk industry.
The invasion of the countryside by factory-made calico had a significant impact on peasant clothing. Comfortable chintz scarves began to quickly replace traditional hats, and bright alizarin chintz replaced embroidery. Rapidly developing capitalist relations undermined the established foundations and traditions of rural life. Gone are multi-layered clothing topped with complex, massive headdresses. A suit made of light, bright calico with a full skirt and a fitted jacket, complemented by a scarf draped over the shoulders or tied under the chin, has become one of the most common forms of folk costume. Factory, i.e. Made at the factory, the scarf began to play almost the same role in the costume of a Russian woman as the once ancient headdress. Pavlovian scarves were in particular demand (Fig. 15), which were a kind of response to the precious Kashmiri shawls brought from India. High quality workmanship, careful drawing of the smallest details, bright rich colors made Pavlovsk scarves and shawls genuine works of decorative and applied art. Traditionally, the material for the scarf was wool. For good quality heeling, woolen fabric was made from very fine yarn, specially processed, and was light and elastic. Such scarves and shawls were quite expensive.
Factory-made cotton scarves were much cheaper and more accessible. The most popular of them were the so-called alizarin Karabanov scarves. The history of Karabanov calicoes began in 1846, when the merchant Baranov bought a plot of land from the landowner Karabanov and built a dyeing factory on it. At the end of the 19th century, it began to compete with Moscow and St. Petersburg factories.
The rise of cotton production in Russia was also facilitated by the fact that in the middle of the 19th century, Russian chemists led by A.M. Butlerov discovered organic dyes from the mordant family, called alizarins. Alizarin printing allowed the use of a type of printed material - etching. Alizarin calicos were called calicos because of their bright red background (Fig. 16) 4
The relative cheapness of cotton fabrics produced from imported raw materials, compared to linen fabrics provided by the national raw material base, which began in the mid-19th century, led to some lag in the linen industry. This was due to the following reasons: on the one hand, more high level the development of spinning and weaving techniques in the cotton industry and the decline of hand-made linen production, on the other hand, flax growing and the flax processing industry were artificially placed in complete subordination to foreign demand for flax. In Russia, only 20-25% of the domestic flax harvest was processed. The rest of the flax was bought abroad for next to nothing, but expensive imported linen fabrics were imported into Russia. It was urgently necessary to bring the development of flax growing and the flax processing industry to a modern level. However, this happened only during Soviet times.
TO end of the 19th century century, the Russian textile industry entered the international arena. Fabrics from Russian factories successfully competed with French ones and were repeatedly noted at international exhibitions.
Printing enterprises were concentrated in those places where hand weaving, as well as peasant printed crafts, had long existed. Therefore, it is quite natural that Russian calico printing developed in the traditions of Russian printed material. The animal and plant world, the ornaments of imported foreign fabrics, popular prints - everything was a source of creativity for the Russian printmaker.
The most ancient motifs in Russian printed cloth are the simplest “road” ornaments, as well as various circles, stars, rosettes, and birds. Many plant motifs come from the East. "Cucumbers", "almonds" or "beans", borrowed from the design of oriental brocade and silk fabrics, became popular patterns in Russian fabrics. Characteristic Western motifs were also common - lace patterns, various flowers (Fig. 17)"
The first textile mills appeared, in which spinning, weaving and finishing industries operated. In the 70s of the 19th century, Russian factories began to widely use dyeing, finishing and machine printing of fabrics.
By the end of the 19th century, Russian weaving factories produced cambrics and muslins, piques and voiles. The widespread fashion for blouses contributed to a significant expansion of the range of blouse fabrics. Fabrics were produced that combined patterned weaving with printing. Such fabrics were produced by the factories of the Albert Gübner Calico Manufactory Partnership, Ivanovo factories, etc. Excellent decorative fabrics were produced by the factories of the Emil Zindel Manufactory Partnership. Their drawings were distinguished by their impeccable composition, rich light and shadow design, and light, refined coloring. The range of fabrics produced by the brothers A. and V. Sapozhnikov is also varied. Brocade, intended for export to the East, exactly reproduced oriental patterns (Fig. 18, 19). For the needs of the royal court
Rice. 17. Fragment of a Russian woman from the 19th century
and churches, fabrics with patterns in the Old Russian, Byzantine style were made. Cheap cotton products were produced by the Prokhorov Trekhgornaya manufactory, the Baranov factory and other Russian factories.
