Engineering structures

Chapter 4. Infiltration of Assault Teams into Land Vehicles Bus and Automobile In the previous chapter we have already considered the assault on the bus, which was served at the prison gates at the request of the mutinous prisoners. A similar case is often found in

Land cruisers of the P series

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Ground simulators

Ground Trainers It has been argued that working on a swim trainer is in some ways even better than swimming in a pool. The manufacturer promises that they will make your stroke perfect and allow you to practice even better at home than in the pool, etc.

What is called a structure?

1. A system of interconnected building parts and elements (load-bearing and enclosing).

What is called an engineering structure?

3. Structures performing tasks to meet the needs of industry and transport (bridges, roads, pipelines, overpasses, etc.).

What structures are considered architectural?

3.Constructions with an artificial environment characterized by appropriate parameters (temperature, humidity, illumination, etc.).

How are buildings classified by purpose?

4. Civil, industrial and agricultural.

What types of buildings (by purpose) are the train stations?

3. Public.

What types of buildings should be classified as depots, garages, pumping stations?

4. Manufacturing.

At what number of floors is a building referred to as a multi-storey building?

2.4-9 floors.

What buildings are classified as buildings increased number of storeys?

3.With 10–20 storeys.

What is a floor in a building?

3. Part of a building with rooms located on the same level.

What is called a room in a building?

2Part of the volume of the building, limited by the enclosing structures.

What floors are called underground (basement)?

2.With a floor mark below the planned surface of the earth, more than half the height of the room located in it.

Which floor is called the attic?

2.Floor, located in the volume of the attic space, with a room height of more than 1.6 m.

Which floors are taken into account when determining the number of storeys in a building?

2. Above ground floors and attic.

What tasks determine the functional requirements for buildings?

2. Providing conditions for rational planning, dimensions of premises that satisfy the normal functioning of technological processes.

How many degrees of fire resistance are buildings divided into and what is fire resistance characterized by?

3.Five degrees, characterized by the fire resistance limit and the flammability group of the material.

What flammability groups are the building materials from which buildings are built?

4. Combustible, hardly combustible, non-combustible.

How is the fire resistance of a material measured?

3. The time in hours from the start of the fire resistance test to the collapse of the structure, loss of stability, the appearance of through holes or the heating of the structure from the side, fire fire up to 140 ° С.

What is the minimum degree of fire resistance of buildings of 5-9 floors.

2.Not lower than the second.

What characterizes the degree of the building's durability?

2. The ability of a building to provide consumer qualities during a given period of operation.

What characteristics of materials of structural elements of buildings are set according to the requirement of durability?

3. Frost resistance, strength, bio- and corrosion resistance.

Engineering structures include all construction objects, except for buildings, for example, a bridge, water supply, overpass, gallery, pipeline, shelves, water towers, etc. At industrial enterprises, engineering structures differ depending on the nature of production. They can be located both inside and outside industrial buildings, as well as independent of buildings, having an independent meaning.

Engineering structures should be distinguished from technological and engineering equipment, buildings, systems engineering support, production facilities. Unlike engineering structures in industrial buildings, a technological process is carried out to obtain the main and intermediate product of production, but they are erected, like engineering structures, by construction methods.

Technological and engineering equipment is erected in most cases by mechanical engineering methods, that is, they are assembled from elements manufactured at enterprises of the engineering industries.

The main types of engineering structures and their functional purpose are shown in Fig. 1.17.

Supports and overpasses... Pedestals for horizontal and vertical equipment are intended for all kinds of apparatus in which various chemical and other processes can take place. Most often found in the chemical, oil refining, rubber industry, in factories of reinforced concrete and plastic products. Free-standing supports and overpasses for pipelines are used in cases where industrial communications are laid in an open way.

Pipelines are used with diameters ranging from a few centimeters to 2-3 m for gas pipelines. Medium and large pipelines are cylindrical beams and have a large bearing capacity, which allows them to be supported on free-standing supports with steps of 6-12-18 m.Pipelines of small diameters require more frequent supports, therefore, it is necessary to use overpasses with span structures for them. on which the transverse traverses are supported with steps of 3-4-6 m.

The pipelines can be located in three levels:

On reinforced concrete sleepers, laid on a sand cushion on the ground;

On low reinforced concrete supports 0.9-1.2 m high;

On high reinforced concrete or steel supports and overpasses with a height of 5-6 m or more.

Single-tier and two-tier freestanding supports are usually prefabricated reinforced concrete. With a traverse width of up to 1.8 m, they are made single-column T-shaped, and with a width of up to 2.4 m, single-column with separate traverses.

With a wider traverse, the supports are made two-post.

Multi-tiered supports, and in the northern and hard-to-reach areas - all supports, can be made of steel. The height of the supports to the top of the lower traverse is taken as 5.4; 6; 6.6; 7.2 and 7.8 m.

Typical two-tiered overpasses with a span of 18 m can be reinforced concrete with segmented bezel trusses, with steel lattice girders resting on reinforced concrete or steel columns. Temperature blocks can be up to 72-75 m long.

Double-deck ramps in prefabricated reinforced concrete are heavy, complex, have a low repeatability of elements, therefore, such ramps are in most cases made of steel.

Three-tiered overpasses, as well as overpasses in hard-to-reach areas and overpasses with spans of more than 18 m are made of steel.

Reinforced concrete support columns are usually made rectangular, with a cross section of 400x400 mm, clamped into separate foundations, in the form of separate pile-columns driven into the ground, pile-columns, united into flat or spatial systems by placing steel cross ties. Columns installed on single-pile foundations from shell piles or bored piles are also used. With light loads and dense soils, the columns can be installed in wells drilled into the ground, followed by concreting. Column piles are the most economical type of support. They are recommended in all cases, permissible for soil conditions.

Columns of steel supports are made rigidly connected to the foundations. It is allowed to use a hinged bearing on foundations, provided that the stability of the supports in the longitudinal direction is ensured.

Supports and overpasses are designed using the following regulatory and technical documents: SNiP 2.09.03-85 "Structures industrial enterprises"; GOST 23235-78. “Single-tier overpasses for technological pipelines. Types and main dimensions "; GOST 23236-78. “Two-tier overpasses for technological pipelines.

Types and main dimensions "; GOST 23237-78. “Stands separately for technological pipelines. Types and basic parameters ".

Unloading racks are intended for unloading various materials from railway cars, transporting materials (coal, peat, timber, sawdust) and laying pipelines.

An overpass is an open horizontal or inclined structure, consisting of a number of supports and a superstructure, designed for laying railways, motorways and pedestrian roads and communications. Overpasses for unloading various materials from railway wagons can be made from precast concrete and steel structures. Overpasses intended for laying pipelines with flammable flammable liquids and gases must have fireproof supporting and enclosing structures.

Open crane racks are designed to service warehouses equipped with overhead electric cranes with a lifting capacity of 10-50 tons and more. Steel crane beams are used for heavy duty cranes or with a lifting capacity of 50 tons or more.

Galleries. Galleries - ground or elevated, horizontal or inclined extended structure, designed for engineering or technological communications (conveyors, cables, pipelines), as well as for the passage of people.

The most widespread are conveyor and, to a lesser extent, pedestrian galleries. The passage of cables and pipelines is usually carried out along the way in combined galleries, combined with conveyor or pedestrian ones.

The width of pedestrian galleries is determined by their throughput in one direction at the rate of 2 thousand people. per hour per 1 m of width, but not less than 1.5 m.

The height of the galleries from the floor level to the bottom of the protruding roof structures is at least 2 m (in inclined galleries, the height should be measured along the normal to the floor).

Conveyor (transport) galleries are used in the mining, coke-chemical industry, building materials and products industry, in boiler houses and others. industrial sites... The conveyor gallery is based on conveyor (continuous) transport. The height of the galleries is 18, 24, 30 m. The slope of the galleries is from 1 to 20 °, depending on the technological requirements.

Channels and tunnels. Channels and tunnels are underground, closed, horizontal or inclined extended structures designed for laying communications (conveyors, pipelines, cables) or for the passage of people.

The channels are suitable for non-through, semi-through and through channels with a passage width of at least 0.6 m. The height of non-through channels is 0.3; 0.6 and 1.2 m, semi-through - 1.2-1.8 m. In channels with a height of 1.2-1.8 m and more, hatches with dimensions of 600-800 mm are provided, with a distance between them no more than 60 m.

Plates that block channels with pipelines for flammable liquids and gases passing through the building must be non-combustible. Open channels located in workshops should be fenced along the entire length with handrails with a height of at least 600 mm with a device in the necessary places of transitions.

The channels have a height of less than 2 m to the protruding parts, as a result of which the passage of people through them is not allowed. To inspect and repair communications, it is necessary to excavate and open channels.

The tunnels have a height of 2 m or more, allowing inspection and repair of communications during operation. They should be provided with passages, entrances and hatches, lighting, and, if necessary, ventilation to ensure the safety of workers in the tunnels.

Tunnels and canals should be designed in accordance with SNiP 2.09.03-85. "Constructions of industrial enterprises" and carried out, as a rule, reinforced concrete prefabricated from standard structures.

The routes of tunnels and canals should have the shortest length, the smallest number of turns, as well as intersections with roads and other communications, and will be executed in accordance with the requirements
SNiP II-89-80. "General plans of industrial enterprises". Tunnels and channels in which cables are located should be designed taking into account the "Electrical Installation Rules" (PUE) of the Ministry of Energy of Russia.

Bins and silos. Bins and silos - containers for bulk materials. The shape of the bunker depends on its purpose, the layout of the structure, the required stock of material, physical properties bulk material, type of supporting structures, etc. Recommended forms of bins: pyramidal-prismatic, cone-cylindrical, chute, parabolic.

The bunkers are of open and closed type. Open bunkers are cheaper than closed ones, but they are used only for materials that are not susceptible to atmospheric precipitation and do not emit dust harmful to human health and the environment.

Rice. 1.17. Views

engineering structures

Closed hoppers with conical lining have no empty areas when filling. On the other hand, there are always empty areas in bunkers with flat surfaces, especially when the loading opening is located on the side. Empty areas not only reduce the volume of the bunker, but also pose a hazard when explosive gases and dust accumulate in them.

The bunker parameters (shape, size and volume) should be established together with the space-planning solutions of buildings and structures, while unified grids of columns and the height of the floors of the bunker span should be adopted. The grid of bunker columns is adopted 6´6, 6´9, 6´12 m.

By the type of supporting structures, reinforced concrete, steel and combined bunkers are distinguished. As a rule, bunkers are designed with reinforced concrete. It is allowed to design out of steel funnels, tapering parts of bunkers, parabolic bins, as well as bunkers, which, due to technological conditions, are exposed to mechanical, chemical and temperature effects of bulk material and cannot be made of reinforced concrete.

When bunkers are operated in an aggressive environment, their outer surfaces are protected against corrosion in accordance with the requirements
SNiP 2.03.11-85. To protect the walls and bottom of the bunker from impacts when loading large and medium-sized material, protective steel grates are arranged above it. The inner surfaces of the hoppers, which are subject to wear from impact and abrasion, are protected by linings of various materials. At high temperatures or aggressiveness of bulk material, special wear-resistant protection is provided.

When calculating silos, the friction of bulk material against the wall surface is taken into account, which reduces the vertical pressure of the upper layers to the lower ones, which leads to a decrease in horizontal pressure. Separate silos are combined into silo buildings, which are used as warehouses for finished products and as intermediate tanks for raw materials and semi-finished products. To remove dust from the air escaping from the silos during their loading, filters are usually installed on the silo cover.

Silos are not suitable for storing materials that can cake, ignite spontaneously, or have a structure that breaks down under significant pressure. The dimensions of the silos, their shapes, the number in the body, as well as the location in the plan are assigned in accordance with the requirements of the technological process, the conditions of loading and unloading, technical and economic considerations, as well as the unified construction parameters existing for silo warehouses. In Russia, mainly round and square silos are used. Preference is given to round silos, the walls of which work mainly for central tension. When required big number small silos for storing various materials or the same material of different grades, then square silos are used, which are rational with side sizes not exceeding 3-4 m. Abroad, there are cases of hexagonal, octagonal and other cross-section of silos.

Silos can be free-standing or interlocked in silo buildings and have a single-row or multi-row arrangement. A common arrangement of round silos is one or two rows; this achieves the simplest mechanization of the supply and shipment of stored material.

For large volumes, as well as in order to better use the area of ​​the site, a multi-row arrangement of silos is used. In this case, cavities are formed between the silos - the so-called "stars" - which can be used as additional containers for storing non-cohesive material or for arranging stairs in them, installing technological equipment and passing various pipelines. Currently, the following types of silos are used, differing mainly in bottom designs:

With a flat bottom and padding;

With a flat bottom, a steel half-funnel and a block;

With steel funnel;

With reinforced concrete funnel.

In the cement industry, double-deck silos are used. For the purpose of uniformity of space-planning and design solutions of silos, Gosstroy of Russia has approved unified construction parameters, in accordance with which the following shapes and sizes of silos are recommended: round - with a diameter of 3, 6 and 12 m; square - with a grid of 3'3m. Design of reinforced concrete silos with a diameter of 18, 24 and more meters (multiple of 6) is allowed. The grid of centering axes passing through the centers of the silos in the buildings should be a multiple of 3 m. The height of the silo walls from the bottom plate to the bottom of the over-silo slab is assumed to be 10.8; 15.6; eighteen; 20.4; 26.4 and 30 m. Other wall heights are also allowed, differing by a multiple of 0.6 m. The height of the sub-silo floor (from the floor level to the bottom of the bottom plate or the reinforced concrete support ring of the funnel) is assumed to be 3.6; 4.8; 6; 10.8; 14.4 m.

Columns of the sub-silo floor with a silo diameter of up to 6 m and a funnel for its entire diameter are installed along the perimeter of the silo walls. With a silo diameter of more than 6 m, if a flat bottom is arranged, the columns are also installed inside the silo contour. The distance between the columns is assigned taking into account the dimensions of the approximation Vehicle... Columns of square silos are installed at the intersection corners of the walls. The width of the flights of stairs, when there is an elevator for lifting people and equipment to the top of the silo buildings, is recommended to be taken cleanly at least 0.8 m, with an inclination of no more than 45 o.

In accordance with the unified building parameters
standard “Structures of reinforced concrete silos with a diameter of
6 and 12 m for the storage of bulk materials ”.

Metal tanks and gas holders... For storage and technological processing of oil and oil products, water, chemical products, mineral fertilizers, liquefied gases, ore pulp, coal and other liquid and semi-liquid products, metal tanks are used. Reservoirs can be buried, round and rectangular.

Tanks in the form of cylindrical or drop-shaped tanks are used in industrial enterprises for the closed storage of flammable liquids: oil, kerosene, gasoline, oil, alcohol and
etc. Reservoirs and cisterns can be underground, semi-underground and aboveground.

Location of fuel tanks on master plan should be linked to rail and road roads, water and coastal devices. There are three types of vertical cylindrical tanks: fixed roof, fixed roof and pontoon, and floating roof. Such reservoirs have a volume of up to 50 thousand m 3, a diameter of 4.7-60.7 m, and a height of 3-18 m.

Projects of vertical tanks with a volume of 100, 120 and 150 thousand m 3 have been developed. Vertical tanks with a fixed roof are intended for storage of slightly evaporating products and consist of a cylindrical wall, bottom and cover of various types (conical, spherical, "momentless", etc.). A "momentless" coating is a shell of negative Gaussian curvature.

Similar tanks with a fixed roof and a pontoon differ from the described tank by the presence of a pontoon of a special design floating on the product inside the tank, which ensures the reduction of evaporation during the storage of volatile products. The pontoon moves along two vertical tubular guides; when the tank is emptied, it is installed on the bottom on racks.

The space between the wall and the pontoon contour is sealed with various types of sealing gates. Vertical tanks are intended for storing petroleum products and are widely used in refineries, oil pumping stations of oil pipelines.

Vertical floating roof tanks are designed, like pontoon tanks, to store volatile products. In tanks of this type, the functions of a pontoon and a fixed roof are combined in one structure, which, in contrast to a pontoon, is designed for atmospheric loads. In this regard, the floating roof has a "water outlet" - a tubular structure that provides water drainage from the roof surface outside the tank.

All vertical tanks are manufactured at specialized plants of tank metal structures using the method of rolling walls, bottoms, central parts of floating roofs, pontoons and "momentless" fixed roofs.

Roof elements of other types, as well as other non-rollable structures (crowns of pontoons and floating roofs, stiffening rings, etc.) are manufactured by industrial methods in the form of finished large elements. The assembly of tanks is preceded by unrolling the rolls and placing them in design position... Floating roof tanks are used to store oil. They are effective and applied in southern and temperate regions. Their metal consumption is on average 20% lower than that of tanks with a fixed roof and a pontoon.

Vertical isothermal tanks, double-walled and single-walled, are intended for storage of liquefied gases under excess pressure, close to atmospheric and at low negative temperatures
(-34 about C for ammonia, -46 about C for propane, -106 about C for ethylene, -160 about C for liquefied natural gas, -196 about C for oxygen).

In double-walled insulated tanks, the outer casing is made of ordinary carbon or low-carbon steel and is designed for atmospheric loads and loads from thermal insulation in the space between the walls. The inner casing, as well as the casings of single-walled isothermal tanks, are made of cold-resistant steel grades and are designed for loads from hydrostatic pressure due to the liquefied product, overpressure in the vapor-air space, pressure from thermal insulation and vacuum. Isothermal tanks are manufactured at the factories of tank metal structures using the wall roll method, as well as by assembling from individual sheets.

Ball (spherical) tanks and gasholders with a volume of 6 and 2 thousand m 3 are intended for storing liquid and gaseous products at high internal overpressure from 0.25 to 1.8 MPa.

The calculation of spherical tanks and gas tanks is performed for the hydrostatic pressure of the liquid, overpressure in the gas space, atmospheric and other loads, taking into account the requirements of the Gosgortekhnadzor of Russia. The shell of such a tank (gasholder) is made of individual petals made by cold rolling. The assembly of the shell at the installation is carried out using a special manipulator or in another way. Assembly welding - automatic.

The tank (gasholder) is installed on tubular racks (supports), which are connected to each other.

Ball tanks (gasholders) are equipped with external shaft ladders, internal revolving observation ladders, as well as platforms for equipment maintenance. Several such reservoirs (gasholders) are combined into parks and connected by transition platforms.

Gas tanks of variable volume (constant pressure) are subdivided into gas tanks with a water basin (wet gas tanks) and cylindrical piston gas tanks (dry gas tanks).

Wet gasholders consist of a vertical cylindrical reservoir filled with water and one or two movable links - a telescope and a bell. In a large-volume gasholder, there may be several such links.

There is no small telescope in gasholders. The change in volume is achieved by extending the movable links when filling with gas and lowering them back as it is consumed. Gas tank pressure
(~ 5 kPa) is supported by special weights and the mass of the moving links. The tightness of adjacent links is ensured by water seals.

In dry gasholders, the volume is changed by moving the piston (washer) inside the gasholder.

Reservoirs of underground location, trench and casemate type with a volume of up to 10 thousand m 3 are intended for long-term storage of light oil products and liquid raw materials for food products.

Cooling towers, water towers... Cooling towers, spray pools and cooling ponds are structures designed to cool water. In tower drip cooling towers, the high temperature water entering the sprinkler, falling, passes the sieve system, crushes into drops and cools. The cooled water accumulates in a tank, from where it is fed to production.