Russian inventors made improvements to the design of looms. However, compared to Western inventors, they had a much more difficult time. In Tsarist Russia it was easier for foreigners to patent inventions. Despite this, some Russian inventors still managed to legalize their inventions. For example, Nesterov designed a wide mechanical loom for producing cloth in 1834 (4 years earlier than LJenger in Germany), Lepeshkin proposed the design of a device for stopping the machine when the weft thread breaks in 1844, Petrov invented a mechanism for inserting the shuttle into the shed (fighting mechanism) in 1853. However, most Russian inventors remained unrecognized.
But let's return to the development of the textile industry in Russia. Its rapid growth continued. In almost three decades, Russia has become a major textile power. Now she no longer imported fabrics from abroad, but exported them.
As the years passed, Russian industry developed and strengthened. The growth of the textile industry in Russia in the 19th century can be traced through the example of the Prokhorovskaya Trekhgornaya Manufactory in Moscow, now the Trekhgornaya Manufactory cotton mill named after. F.E. Dzerzhinsky. If in 1816 the factory produced 546 thousand meters of fabric, then by the beginning of the 20th century, fabric production reached 60 million meters, i.e. more than 100 times! If we take into account the damage caused by a large fire in Moscow in 1877, the growth in output could have been higher.bk&mtgk
Textile enterprises occupy a special place in the development of the revolutionary movement in Russia. With the growth of industry, the working class grew and matured. By the mid-19th century, Russia's young working class began to realize its strength. Individual unorganized riots by individuals and small groups of workers began to give way not to spontaneous, but to prepared actions. At that time, the demands of the weavers were still naive in many ways, but this was only the beginning. In 1851, twelve weavers of the Prokhorov Trekhgornaya manufactory appealed to the authorities on behalf of all workers with a complaint of shortchange, humiliation and oppression. They reached the Governor General... As a result, they were arrested and exiled to Siberia. Outraged by the massacre of their comrades, 70 weavers filed a similar complaint. The owner of the manufactory, manufacturer Prokhorov, made minor concessions that did not satisfy the weavers. The strike began. For the first time, the manufacturer was forced to agree to the workers’ demands and sign a document according to which all previously imposed fines were canceled, deductions for food were stopped, and weavers’ pay books were introduced. This was the first victory of the Presnya weavers.
In 1905, weavers, along with metalworkers and railway workers, joined a general strike. At a joint meeting of workers of textile factories in Zamoskvorechye, the following resolution was adopted: “From now on, we recognize the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party as the defender and spokesman of our interests, and only under its leadership will we wage further struggle with both the capitalists and the government.”
The armed uprising of the workers of Krasnaya Presnya was a dress rehearsal for the coming revolution of 1917.
For more than a century, five generations of the Prokhorovs owned their manufactory. They made millions of rubles in profit from the hard labor of workers. There seemed to be no end to this. But 1917 destroyed the dreams of the capitalists forever. In 1918, the enterprise was nationalized, like hundreds of other enterprises in various cities of Russia.
It was a difficult time. The engineering and technical personnel of the factories were engaged in sabotage. There were no technically competent personnel dedicated to the cause of the revolution.
The almost complete lack of fuel and raw materials led to the impossibility of normal operation of most textile industry enterprises and, consequently, to their shutdown. In 1921, the textile factories of the city of Ivanovo produced only 117 million arshins of manufactory. For a country like Russia, this was negligible. It was necessary to restore the textile industry. Years of imperialism and civil war depleted the country's economy. People had almost nothing to eat, nothing to wear, plants and factories stopped one after another, transport did not work.
In 1919-1921, Glavtekstil was formed to manage large nationalized factories and large handicraft workshops. Small handicraft industry was concentrated in the management of provincial (regional) departments of the national economy, for example in the Moscow region - Mostekstil with sections for industries: silk, wool, linen and cotton. Since 1922, the restoration of previously mothballed factories began. In 1924-1928, the range of fabrics was restored and Soviet fabrics, in particular silk, entered the international market.