The main structural element of tower cooling towers is an exhaust tower. Cooling tower towers are made of steel and monolithic reinforced concrete. Precast towers were not widely used due to possible destruction at the joints. Previously built low-capacity cooling towers have wood chimney towers.

For cooling towers of small and medium capacity, towers in the form of a spatial steel frame with inner lining wooden shields or asbestos-cement corrugated sheets. All these cooling towers are pyramidal in shape, with the lower tier of the tower being vertical. Structurally, the frame-sheathing exhaust tower is a lattice multifaceted structure.

Spatial rigidity of the frame is provided by horizontal lattice rings located along all tiers, corner truss posts and diagonal braces (braces) located along the inner edges of the frame. Constructive solution of the frame is subject to the possibility of mounting the tower in enlarged blocks, equal in height to one tier, and in width - to one face of the tower. The overall dimensions of the draft tower are determined based on the capacity of the cooling tower. So, the exhaust tower of the cooling tower with an irrigated area of ​​1600 m 2 has a height of 54 m, the radius of the inscribed circle at the bottom is 23 m, and at the top - 15.2 m. In the plan, the tower is a regular dodecahedron, and in height it is divided into five tiers.

The drainage basin of tower cooling towers is usually made of monolithic reinforced concrete. Its inner surface is protected by waterproofing (a layer of cold asphalt mastic, etc.). There is no drainage basin in dry cooling towers. Bearing structures The sprinkler is made of prefabricated reinforced concrete columns with a cross section of 300 × 300 mm with sub-columns, crossbars with a cross section of 300 × 400 or 300 × 600 mm, a span of up to 4.8 m and beams carrying a sprinkler with a cross section of 200 × 400 mm.

In irrigation devices, two types of film sprinkler are widely used (on the same reinforced concrete frame): a single-level block sprinkler made of antiseptic wooden parts and a two-level sprinkler made of flat asbestos-cement pressed sheets (1.6 x 1.2 x 0.06 m in size). Erection of metal structures is carried out in the usual way.

Reinforced concrete cooling towers usually have a single-sheet hyperboloid shape that is the most rational from an aerodynamic point of view.

Depending on the design of the irrigation device and the way in which an increase in the surface of contact of water with air is achieved, cooling towers can be of film, drip-splash and mixed drip-splash types. Structurally, the drip sprinkler is made of special shaped cross bars; film - from asbestos-cement sheets, located vertically at a short distance from each other.

The direction of air movement in relation to the cooled water in the cooling tower sprinklers can be: countercurrent (opposite); cross-exact; mixed (cross-countercurrent).

A special type of cooling towers are radiator coolers, sometimes called "dry" cooling towers. The water cooled in them gives off heat to the air passing through the cooler by means of heat transfer through the walls of the radiators. The advantage of these cooling towers is complete protection of the environment from the steam emitted by all other cooling towers.

Fan cooling towers have different volumes and shapes in terms of plan: round, square, rectangular, and polygonal. Of these, the most plastic volume is possessed by single-fan cooling towers, round and polygonal in plan.

Fan cooling towers are advisable to use in the following cases:

If it is necessary to reduce the area for placing water cooling facilities or placing them on an area with unfavorable conditions for air movement (presence tall buildings around the cooling tower, a significant number of windless days during the warm season, etc.);

When cooling the circulating water in hot climates.

Cooling ponds, as a rule, belong to off-site structures, other types of water coolers are placed directly at industrial sites.

Water towers are structures designed to increase the water pressure in water supply networks in the absence of pumping stations and in emergency cases, as well as to regulate water consumption. They are used in the systems of drinking, industrial and fire-fighting water supply of industrial enterprises, agricultural complexes and settlements.

The main elements of a water tower are a reservoir (or tank) and a support. Depending on the capacity of the tank and the height of the support (to the bottom of the tank), the dimensional diagrams of the water towers are determined. The architectural appearance of the structure depends on the shape of the tank and the support and their proportional relationship with each other.

For mass construction, as a rule, towers without tents are used, with steel tanks and supports made of reinforced concrete, brick or metal.

Tank capacity 15, 25, 50 m 3 at a support height (from ground level to the bottom of the tank), multiple of 3 m, and 100, 150, 200, 300, 500 and 800 m 3 at a support height multiple of 6 m. towers with a large tank volume.

Tanks can be spherical, conical, drop-shaped, bowl-shaped and other shapes; trunks - from shells of cylindrical, conical shape and hyperbolic outlines, as well as from lattice structures. Monolithic reinforced concrete and metal can be used as the main structural materials. Sometimes, based on architectural considerations, the tower is designed with a tent. Unique towers made of monolithic reinforced concrete are erected using sliding formwork. The tank can be mounted on the ground and then raised to the design level.

Flue pipes... Chimneys are designed to remove flue gases generated in industrial heat and power plants.

The trunk of a brick chimney consists of individual belts in height. The transition from one belt to another is carried out by reducing the thickness of the masonry with the formation of a ledge on the inner side of the trunk. The thickness of the walls of the trunk of the upper belt is not less than 1.5 bricks. For the perception of internal stresses from the outside of the barrel, clamping rings made of strip steel are installed.

Monolithic reinforced concrete chimneys are currently being designed with a height of up to 420 m, lined with lightweight polymer-cement concrete. Gas exhaust shafts are made of steel, ceramics, plastics and other materials.

Currently, there is a trend towards the use of multilateral pipes. In such pipes, each industrial unit is connected to a separate gas outlet, which makes it possible to repair pipes without stopping all units.

1.10. Special design issues
chemical enterprises

Heating, ventilation and air conditioning. Large-volume chemical production buildings (more than 3000 m 3) with round-the-clock operation, as well as buildings and rooms with forced ventilation during two- and three-shift operation, are equipped with air heating, combined with forced ventilation, using heating and circulation units. When operating in one shift, mixed heating is provided: during working hours - air heating, combined with supply ventilation, and during non-working hours - on duty, in the form of heating and recirculation units or local heating devices.

Air heating, combined with forced ventilation, is used in those rooms where vapors or gases can be emitted, which, when mixed with air, can ignite spontaneously under the influence of high temperatures. In addition, air heating combined with supply ventilation can be used in those rooms (regardless of volume) where dust can be emitted, which ignites when in contact with water or water vapor, or explosive and harmful vapors and dust (phosphorus, salt, aluminum powder, calcium carbide, etc.).

It is not allowed to use full or partial recirculation for air heating if the air contains pathogens, potent toxic substances, pronounced unpleasant odors; premises, in the air of which the concentration of harmful substances may suddenly increase (production, working with easily evaporating liquids, liquefied gases, etc.).

All rooms, regardless of their purpose, provide mechanical, natural or mixed ventilation.

In the direction of air flows, supply (injection) ventilation and exhaust ventilation are distinguished. Supply and exhaust mechanical systems are designed only where it is impossible to arrange natural or mixed ventilation.

Air conditioning is provided in cases where it is required to comply with the technological regime (for example, in the production of chemical fibers) to quickly remove hazardous substances from the equipment that have penetrated from the equipment during production malfunctions and accidents from the premises, arrange special emergency exhaust ventilation systems, taking into account the type of production, properties and the amount of hazardous emissions.

Ventilation is designed in such a way as to ensure the movement of air from clean rooms in more polluted or air leaks outside. If the supply of air is provided from outside, it is necessary to ensure the constancy of its temperature inside the room by heating the supply air or by installing additional heating devices. When designing, the places of possible emission of harmful vapors and gases are taken into account in advance for the device of local suction.

With general ventilation, if gases and other harmful substances are emitted in the room, an exhaust from the upper zone in the amount of at least one volume of the room per 1 hour is provided in all workshops and in all cases, regardless of the volume of air removed from the lower zone. Exhaust from the upper zone, as a rule, should be natural (through deflectors, shafts and - in some cases - through non-blown lanterns). Air from the lower zone is removed mechanically.

In rooms with high toxicity of emitted gases and vapors, mechanical exhaust ventilation is arranged. Full aeration is provided only in shops with an excess of heat sufficient to heat the incoming outside air (for example, in furnace departments of chemical plants, etc.). In those workshops where gases and dust are released simultaneously with the release of heat, full aeration is possible only if the supplied outside air does not interfere with the natural exit of polluted air from the room through the upper zone. In cases where this condition is not met, mixed supply and exhaust ventilation systems are provided: for the summer period - full aeration, for the winter - mechanical supply ventilation and natural exhaust.

With a large release of water vapor in the room in winter, the supply of unheated air is not allowed. Fresh supply air is supplied to the working area by mechanical fans through distribution nozzles. Fresh air must not be supplied directly to the places where gases and dust are most emitted, as the latter can spread throughout the room.

The concentrated supply of supply air to the working area is usually arranged in workshops that meet the following requirements: technological equipment is located in regular rows with free passages between them; the equipment has local suction, and dust is not emitted in the premises; at small amount there are no fixed workplaces for the maintenance personnel even with a closed technological process.

Emergency exhaust ventilation is provided in cases where many hazardous products can enter the premises in a short time. The air removed by emergency ventilation units must be discharged above the building covering, but not closer than 20 m from the chimneys. For emergency ventilation, axial fans installed in niches are used. At present, the automatic activation of emergency ventilation from gas analyzers configured to the maximum permissible concentrations of gases or vapors according to sanitary or fire safety standards is widely used, with a simultaneous sound signal.

Air conditioning is provided in windowless, hermetically sealed rooms. External air intake for ventilation is done in the most remote places and protected from the emission of harmful gases, vapors and dust. Minimum distance between the air intake and the nearest source of its pollution (exhaust pipes, exhaust ventilation shafts, chimneys, sewer wells, etc.), at least 6 m vertically and 10-12 m horizontally are taken.

The air intake holes must be located below the hole for removing polluted air: the distance from the ground to the air intake hole is taken at least 2 m. The air intake holes should be oriented taking into account the direction of the wind and placed on the windward side.

Chemical industry enterprises are sources of air pollution with harmful gases and dust. Such emissions are detrimental to the health of workers and those living in the vicinity of chemical plants. The main measures to combat air pollution with industrial emissions are: the organization of the technological process, excluding the emission of waste gases into the atmosphere; sealing of technological equipment; refusal to use open-type warehouses and tanks; right choice places for the construction of the plant and the location of hazardous workshops on the master plan on the leeward side; a device for cleaning the discharged air.

Air and gas cleaning from suspended particles (dust or fog) is carried out using special devices for dust or mist eliminators, subdivided into four groups:

1. Mechanical dust collectors (dust collection chambers, inertial and louvered dust and spray collectors, cyclones, multicyclones). Devices of this group are used for rough cleaning.

2. Wet scrubbers, in which suspended particles are separated from the gas by flushing it with liquid.

3. Filters (porous partitions or a layer of material), retaining particles suspended in gases, are used for fine cleaning of gases from solid, and some - from liquid particles.

4. Electrostatic precipitators that separate solid and liquid suspended particles from gases using electrical forces.

Harmful impurities in the form of gases and vapors are usually recovered by absorption by liquid reagents (absorption) and solids (adsorption). Some gaseous products can be rendered harmless by incineration. In some cases, a combination of several methods is used.

Water supply. Chemical factories consume very large amounts of water. In the chemical industry, imported water from nearby reservoirs is used, as well as recycled water, that is, returned after purification to the production cycle.

As you know, natural waters contain various impurities: gases, dissolved salts, colloidal particles. The amount and composition of impurities in water depends mainly on its origin (atmospheric, surface and underground). Certain requirements are imposed on the water used for industrial needs in terms of hardness, the content of suspended impurities, etc.

For some industries, purified water is required (partially softened, demineralized, and also water with a limited oxygen content). To obtain the required qualities of water, it is provided with appropriate treatment and purification. The main operations of water preparation include cleaning from suspended impurities, settling, filtering, softening, etc.

At chemical enterprises, several circulating water cycles are usually built, various types of cooling towers with a natural flow of air or with forced air supply are used. It is necessary to lay the main water pipelines for recycling water supply along a communication corridor with branching for individual objects. The circulating water supply system should be designed in a comprehensive manner and tied to certain types of technological processes. The laying of pipes for circulating water supply systems can be open along high supports and overpasses along with other types of pipelines or along low supports or sleepers. In some cases, it is allowed to lay these pipes underground.

Sewerage. According to the degree of pollution, wastewater is divided into several types. Chemically uncontaminated water, reused, discharged into natural water bodies together with storm water, but under constant control. Contaminated water contains various chemical composition harmful impurities. Such waters are dangerous for natural reservoirs.

Household or household and fecal waters enter the city-wide sewerage network. Subsequently, these waters are purified in irrigation fields, filtration fields or biological treatment plants.

Industrial contaminated wastewater can be used after removing toxic substances from it.

Sewage systems for wastewater disposal consist of open and closed receiving devices (trays, traps-traps), sewage treatment facilities, sewer networks with viewing wells, pumping stations.

Before being released into the main industrial sewage network, industrial wastewater must undergo primary treatment at local installations or at installations for production groups. There, after neutralization of acids and alkalis, extraction of fire and explosive substances, oils, resins and other toxic substances, wastewater is rendered harmless and discharged into biological treatment facilities and water bodies. It is forbidden to combine different streams of wastewater, which, when mixed, can emit toxic and explosive mixtures, or precipitation. It is not allowed to combine the drainage of liquids from devices operating under increased pressure, it is carried out through intermediate tanks in which the pressure is equalized and only after that the liquid flows through the hydraulic seal into the sewer.

Gases and vapors are removed separately from each isolated section of the sewer system, as well as from sedimentation tanks, traps and treatment facilities. For ventilation of the external sewage system of contaminated drains, ventilation pipes are installed at the points of wastewater discharge and at the turns of the route.

Fire-fighting water supply is one of the types of extinguishing means of fire-fighting equipment used in chemical industries. Fire-fighting plumbing is suitable for high and low pressure. To ensure uninterrupted water supply, fire water supply networks are made circular; for detached buildings, dead-end lines with a length of no more than 200 m are allowed. Hydrants are installed along roads and passages at a distance of no more than 100 m from each other, no closer than 6 m from the walls of buildings and no further than 2 m from the road. The distance from the hydrants to the source of the fire should not exceed 100 m for high-pressure water pipes and 150 m for low-pressure water pipes.

In chemical industries, sprinkler and dreicher installations are used, designed to automatically extinguish fires with water at the beginning of their occurrence with simultaneous alarm signals.

Conditions for fire safety and explosion hazard of buildings. In workshops of chemical industry enterprises, in the presence of gas or vapor-air mixtures of carbon disulfide, acetylene, ethyl ether and other substances that can ignite from sparks, the floors should be made of non-sparking materials upon impact (asphalt with limestone filler, ceramic unglazed tiles, hard-to-burn plastics, etc. etc.).

In workshops where hydrocarbons (butane, butylene, propane, propylene, divinyl, etc.) are used, the floors are made of materials that do not spark on impact and do not dissolve under the influence of these substances. Smoke in buildings that do not have lanterns and window openings... To remove smoke from such buildings, it is necessary to provide for smoke hatches.

In buildings without lanterns, intended for industries with an increased fire hazard, exhaust shafts are arranged to remove smoke with remote control of their opening and a cross-section of at least 0.2% of the cross-sectional area of ​​industrial premises. In some premises, the cross-sectional area of ​​the hatches can reach 1.2% of the floor area of ​​the premises or 12 m 2 per 1000 m 2 of the floor. In each isolated room with combustible materials, regardless of the floor area, a smoke hatch should be arranged.

Recently, smoke shafts developed by Goskhimproekt and Promstroyproekt have become widespread. Under normal conditions, it serves to ventilate the attic. The bottom of the mine is tightly covered with panels of a difficult-to-burn or non-combustible structure. In the event of a fire, these panels must open and ensure the removal of smoke. Simultaneously with the opening of the panels, other openings must be closed, which serve for ventilation of the attic. The panels are opened automatically.

There are various designs of ventilation smoke shafts that can be used in both attic and attic roofs. Exhaust shafts can have louvers or deflectors. The valves can be opened manually, remotely and automatically.

In warehouse buildings, basements, special openings can be used as smoke hatches at the rate of one opening per
1000 m 2, in each compartment the width of the opening must be at least 1.5-2 m 2. To provide access to the fire source, it is recommended to arrange easily disassembled partitions or embedded parts in the inner walls, with special devices for removing them from the walls.

In the chemical industry, there are industries with highly explosive processes associated with the processing of flammable liquids and gases: some workshops of artificial fiber factories, synthetic rubber, hydrogen stations, some workshops for the production of plastics, herbicides, oil refining and others.

It is possible to preserve the load-bearing and enclosing structures of buildings during an explosion if the pressure inside the building is reduced to a safe value in a time that should be less than the time when the structures and fences collapse. Window and door openings are often used to “release” the pressure inside the building and the explosion products. Their area should be quite sufficient, and the destructive pressure and time of destruction of bindings and canvases should be less than the destructive pressure and time of destruction of fences and supporting structures. If these conditions are not met, then additional openings are arranged in the coatings or in the walls, which are blocked by anti-explosion valves - easily dumped or collapsing panels.

For explosive buildings, building codes and regulations recommend using only single glazing, window frames should only open outward. The glass thickness should not exceed 2 mm. Wall panels and window frames are fixed in such a way that they can be easily pushed out at low pressures. For the manufacture of wall panels, lightweight insulating non-combustible materials are used.

A building is an artificial ground structure or interior space designed and adapted for human activity. Construction - an artificial structure intended purely for technical purposes (posts, chimneys, towers, treatment facilities, etc.).

Any building is a volume, limited in space by rectilinear or curved surfaces and divided inside into separate cells - rooms. Theoretically, any building can be represented as a combination of three groups of elements: space-planning (ie, separate rooms in three dimensions); constructive, representing the material basis of the building (building or architectural structures); building products and parts (part of building structures). The space-planning elements shown in the plan are called architectural and planning elements (in two dimensions).

A room is a part of the volume of a building bounded by the floor, ceiling and surrounding walls or partitions. Each room is intended specifically for certain purposes and, in accordance with this, has its own shape and size in plan, height, lighting (natural, artificial or combined), connection with the external environment, surface finishing, etc.

Distinguish between main, auxiliary and technical premises (for placing equipment and utilities). The types of premises are vestibule, corridor, light pocket, elevator hall.

Tambour - a passageway at the entrance to the building to protect the room from cold outside air. There are single and double vestibules.

A corridor is an extended room in the plan that unites a group of rooms and serves to evacuate people from the building.

Light pocket - a room directly adjacent to the corridor with natural light.

Elevator hall - a room in front of the entrances to the elevator cabins, as a rule, isolated from the rest of the floor.

The height of the room is the vertical distance from the level of the finished floor of the given room to the plane of the ceiling or to the bottom of protruding structures from the plane of the ceiling (if the surface of the ceiling has protruding ribs or volumetric elements).

A group of premises for various purposes, located on the same plane, forms a floor. A floor consists of a set of rooms, the floors of which are approximately at the same level. By location, the floors are subdivided into aboveground and underground. If the level of the finished floor is above the level of the blind area, sidewalk or graded ground surface, the floor is considered Aboveground. Accordingly, a building can only consist of one floor ( one-story building) or have several floors arranged vertically (multi-storey building). The number of storeys of a building is determined by the number of above-ground floors. If necessary, the buildings provide for floors, the floors of which are located below the level of the blind area, sidewalk or graded earth surface (underground floors). The levels of the clean floors of the floors are marked with a special mark.

By designation Above-ground floors are subdivided into residential, mezzanine, attic, attic and technical. For communication between floors, stairs, ramps (inclined planes), elevators, escalators are provided. The size and number of steps of the stairs in multi-storey buildings determined by the height of the floor.