The Soviet government and the Bolshevik Party attached great importance to the revival of textile production. The All-Russian Textile Syndicate was formed, headed by a prominent figure in the party and state, Viktor Pavlovich Nogin. Throughout the country, destroyed enterprises were restored and new ones were put into operation. In 1927, the production volume of cotton and linen fabrics exceeded the level of 1913. Now no less ambitious tasks had to be solved. The recovery period has ended, a course has been set for the industrialization of the country, and the first five-year plan has been approved. The weaving shops of textile factories were equipped with more modern equipment, old machines were modernized, and labor productivity increased. The country's textile industry generated considerable profits during the first five-year plan - 2.5 billion rubles. Of these, 1.5 billion was allocated for the construction of heavy industry enterprises for the production of various machine tools, tractors and cars, aircraft and tanks. Our revolution had to defend itself!
The years of the first five-year plans were the years of strengthening the economic and defense power of our Motherland, the years of unprecedented enthusiasm of the working class, which realized its freedom and its responsibility for the fate of the country. In August 1935, Donetsk miner Alexei Stakhanov set an unprecedented labor productivity record. Stakhanov's initiative immediately turned into a nationwide movement. Weavers from Vichuga Evdokia and Maria Vinogradov have increased the service area of their looms several times. These were the first Stakhanovkas in weaving, and there were so many of them later!
In the thirties, new weaving factories were built in our country, equipped with modern domestically produced equipment, and expanded educational establishments who trained personnel for weaving production. Domestic high-quality fabrics appeared on store shelves: silk, linen, wool and cotton.
However, the peaceful work of the Soviet people was interrupted by the war. After June 1941, weaving enterprises, and not only weaving enterprises, became women's enterprises. Male weavers took up arms to defend the gains of October. The rear began to help the front. Fabrics for tunics, overcoats, underwear, and raincoats were made by the hands of Soviet women weavers. This was part of a national feat.
After the end of the Great Patriotic War it was necessary to restore industry again. During the war years, 400 major textile enterprises were destroyed, including 27 thousand weaving machines. I had to start from scratch again.
Constantly improving the living standards of Soviet people after the war became the main task. Weavers played an active role in solving this problem. It is their hands that create fabrics for linen, clothing, furniture, they make carpets and curtains. Yes, it’s impossible to list everything. Soviet designers are proposing new designs for productive weaving looms, and Soviet scientists are developing new technologies for producing fabrics.
I would like to say a few more words about the industry that produces consumer goods. In our country, for a very long time it was believed that working in the aviation or metalworking industry was much more honorable and prestigious than in textile production. Unfortunately, we have to admit that this idea of textile production is quite widespread among our youth. This is a misconception. When guys see complex textile machines and units, production lines, automatic machines that control technological processes, their opinion changes dramatically.
Not every industry can boast such diverse and interesting kinematic devices and mechanisms for transmitting motion as the textile industry. At the same time, weaving machines are the most complex equipment. The technology of textile production is complex and interesting. But the fate of any production is decided primarily by people, those who service weaving machines, those who master and improve the technique and technology of fabric production. Research has shown that the labor productivity of young workers with secondary education is 10-13% higher, and the number of innovators among them is 2-4 times greater than among those who completed 7-8 grades. And this needs no comment.
The XXVII Congress of the CPSU, determining the prospects for the development of our country, set tasks of unprecedented complexity and scope for the textile industry. These tasks will have to be solved by you - today's schoolchildren, those who in a few years will come to weaving factories, to research or design institutes, to machine-building factories, in order to bring joy to people with their work.
AFTERWORD
So you have become acquainted with one of the oldest and surprisingly interesting specialties - weaving. Of course, this acquaintance is quite brief. But if you want to learn something more about this, to see the weaving workshops of textile factories, if you are interested in the principles of fabric formation, the mechanisms of the loom, the author will consider that his goal has been achieved.
There are many specialties that are interesting and sometimes surprising. Yes, I think weaving is an amazing specialty! But that’s not the point. The main thing is to be a master of your craft, to work with inspiration and dedication. “Loud words,” you say. No, when you love your specialty, you devote yourself to it entirely, without reserve. Career weavers know the equipment they work on so well that they can hear their machine’s “call for help” from a subtle change in the general hum of the weaving shop.
Labor and creativity are inseparable. There is an opinion that the concept of “creativity” refers only to professions of mental work. This is mistake! If you work, then you create! Work without creativity, without inspiration, without a sense of the need for results turns into a burden.
The author will consider his work useful if someone (choosing a specialty) of those who read this book gives preference to the profession of weaver. The weaving industries of the textile industry are waiting for young recruits with warm hearts, inquisitive minds, strong, skillful and kind hands.
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Book text recognition from images (OCR) - creative studio BK-MTGC.
Knowledge control for the 1st quarter.
Dictation
Farewell to autumn.
The weather in October is damp. It rains all month. The autumn wind is blowing. The trees are rustling in the garden.
At night the rain stopped. The first snow fell. It's light all around. Everything around became elegant. Two crows sat on a birch tree. Fluffy snow fell. The road is frozen. Leaves and grass crunch on the path near the house.
Words for reference:it became frozen.
Grammar task:
- In the first sentence, underline the subjects and predicates.
- Disassemble the words according to their composition: autumn, garden.
- Write out a word from the text that has more letters than sounds.
Knowledge control for the 2nd quarter.
Dictation.
Snowman.
It's a wonderful winter day. Light snow is falling. The trees are dressed in white coats. The pond sleeps under the ice crust. Bright sun in the sky.
A group of guys ran out. They began to build a snowman. His eyes were made from light pieces of ice, his mouth and nose from carrots, and his eyebrows from coals. Joyful and fun for everyone!
Grammar task:
- Underline the main terms in the second sentence.
- Disassemble the words according to their composition (option 1: winter, fur coats; option 2: white, carrots).
- Find in the text words with the unstressed vowel being tested at the root. Choose test words for them. Write these words.
Knowledge control for the 3rd quarter.
Dictation.
First days of spring.
The bright sun is shining over the fields and forests. The roads became dark in the fields. The ice on the river turned blue. Sounding streams began to gurgle in the valleys. Resinous buds swelled on the trees. Soft down jackets appeared on the willows.
A timid hare ran out to the edge of the forest. An old moose cow came out into the clearing with a calf. The bear took her cubs out for their first walk.
Grammar task:
- Parse the sentences by members: Option 1: fourth sentence; Option 2: fifth sentence. Underline the main members of the sentence and write down the phrases.
- Choose adjectives that have opposite meanings.
Option 1: narrow stream - ...; diligent student - ...; Option 2: cowardly boy - ...; tall bush -...
Knowledge control for the 4th quarter.
Dictation.
Spring morning.
This happened in April. Early in the morning the sun woke up and looked at the earth. And there, overnight, winter and frost established their order. Snow covered the fields and hills. Icicles were hung on the trees.
The sun came out and ate the morning ice. A talkative stream ran down the valley. Suddenly, under the roots of a birch tree, he noticed a deep hole. A hedgehog was sleeping sweetly in a hole. The hedgehog found this secluded place in the fall. He didn't want to get up yet. But a cold stream crawled into the dry bed and woke up the hedgehog.
Grammar task:
- Disassemble the 7th and 9th sentences by members.
- Disassemble the words according to the composition: Option 1: lit up, morning, birch trees; Option 2: hung up, cheerful, place).
- Determine the tense, number and gender of the verbs: ran, looked, covered.
Knowledge control.
Dictation for the year.
Morning in the steppe.
Early spring morning. The steppe is cheerfully full of flowers. Gorse turns bright yellow. The bluebells are modestly turning blue. The fragrant chamomile turns white. Wild carnation burns with crimson spots. In the morning coolness there is a bitter, healthy smell of wormwood.
Everything joyfully reached towards the sun. The steppe woke up and came to life. The larks fluttered high in the air. The grasshoppers raised their hasty chatter.
Grammar task:
- Write out two words from the text with unstressed vowels at the root. Write test words for them.
- Write down two words with prefixes. Select prefixes.
- Parse the 2nd and 4th sentences by members (by options).
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