Residential floors Designed for living or staying of people (placement of apartments in residential buildings, offices, offices, etc.).

The mezzanine floor (French Entresol) is an upper mezzanine built into the main floor. Typical for mansions and manor houses of the 18th - first half of the 19th century. Currently, it is provided in individual residential buildings, in buildings of shopping centers, offices, etc.

An attic is a walk-through or semi-walk-through space within the roof.

The attic floor (French Mansarde - From the surname of the French architect F. Mansart) is a room arranged inside a free attic space by insulating the enclosing structures of the attic (slopes of a high roof). It is used in new construction, during reconstruction.

Technical floor - the floor used for the placement of engineering equipment and the laying of communications. The technical floor can be located under the building (technical underground), above the top floor of the building (technical attic), in one or more middle floors.

The underground floors are divided into technical underground, basement and basement floors.

Technical undergrounds are walk-through or semi-walk-through floors for placing engineering communications with a floor level below the planned level of the ground or sidewalk. The minimum height of the premises at the passages is set at 1.6 m.

Basement floors have a floor level below the planned level of the ground or sidewalk, recessed no more than half the height of the room.

Basement floors are designed with a floor level recessed below the planned level of the ground or sidewalk by more than half the height of the room. A building may have several basement floors.

Tolassification of civil buildings.

Civil buildings are divided by purpose into residential and public. Residential buildings include apartment buildings; hostels; hotels; boarding houses, etc.

The number of public buildings includes buildings designed for all types of social and everyday life of people. Public buildings serving the daily needs of people include kindergartens, nurseries, schools, shops, cafes, canteens, consumer services, etc. Public buildings of occasional visits include theaters and cinemas, museums, large restaurants, stadiums, palaces of culture and sports.

Civil buildings are distinguished by number of storeys:

Low-rise (up to 2 floors);

Mid-rise (3-5 floors);

Increased number of storeys (6-9 floors);

Multi-storey (10-25 floors);

High-rise (more than 25 floors).

Buildings are classified according to the main wall material: stone, concrete, reinforced concrete, metal, wood.

By the method of construction: from small-sized elements; from large-sized elements; monolithic.

By fire resistance, buildings are divided into five degrees:

The I degree includes buildings, the supporting and enclosing structures of which are made of stone, concrete or reinforced concrete with the use of sheet and slab non-combustible materials.

In buildings of the II degree it is allowed to use unprotected steel structures of coatings.

In buildings of the III degree, load-bearing and enclosing structures are made of stone, concrete and reinforced concrete materials using non-combustible materials.

The IV degree of fire resistance includes wooden buildings with protection from fire and high temperatures (plaster, sheet or plate non-combustible materials).

There are no requirements for fire resistance and fire propagation limits for Y grade building structures.

Buildings are classified according to their durability, which is determined by the period of preservation of the performance of the main structural elements. Buildings are subdivided into three degrees of durability: I degree - service life is more than 100 years; II - within 50-100 years; III - less than 20 years.

Depending on the purpose and significance of the building, they are divided into four classes of capital. Each class has its own degree of durability, fire resistance, livability, quality of finishing and the degree of equipment with engineering and sanitary systems.

The first class includes buildings that meet increased requirements; to the second - average, to the third and fourth - average, reduced and minimum requirements. First class buildings are not limited in number of storeys; the maximum number of storeys of buildings of the second class is 9, of the third - 5, of the fourth - 2.

Requirements for civil buildings.

The type of architectural structure depends on its functional purpose, the number and composition of the premises, the way they are grouped and the size. The types of buildings did not take shape immediately, they were determined by the political structure of the country, religion, way of life, folk traditions. Some types of buildings died out, new ones appeared, others (for example, residential buildings) were modified. Architecture created an artificial, utilitarian-artistic world opposed to the natural environment, mastered the space to meet the material and spiritual needs of man.

The aesthetic value of the building is determined by the expressive solution of its external and internal appearance. The artistically expressive appearance of the building is created by general compositional architectural forms (external and internal volumes, grouping of masses, silhouette, proportions, etc.) and forms that are specific in relation to the entire composition of the building (cornices, balconies, window and door frames, decorative elements) ...

The nature of the building structure largely depends on the technological characteristics of the building materials and changes as they develop.

The final result of the development of architectural culture within one era and one direction is usually called an architectural style. The architectural style has stable features that are repeated many times in various buildings and structures: technical - in the form of applied structural systems; artistic - in the form of architectural and artistic elements for the decoration of facades and interiors; ethnographic - in the form of elements symbolizing the ethnic traits of the ethnos.

In modern conditions, functional, technical, sanitary and hygienic, architectural and artistic, operational, fire-prevention, environmental, economic and construction-technological requirements are imposed on civil buildings, regardless of their purpose.

Functional requirements They consist in the fact that the space-planning and structural solutions of the building must correspond to its purpose, the required composition and parameters of individual rooms, to provide the best conditions for the technological process taking place in the building. At the same time, it is necessary to provide for the possibility of redevelopment of premises in the future in connection with changes in requirements or the technological process taking place in the building. Accordingly, the building must provide safe and comfortable conditions for living or other activities of people.

Technical requirements Provide for the compliance of building structures and their interfaces with the laws of structural mechanics, physics and chemistry, taking into account loads and influences, including climatic, geological, as well as the characteristics of the internal environment in the building.

Sanitary and hygienic requirements Include a set of measures to ensure the microclimate of the premises (temperature, permissible level of noise, humidity, air velocity in the premises, illumination and insolation), the presence of special premises and equipment.

Architectural and artistic requirements They are manifested in the aesthetically meaningful formation of the external (exterior) and internal (interior) appearance of the building. The appearance and interiors of premises should have an emotional impact on a person, create a good mood.

Operational requirements for premises and structures are stipulated in the design assignment in accordance with their purpose, features of both the external and internal environment, the specified service life, the required composition of engineering equipment in the building (the presence of elevators, heating and ventilation systems, water supply and sewerage systems, etc.). ).

Fire safety requirements include a set of measures to ensure the safety of people during the operation of the building, timely and unhindered evacuation of people in case of fire, protect building structures from fire and prevent the spread of fire. Buildings are subdivided according to the degree of fire resistance, classes of constructive and functional fire hazard in accordance with SNiP "Fire safety of buildings and structures".

Environmental requirements stipulate the elimination of the harmful effects of the technological process taking place in the building on the environment or on the human body, as well as the safety of building materials and products during operation, as well as during dismantling or reconstruction of the building.

Economic requirements are taken into account as the initial cost of building the building ( engineering survey, pre-project preparation, design and construction), and operational during the pre-agreed life of the building (as a rule, they account for up to 80% of all costs), the cost of dismantling and disposal of building structures.

Construction and technological requirements in the development of projects reflect the capabilities of the construction organization and methods of work, which is taken into account when developing space-planning and design solutions.

In addition to the listed requirements, in each specific case, especially during the reconstruction or restoration of buildings, additional requirements may be specified. Their list is usually given in the design assignment.

Planning schemes of civil buildings.

Civil buildings are classified according to a number of characteristics. Depending on their purpose, they are divided into residential and public. In turn, each of the selected groups is classified according to specific functional characteristics.

Civil buildings are classified as mass-built buildings and unique buildings. Buildings of mass construction are built in large numbers according to standard designs to meet the basic needs of people (residential buildings, schools, kindergartens, clinics, etc.). Unique buildings that are of great public importance are erected according to individual projects, as a rule, in a single version, for example, theaters, museums, palaces of culture, universities, government buildings, and some residential buildings.

According to the number of storeys, civil buildings are conventionally divided into five groups:

Low-rise - up to 2 floors;

Mid-rise - 3 - 5 floors;

Increased number of storeys - 6 - 9 floors;

Multi-storey - 10-25 floors;

High-rise - more than 25 floors.

The floors of civil buildings are called: overground - when the floor of the premises is not lower than the planning level of the earth; basement, or semi-basement, - when the floor of the premises is below the planning level of the ground, but not more than half the height of the premises; basements - when the floor of the premises is below the planning level of the earth by more than half the height of the premises; attic - when the premises are located in the volume of the attic. When determining the number of storeys of a building, only the above-ground floors are taken into account.

Planning solutions for civil buildings are very diverse, as they reflect various functional processes occurring in certain conditions. However, this variety of solutions comes down to just how many planning schemes: cell, hall and their combinations (combined).

The cell scheme is used in those buildings where relatively small rooms of the same area are needed. The cell scheme can be solved according to the corridor, enfilade, centric (non-corridor) and sectional planning schemes.

The corridor planning scheme is characterized by the arrangement of premises on both sides of the corridor. With a one-sided arrangement of the premises, the layout is called a gallery. Communication between rooms is carried out through a corridor or gallery. The corridor scheme is widely used in various civil buildings: hostels, hotels, boarding schools, administrative, educational, treatment-and-prophylactic, etc.

The enfilade planning scheme provides for the direct connection of adjacent rooms located in series, one after the other. The enfilade scheme, formerly common in residential, palace and religious buildings, has limited use: museums and exhibition pavilions, commercial buildings.

The centric planning scheme provides for a clearly defined one main large room, and secondary, smaller areas are grouped around it. Examples of this scheme can be spectacular buildings - theaters, cinemas, concert halls, circuses.

The sectional layout scheme includes a number of repeating and isolated parts-sections. Within a section, rooms can be located according to different planning schemes. This scheme is most often used in apartment buildings.

The hall layout is typical for buildings consisting of one room per floor - markets, exhibition pavilions, sports facilities, garages, etc.

The combined scheme is based on a combination of cell and hall schemes. In it, large halls are grouped with smaller rooms. In multifunctional buildings and complexes with complex construction conditions, as a rule, several planning schemes are combined.

The premises of civil buildings, according to their role in the functional process (rest, work, study), are divided into several groups.

The main ones correspond to the main functions of the building (living rooms of residential buildings, classrooms and classrooms, auditoriums of theaters and cinemas, sales areas of shops).

Auxiliary - designed to provide the basic functions of the building, but do not define them (conference rooms, archives, lobbies and lobbies of theaters, utility rooms of shops, museums, etc.).

Servants - increase comfort and sanitary and hygienic conditions, but are not directly related to the main function of the building (lobbies, halls, sanitary facilities, buffets of public buildings).

Communication - necessary for connections within the building (stairs, elevators, escalators, corridors, galleries).

Technical (sometimes entire floors) - designed to accommodate engineering and technical equipment (elevator engine rooms, waste collection chambers, ventilation and air conditioning rooms).

Foundations are the lower load-bearing parts of a building that take all the loads from the building and transfer them to the ground. The main massif of the foundation is called the body of the foundation, the lower, usually broadened part is called the pillow, the lower surface of the foundation is called the sole, and the upper horizontal planes protruding along the sides of the wall are cutoffs.

Walls are vertical structures located outside and inside the building. Walls resting on the foundation and taking the load from their own weight and other structures (from floors, coatings, etc.) are called load-bearing. Walls can be self-supporting if they transfer to the foundation the load only from the wind and their own weight across all floors of the building. Walls are called load-bearing or curtain walls when they serve only as fences, take their own weight and wind loads within one floor and transfer them to the floor-by-floor supporting structures. Curtain walls are also internal partitions, and curtain walls are panel walls of frame buildings.

The lower part of the wall, located directly above the foundation, is called the plinth. The plinth can protrude or sink relative to the outer plane of the wall. The top of the plinth is usually at the same level as the ground floor.

The upper part of the wall usually ends with a cornice, which is a horizontal profiled ledge that protects the building wall from precipitation. The size of the ledge of the cornice is called the removal of the cornice.

Above the eaves, a parapet is sometimes made - a low wall that serves as a roof fence. Openings in walls for windows and doors are called openings, and filling them with window and door blocks.

A lintel is a structure that covers the opening from above and supports the overlying part of the wall.

The piers are the sections of the wall located between the openings, and the recesses in the wall are niches.

Stand-alone supports are pillars, pillars, or columns that support the floors, roof, and sometimes walls. Columns in combination with horizontal structural elements (girders and girders) form an internal supporting frame in frame buildings.

Slabs are horizontal structures that divide the internal space of a building into: floors. Slabs take the load from people and equipment and transfer it to walls or individual supports. They provide spatial invariability of the building, like horizontal stiffening diaphragms. Overlappings are subdivided into inter-floor, dividing adjacent floors in height, attic floors, separating the upper floor from the attic, above the basements, separating the first floor from the basement, and lower ones, separating the first floor from the underground. The upper surface of the floor slab is called the floor, the lower surface is called the ceiling.

The roof protects the building from precipitation. It consists of a roof (waterproof shell), a base for the roof (lathing, flooring or concrete preparation) and a supporting structure (rafters or reinforced concrete panels). The roof together with the attic floor forms the covering of the building.

The gently sloping roofs, in which the roof is combined with the structure of the attic, are called combined roofs.

To drain water, the roof must have a slope that depends on the roof material. The slope of the roof is denoted by the ratio of the height of the rise to half the overlapping width of the building body e / 2 or the angle of inclination of the roof to the horizon. Depending on the slope, flat and pitched roofs are distinguished.

The intersection of the slopes is called an edge, and downwards is called a groove or valley.

The horizontally located ribs are called the ridge of the roof.

The upper part of the end wall of a gable roof, forming a triangle bounded by two slopes and a horizontal cornice, is called a pediment, and if there is no horizontal cornice, then the triangular section of the wall is called a gable.

Stairs are used for vertical communication between floors and the territory adjacent to the building. Stairs can be open without enclosing walls or closed, placed in special rooms called staircases.

Stairs consist of inclined structural elements - stair flights with steps and horizontal landings (floor areas located at the floor level and intermediate or interfloor areas). Vertical stair rails are called railings.

According to the number of flights in the plan, one-, two-, three- and four-flight staircases are distinguished, and in terms of form, they are rectilinear and curvilinear (screw).

Depending on the structural scheme and manufacturing technique, the stairs can be made of small or large elements. Prefabricated small-element stairs consist of steps, stringers, strut or platform beams and platforms.

Large-element prefabricated staircases are assembled from two elements of monolithic flights and platforms or from one element-flight, combined with a half-platform. The horizontal surface of a step is called a tread, and its height is a riser.

Slope flight of stairs consider the ratio of its height to the horizontal projection of the march, which is called the laying (for example, the slope of the stairs is 1: 2, if, D = 3000). Sometimes the slope is determined in degrees of the angle of inclination of the march to the horizon (for example, = 26 ° 40 "), but more often the slope is expressed as the ratio of the height of the riser to the width of the tread (for example, the slope of the stairs is 1: 2, if n riser = 150 and e tread = 300 ).

The windows are used to illuminate the room with natural light and to ventilate them. Window openings are filled with glazed elements - window blocks consisting of boxes and window sashes, which can be single or double, blind or sash.

Lanterns are special structures in the form of glazed superstructures, arranged in the roof, to illuminate the room from above and at the same time to ventilate them.

Doors serve to communicate rooms with each other and to isolate one adjacent room from another.

The gates are arranged in cases where it is necessary to deliver large equipment to the premises or let vehicles pass.

Doors and gates can be external or internal. They consist of boxes and canvases. Depending on the number of canvases, they are divided into single-floor, double-floor and one-and-a-half. By the way of opening, they can be hinged, sliding or lifting. The dimensions of gates and doors depend on the purpose of the premises and the nature of the functional process.

Organization of the entrance area.

Organization entrance group is possible at any stage of the building's operation, but the most expedient is planning already at the design stage, only designers and builders do not always pay due attention to this.

Correct organization of the entrance area with antisplash covers is an increase in the service life of floor coverings, and not only in the areas directly adjacent to the entrances, but on almost all floors. In heavy snowfalls, even with the correct arrangement of the entrance area, snow can be carried on shoes to the upper floors, getting stuck in the treads of the soles and in the grooves of high heels.

The entrance group consists of three parts:

1st zone - in front of the entrance to the building

2nd zone - in the vestibule

3rd zone - in the lobby.

The size of the entrance area is determined in such a way that a person takes four steps on each dirt-protecting surface. This achieves an average cleansing effect.

When choosing a coverage for zone 1, it should be remembered that coatings with an aluminum profile are more often used on commercial real estate objects where there is a high traffic intensity. It is impossible to save on these coatings, since they retain the main amount of coarse mud: gravel, coarse sand, lumps of snow and ice that have absorbed reagents and oil products. For this purpose, a pit is made in front of the entrance, preferably heated, if for some reason it is impossible to make a pit, then the coating should be framed with an aluminum profile.

Zone 2, or vestibule, can be equipped with a vinyl stain-proof coating with anti-cable cells, or a coating with an aluminum profile with pile inserts.

Inside the building, where the 3rd zone begins, the best option would be a pile covering, the so-called antisplash carpets. In our country, in the summer, protective coatings are often removed - this is categorically wrong: the dirt is still brought into the room, it is just dry and unobtrusive. If you do not use a dirt-resistant carpet, even with the most careful and constant collection, most of the dirt will still be carried throughout the building.

Providing a connection between the basement and the ground floor.

Omain building structures.

The building is a multifunctional facility, being built with the aim of providing comfortable living and various types of human activities.

A structure is a volumetric material building unit, consisting of appropriate structures. Structures can be used for storing equipment, materials, various kinds of products, for temporary stay of people, etc. Structures can be such objects as: airfields, power lines, pipelines, overpasses, towers, tunnels, etc.

Buildings and structures are subdivided into residential, public and industrial, and have certain structural elements.

Foundation, this is the underground part of buildings and structures, which takes up the entire load of the construction site. Foundations are strip or columnar. The strip foundation is laid, following the entire perimeter of the wall, and the columnar foundation in the form of separate supporting elements.

Walls divided by purpose and location into external, internal and load-bearing elements of buildings. The purpose of the outer walls is to protect the premises from environmental influences. Internal walls divide the rooms in the building itself according to the design. Structural walls transfer the total load from the floor, roof and their own weight to the foundation. In addition to the load-bearing walls, there are also curtain and self-supporting walls. Self-supporting walls are those parts of buildings that only transfer their own weight. Curtain walls, in the form of individual slabs or panels, are attached to the columns and transfer their own weight to them.

Partitions, these are internal planning structures that separate adjacent rooms inside the building.

Plinth, this is the lower part of the outer wall, which rests directly on the foundation.

Blind area designed to remove moisture in case of atmospheric precipitation from the walls of the building.

Overlapping, it is a horizontal structure that is located inside the building and divides it into floors in height. Overlaps are interfloor, basement, above basement, basement, attic.

Coating, it is the upper element of the structure that protects the premises of the building from environmental influences and protects them from atmospheric precipitation. This structural element combines the functionality of the ceiling and roof.

Roof- the upper waterproof layer of the roof or building covering.

Rafters- load-bearing parts of the roof covering in the form of a beam resting on walls and internal supports.

Flight of stairs- an inclined structure, which, as a rule, has at least eighteen steps.

Kosoura, these are reinforced concrete or steel beams, located at an angle and resting on platforms with their ends. These structural elements serve as the basis for fastening the steps of the stairs.

Obuilding enclosures.

Enclosing structures of buildings and structures, building structures (walls, ceilings, coverings, filling openings, partitions, etc.), limiting the volume of a building (structure) and dividing it into separate rooms. The main purpose of an o.c.) Protection (fencing) of premises from temperature influences, wind, moisture, noise, radiation, etc., what is their difference from load-bearing structures (see Load-bearing structures), which perceive power loads; this difference is conditional, since often fencing and bearing functions are combined in one structure (walls, partitions (See Partition), floor slabs (See Overlapping) and coatings (See Coverage), etc.). O. to. Is divided into external (or external) and internal. External ones serve mainly for weather protection, internal ones) mainly for separating the interior of the building and soundproofing.

According to the method of manufacture, they are distinguished O. k. Prefabricated (assembled from prefabricated elements of factory production) and erected at the construction site. In the latter case, the term "monolithic" is used for brick, concrete and reinforced concrete o.o. Depending on the constructive solution, O. to. Is divided into simple and complex (composite). Simple ("single-layer") o.c. Are made of one material or from homogeneous piece products (brick walls, lightweight concrete panels, gypsum partitions, etc.). Complex ("multilayer") O. to. Consist of several elements or layers, for example, load-bearing, insulating, finishing.

Among the architectural buildings, special importance is attached to the outer walls, which determine the architectural appearance of the building; often the material of the walls characterizes the constructive type of the building) large-block, large-panel, wooden (chopped or panel board), brick. Walls also play the role of vertical stiffness diaphragms.

The operational qualities of outdoor outdoor facilities should correspond to local climatic characteristics and provide the necessary sanitary and hygienic and comfortable conditions in the premises. To internal O. to. Requirements are imposed on proper isolation from air and impact noise, from heat and moisture of adjacent rooms. O. to. Must have high strength, rigidity, stability, fire resistance. It is also necessary that the texture, color, and other decorative qualities of the surfaces of the wall to. Correspond to the purpose of buildings and premises, contribute to the achievement of their architectural expressiveness.

An important property of o.o. is their durability, the degree of which is established depending on the class of the building and the materials used, taking into account the actual conditions of wear of o.c. As a result of external influences. When using prefabricated structures, special attention is paid to the structural solutions of the connecting nodes and the quality of the mates (joints, ties, fasteners and embedded parts (see Embedded parts)) in order to exclude the possibility of destruction of the connecting elements during the service life established for the building (structure ) generally.

The main trends in the development of modern industrial building: the predominant use of prefabricated large-sized structures of industrial production with a high degree of factory readiness, including large wall panels (textured and glazed), enlarged complex floors with a finished floor, volumetric elements (blocks) with finishing of all surfaces ; improving the designs of prefabricated elements and their connecting assemblies in order to reduce the labor intensity of manufacturing and assembling the building assembly and the building as a whole; weight loss O. to .; use of local building materials for the manufacture of O. to.

Supporting structures of civil buildings.

The design of building structures for any purpose begins with the solution of the main fundamental problem - the choice of the structural system of the building based on functional and technical and economic requirements.

A structural system is an interconnected set of vertical and horizontal supporting structures of a building, which, perceiving all loads and influences falling on it, together provide strength, spatial rigidity and stability of the structure.

The choice of the structural system determines the role of each load-bearing structural element in the spatial work of the building.

Horizontal load-bearing structures (roofs and ceilings) perceive all vertical loads falling on them and transfer them to vertical load-bearing structures (walls, columns, etc.), which, in turn, transfer loads through the foundation to the ground (building base). Horizontal supporting structures, as a rule, play the role of hard disks in a building - horizontal stiffening diaphragms. They perceive and redistribute horizontal loads and impacts (wind, seismic) between vertical supporting structures.

Horizontal load-bearing structures of civil buildings with a height of more than two floors are usually of the same type and represent a reinforced concrete disc - precast (from separate reinforced concrete solid, hollow-core or ribbed slabs), precast-monolithic or monolithic. Also, in multi-storey industrial buildings (less often in civil buildings), floors are used on metal beams (girders) and profiled steel flooring. Based on fire safety requirements, in a number of cases, such ceilings are subsequently cast into concrete.

Vertical supporting structures are more diverse than horizontal ones. There are the following types of vertical supporting structures:

Rod (frame racks);

Plane (walls, diaphragms);

Volumetric-spatial elements with a height of a floor (volumetric blocks);

Internal volumetric-spatial hollow rods (open or closed section) to the height of the building (stiffening trunks);

Volumetric-spatial external supporting structures to the height of the building in the form of a thin-walled shell of a closed section (shell).

According to the type of vertical supporting structure, the five main structural systems of buildings were named:

Wireframe;

Frameless (wall);

Volume-block;

Barrel;

Sheathing.

Ttypes of foundations of civil buildings.

A foundation may be needed for the construction of any structure in the garden, if it is necessary to evenly distribute the load over a hard surface. Whether you are building a foundation for a retaining wall, garden staircase, or driveway, the basic principles are the same.

Strip foundation

Small buildings for brick pots or stone walls must be built on a strip foundation. To do this, they dig a trench, fill it with sand, compacted rubble or broken brick, and then fill it with a concrete solution.

The width of the foundation must be twice the width of the wall so that its weight is distributed at an angle of 45 ° from its base (the so-called "scattering angle"). And the depth of the foundation depends on the height and thickness of the wall, as well as the type of soil, but usually it is half of its width.

Brick foundation

Sometimes you need to lay out a foundation under a wall or other object, the height of the masonry of which is less than 6 rows of bricks, and the length is less than 6 m.To do this, it is enough to make a strip foundation of bricks laid crosswise on a well-rammed subsoil, covered with a thin layer of sand. The bricks are poured with a liquid cement "creamy" mortar.

Foundation for stairs

When constructing stairs on a slope at the base of the span, a concrete foundation is made under the first riser (the vertical part of the step) so that the entire structure does not slide down. The treads (horizontal parts of the steps) should be laid on a well-compacted layer of rubble, and intermediate risers - on the edge of the lower tread or on the rubble poured behind each tread.

For individual steps connecting, for example, two levels of the surface, you can lay out a strip foundation along the perimeter of the steps, and inside it, fill it with compacted rubble.

Paving foundation

Slabs, paving stones and other paving materials should be placed on a carefully leveled, hard and solid surface, usually well-tamped soil, but if the soil is soft, rubble can be added and tamped to prevent settling of the paving.

A lot of voids remain in the crushed stone layer, even after it has been compacted with a garden roller. They can be filled by backfilling with a thin layer of sand or dry cement mixture (for example, one part cement and three parts sand) and smoothed with the back of the rake (remember to clean the tools thoroughly after working with grout, as dried concrete is very difficult to remove ).

Paving slabs or other small elements used to construct a pavement can be laid directly on the sand layer with concrete mortar, although some types of paving stones can be laid on a prepared sand “cushion” and without mortar.

Foundation in formwork

Rice. 138. The foundation is in the formwork. A trench with a formwork towering above the ground, which is held by pegs driven in along the entire perimeter, filled with well-tamped rubble and a thin layer of sand, poured with concrete mortar to the top of the formwork.

The strip foundation is poured with concrete mortar

Rice. 139. Strip foundation. A trench filled with well-packed rubble, a thin layer of sand and poured with concrete to the level of pegs driven into the foundation. Used for small structures and walls in the garden.

SOIL CONDITIONS. In order for the foundation to hold the structure, it is built on solid ground, that is, at a depth of 10 to 30 cm from the earth's surface.

Subsoil types also differ in their bearing capacity: calcareous soil, for example, can support more weight than alumina, while sandy soil is the opposite. Thus, the softer the soil, the wider the foundation is made.

The climate plays an important role in determining the depth of the foundation: since seasonal deformation can lead to cracks in it, the foundation should be made deeper than the level of soil freezing.

When building the foundation, you can either fill the trench with a small layer of concrete mortar, and lay out the rest of its space brickwork, or fill only with mortar, saving on bricks.

Solid foundation

If for a light shed or heating boiler, paving slabs laid on a previously prepared "cushion" of shebny can serve as a foundation, then large garden structures such as a garage or summer house, must be installed on a more solid foundation - on a solid foundation (the prepared "pillow" is poured with concrete mortar).

Such a foundation is also made for driveways, parking lots and utility paths as a basis for covering.

The plank formwork is built around the perimeter of the structure being erected and fixed with pegs driven into the ground (see Foundation in the formwork), and then the "pillow" prepared from sand and gravel is poured with concrete solution to the edges of the formwork, which is removed after the concrete has hardened.

withshades of civil buildings.

The building wall is the main building envelope. The walls of buildings, in addition to the enclosing functions, simultaneously perform bearing functions. They serve as supports for the perception and transmission of vertical and horizontal loads.

The following requirements are imposed on the walls: strength, heat resistance, soundproofing ability, fire resistance, durability, architectural expressiveness and efficiency.

The walls are external and internal.

Outer walls are divided according to the nature of static work into:

Load-bearing walls. They perceive and transfer to the foundation loads from floors, coatings, wind pressure, etc.;

Self-supporting walls. They rest on the foundation and bear the load only from their own weight (within all floors of the building). To ensure stability, these walls must be mated with the building frame;

Non-bearing (including curtain) walls. They take their own weight only within one floor, the weight of these walls is transferred to the frame or other supporting structures of the building.

Internal walls are subdivided into:

Load-bearing, which, like external load-bearing walls, perceive and transfer to the foundation loads from floors, coatings. Internal walls are often used for ventilation ducts and niches, gas ducts, water and sewer pipes, etc. Together with the ceilings, the load-bearing walls form a stable spatial system of the load-bearing frame of the building;

Non-bearing - partitions intended only for dividing rooms, which are installed directly on the floor;

Self-supporting walls that serve as stiffness diaphragms in frame buildings.

According to the method of construction, the wall is subdivided into:

National teams. They are assembled from prefabricated elements;

Monolithic. They are usually made of concrete. For their construction, a mobile or sliding formwork is used;

Hand-made walls are made of small-piece materials on mortars.

Columns and independent supports

Massive load-bearing walls can be replaced with rows of supports. The building elements, which have the shape of a rod and are most often vertical, transfer static loads to the foundation and, due to the creation of intermediate spaces between them (intercolumnies), an optical expansion of the closed wall occurs with a transition to the transparent border of the space. Spaces and parts of spaces can be connected in the same way that external and internal spaces can be merged, using supports instead of massive facades. The shape and material of the supports have changed several times. Already in the early period of history, it was common to use a wooden post, which is still used today as a support. In more advanced forms, it can be found in modern mast structures, in concrete masts anchored in foundation holes, in a roof support or for wall reinforcement. A stone buttress can have not only a square or rectangular cross-section, but also be round or polygonal.

Depending on the architectural composition, there are free-standing buttresses and pilasters, corner pylons (pillars) and buttresses. The very name of composite columns and cross-section pillars indicates a complex outline. For modern steel and reinforced concrete skeletal structures, the concept of buttress has been replaced by a general designation - support. Supports of this kind no longer have to be vertical, they can be Y-, V- or A-shaped.

Any building support element in the architecture of past eras was a column, the classical form of which has come down from the times of Greek antiquity. A column with a capital, a trunk and a base is an architectural element that is closest to a sculpture. The power of expressiveness and the dignity of the image of the column determined, on the one hand, its many variants and significance in the theory of architecture, and, on the other, its exclusivity. Often, the use of the column was allowed only for selected architectural tasks and for special customers. Because of the beauty of the perception of its image, the column was sometimes isolated from the architectural work itself and was used as a monument in the form of a triumphal column. A row of columns (colonnades) carrying an entablature, or columns covered by a row of arches (arcades) can also have an independent life in architecture.

At first, the Romanesque columns were strongly influenced by their ancient origin, but soon simple cube-shaped capitals and compressed trunks gave them new forms that cannot be confused with anything. The capitals of the late Romanesque period, decorated with sculptural images, are also incomparable. The combination of two or four columns from the end of the Romanesque period separated from a composite pillar, a buttress surrounded by several columns with different barrel thicknesses.

It was only in the late Gothic period that new forms of pillars were replaced by round and compound pillars: slender polygonal pillars without a base and capitals carried relatively flat mesh and star vaults. Romanesque small paired columns, knotted in the middle, represent the same variety as the late Gothic supports in the form of tree trunks. During the Renaissance, preference was given to the Tuscan order - a relatively modest Roman-Doric column with a smooth trunk. During the German Renaissance, it was supplemented by columns in the form of a baluster or candelabra, the trunks of which seemed to be composed of many separate elements. The rich Corinthian order with a capital of acanthus leaves and deep flutes corresponded to the Baroque pathos, which was used even for purely decorative columns and pilasters. Baroque details also include the spirally bent columnar trunks. During the period of classicism, three famous Greek orders with Doric, Ionic and Corinthian columns were copied.

Historicism used all the historical forms of columns and, above all, for metal supports. For engineering structures, as well as for lattice structures, as a rule, steel supports from rolled profiles were used. Antipathy to the world of forms of the period of historicism made the column a rare guest in modern architecture.

Room with a stove, the so-called residential part of a country house in a Low German hall-type house. As elsewhere in the folk architecture of Central Europe, where areas teeming with forests predominated, half-timbered structures were common. Here, wooden supports also carry a wooden attic floor. The decoration of the capital, the base and the entasis of the column are borrowed from stone architecture. The furniture in the dining area has baroque features.

Partitions of civil buildings.

In residential and public buildings depending on the purpose, there are interroom partitions, interroom partitions and partitions that enclose sanitary facilities and kitchens.

Partitions of civil buildings must have good soundproofing qualities, fire resistance, low weight, nails must not have cracks and cracks, must be industrial and economical. Additional requirements are imposed on the partitions of sanitary facilities and kitchens: they must not absorb moisture and have a smooth surface that allows wet cleaning.

By the type of materials, the partitions of civil buildings can be wooden, made of fibreboard, brick, gypsum concrete, expanded clay concrete and slag concrete panels, glass products.

Wooden partitions can be plank, panel, frame sheathing and joinery.

Single plank partitions are made of 50 mm thick boards, which are installed vertically on the lower timber strapping laid on the ceiling. The surfaces of the plank partitions are plastered with lime mortar on shingles or sheathed with sheets of dry plaster.

Shield partitions are assembled from factory-made wooden shields, consisting of two or three layers of boards sheathed with shingles. The thickness of two-layer panels is 50-80 mm, three-layer panels - 57-87 mm. The surfaces of the panel partitions are plastered.

Frame-sheathing partitions consist of a frame, double-sided plank sheathing with filling the space between the sheathing with lightweight porous fillers or fibreboard plates. The surfaces of the partitions are plastered.

In frame-sheet partitions, vertical frame racks, installed after 80-100 cm, are sheathed with sheets of dry plaster or fiberboards, and the cavities are filled with fiberboard or reeds.

Fiberboard partitions can be made without cladding, but with plastering the surfaces with cement-sand mortar.

Joiner's partitions are made of clean joinery boards or particle boards, followed by painting with oil paints or facing with decorative films. Wooden partitions are used in wooden buildings and low-rise stone buildings in areas where wood is a local building material. They fasten wooden partitions to ceilings, walls and connect to each other directly with nails or using various metal parts: anchors, clamps, brackets, ruffs.

Brick partitions are 1/2 or 1/4 thick mortar bricks with subsequent plastering of the surfaces. If the height of the partitions is more than 3 m and the length is more than 5 m, reinforcing steel with a diameter of 4-6 mm is placed in the seams every 5-6 rows of masonry. The ends of the reinforcement are attached to the walls and brick pillars of the building with the help of ruffs. Brick partitions are non-industrial and are used for small volumes of work in areas where the factory production of large-size partition plates and panels is not established.

Gypsum and gypsum concrete partitions are made of prefabricated slabs 800 × 400 mm in size and 80-100 mm thick, installed on a gypsum or gypsum-lime mortar. Partitions from slabs are made in one or two layers with an air gap. Such partitions are not used in rooms with excessive humidity, since gypsum loses its strength when moistened.

In rooms with high humidity (bathrooms, laundries, etc.), partitions made of slag concrete hollow slabs and hollow ceramic stones are used.

The most widespread use at the present time in the construction of civil buildings are panel partitions made of gypsum concrete, expanded clay concrete and slag concrete panels of prefabricated size per room and 80-160 mm thick. Gypsum concrete panels are manufactured at factories by vibro-rolling from gypsum concrete reinforced with wooden slats, and expanded clay concrete and slag concrete panels - in cassettes. In the factory, the surfaces of panel partitions are prepared for painting or wallpapering. After installing the panel partitions in the design position with cranes, they are attached to the walls and to each other with steel clamps, ruffs or welding of embedded parts.

Glass partitions of civil buildings can be made of ordinary sheet, thickened, reinforced or patterned glass on a wooden, steel or aluminum frame, as well as from volumetric glass blocks and shaped glass.

Glass partitions do not require subsequent finishing and are of high quality and decorative properties, especially when colored glass is used.

Soundproofing partitions. An important quality of partitions in civil buildings is soundproofing. To increase the sound insulation of partitions during their erection, it is necessary to monitor the sealing of seams and cracks at the junctions with walls and ceilings, filling the cracks with tow or felt soaked in alabaster or clay mortar. Partitions with an air gap between the layers of insulation have good sound insulation. Partitions should not be installed on clean floors, but should be supported on beams or directly on ceilings. In places where the floor joins the partitions, it is necessary to lay soundproofing layers. A gap of 10-15 mm is left between the ceiling and the partition, followed by caulking it with tow soaked in a solution, and then sealing it with a solution.

Doors and openings.

A door is a movable fence in the opening of a wall or partition. Fill elements doorway include: a U-shaped door frame with quarters over the strapping office; door leaf hung on the frame.

Doors are subdivided according to the following criteria: by location in the building: external (entrance to the apartment), internal, cupboard (by built-in wardrobes), service (leading to the basement, to the attic), front doors (at the entrance to the building); by the number of canvases: single-floor, one-and-a-half-floor (with two canvases of different widths), double-floor; by the nature of the fence: deaf, semi-glazed, glazed; by the way of opening: opening in one direction, in both directions, sliding, folding, rotating.

For the convenience of evacuation, most doors in civil buildings open outward, with the exception of intra-apartment and apartment entrances.

Securing door blocks

Door leaf construction

The door block is a door frame with a canvas hung on it. Installed in the opening of stone walls or partitions, such a block is protected from decay, in addition, it is fixed, as well as window blocks, to wooden inserts embedded in the slopes of the opening. The threshold at most external doors, including balcony doors, is slightly raised. The door block in the opening of the partition is installed in the same plane (flush) with one of the surfaces of the fence. Then it is attached to the bars framing the opening, or to wooden inserts. The gaps between the box and the partition are closed, and the joint is closed with a casing.

Fire resistant doors and hatches, door fittings.

Doors leading to the basement, to the attic, manholes to the attic or to the combined roof, according to fire safety requirements, are fire-resistant. The canvases of such doors and hatches are upholstered on both sides with asbestos or felt soaked in clay, and protected with sheet steel. The surface of the door frames is also covered with sheet steel, but without the lining of felt and asbestos.

Door devices are designed for hanging the canvases, opening, closing and fixing them in a certain position. They are made from metal, plastics and other materials. Door fittings, depending on the location, can be right and left.

Roofs of civil buildings.

The upper structural part of buildings, designed to protect against atmospheric influences (rain, snow, sun rays, wind), called a roof.

The roof consists of a load-bearing and an enclosing part. The load-bearing structures of the roof take up loads from snow, wind, and their own weight and transfer them to the walls or frame of the building. The enclosing part serves as waterproofing and heat-insulating protection and consists of a roof and a base for it.

In geometric shape, depending on the outlines and sizes of buildings in the roof plan, there are attic - one-, two

The device of pitched roofs.

The roof is the final stage in the construction of a country house. The reliability of the entire building, as well as the comfortable living of the residents, depends on how competently the roof structure and the materials from which it is built will be chosen.

In order not to be mistaken in choosing a structure and roofing materials for the construction of a roof, we recommend contacting specialists: Ursa pitched roof. In our article we will talk about the types of pitched roofs, their design features.